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Scientific  American 
Reference  Book 


Compiled   by 
Albert   A.   Hopkins 

an  d 

A.   Russell   Bond 


v 


Munn    &P    Company,    Pub  Usher  s 

Scientific    American    Offices 

New  York 

1905 


%S£ 


PRBSS  OF 

ANDREW  H.  KELLOGG  CO. 

NEW  YOKH 


'1 


Copyright,  X904,   by 
MuNN  &   Company 


All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE. 


THE  Editor  of  the  Scientific  American  receives  during  the  year 
thousands  of  inquiries  from  readers  and  correspondents  covering 
a  wide  range  of  topics.  The  information  sought  for,  in  many  cases,  can 
not  readily  be  found  in  any  available  reference  or  text-book.  It  has  been 
decided,  therefore,  to  prepare  a  work  which  shall  be  comprehensive 
in  character  and  which  shall  contain  a  mass  of  infj?rmation  not  readily 
procured  elsewhere.  The  very  wide  range  of  topics  covered  in  the 
Scientific  American  Reference  Book  may  be  inferred  by  examining 
the  index  and  table  of  contents.  This  work  has  been  made  as  non- 
technical as  the  subjects  treated  of  will  admit,  and  is  intended  as  a 
ready  reference  book  for  the  home  and  the  office.  It  is  possible  that 
in  some  of  the  tables  published  in  the  book  certain  inconsistencies 
may  be  observed.  Such  a  condition  of  affairs  is  in  some  cases  in- 
evitable. In  procuring  the  figures,  for  example,  from  different  De- 
partments of  the  Government,  with  reference  to  any  subject,  it  has 
been  found  that  statistics  vary  in  certain  particulars.  These  variations 
are  due  to  the  different  methods  of  tabulation,  or  to  some  different 
system  by  means  of  which  the  figures  have  been  arrived  at.  In  a 
number  of  cases  these  discrepancies  will  be  noted  in  the  book,  but  they 
are  not  to  be  regarded  as  errors. 

The  debt  for  advice  and  help  has  been  a  heavy  one.  The  com- 
pilation of  this  book  would  have  been  impossible  without  the  cordial 
cooperation  of  government  officials,  who  have  been  most  kind.  Our 
thanks  are  especially  due  to  the  Hon.  0.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor;  to  the 
Hon.  S.  N".  D.  North,  Director  of  the  Census ;  Prof.  John  C.  Monaghan, 
Editor  of  the  Consular  Reports;  Hon.  Eugene  Tyler  Chamberlain, 
Commissioner  Bureau  of  Navigation;  Dr.  Marcus  Benjamin,  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution ;  Major  W.  D.  Beach,  U.  S.  A.,  of  the  General 
Staff;    Rear- Admiral    Charles    O'Neil,    late    Chief    of    Bureau    of 


Ordnance,  TJ.  S.  N.;  Hon.  S.  I.  Kimball,  Greneral  Superintendent, 
Life  Saving  Service;  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  Capt.  Seaton 
Schroeder,  U.  S.  N.,  Chief  Intelligence  Officer,  U.  S.  N.;  many  ex- 
aminers in  the  Patent  Office;  Hon.  Willis  L.  Moore,  Chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau ;  many  officials  of  the  Agricultural  Department ;  Hon. 
Carroll  D.  Wright,  Commissioner  Bureau  of  Labor ;  Hon.  George  M. 
Bowers,  and  Mr.  A.  B.  Alexander,  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries;  Prof. 
Charles  Baskerville,  Ph.D.;  Edward  W.  Bym,  of  Washington;  Dr. 
George  F.  Kunz,  Hon.  S.  W.  Stratton,  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards, 
and  many  others. 

We  are  also  indebted  to  the  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.  for  permission 
to  use  diagrams  of  Geometrical  Constructions;  to  HazelFs  Annual, 
Whittaker's  Almanac,  and  the  "  Daily  Mail  Year  Book."  A  number 
of  our  diagrams  are  from  the  "  Universal-Taschen  Atlas  "  of  Prof  A. 
L.  Hichrnann.  Our  matter  on  the  "  Arctic  Eegions  "  is  translated 
from  Dr.  Hermann  Haack's  "  Geographen-Kalender."  For  a  number 
of  our  tables  we  must  thank  the  excellent  pocket  books  of  D.  K.  Clark 
and  Philip  E.  Bjorling,  and  we  are  also  indebted  to  the  Year  Book 
issued  by  our  esteemed  English  contemporary  "  Knowledge." 

It  is  hoped  that  this  work  will  save  many  fruitless  searches  through 
works  of  reference,  as  the  aim  of  the  compilers  has  been  to  obtain 
matter  which  is  not  readily  available  elsewhere. 

NEWT  York,  October  15,  1904. 


CONTENTS. 


PART     I. 


CHAPTER   I. 
The  Progress  of  Discovery 1-16 


Division  Into  Races. 

Total   Population   and.  Area  of  the 

World. 
Languages  of  the  World. 
Progress  of  Discovery. 
The     Distribution     of     Land     and 

Water. 


The  Cultivation  of  Land  in  all  Con- 
tinents. 

The  Polar  Regions. 

The  Antarctic. 

The  Area  and  Population  of  all 
Countries. 

The  Great  Cities  of  the  World. 


CHAPTER  ri. 
Shipping  and  Yachts 17-51 


Summary  of  Shipping. 

Number  and  Tonnage  of  Vessels. 

Large  and  Fast  Ocean  Steamers. 

Motive  Power  and  Material  of  Con- 
struction. 

Foreign  Carrying  Trade  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Panama  Route. 

Dimensions  of  the  Largest  Ocean 
Steamers 

The  World's  Shipping  in  1903. 

The  Speeds  of  Ocean  Greyhounds. 

Record  of  Passengers  Landed. 

The  First  Steamboats. 

The  Largest  Steamship  Owners. 


Vessels  having  10,000  Tons  Dis- 
placement or  over. 

The  ••  Baltic." 

Comparison  of  Locomotives  with  the 
*'  Oceanic." 

The  Supplies  of  the  "  Deutsch- 
land." 

Provisioning  a  Liner. 

Steam  Turbines  and  Speed. 

The  Cost  of  Speed. 

U.  S.  Life-saving  Service. 

Disasters  involving  Loss  of  Life. 

Board  of  Life-saving  Appliances. 

The  Lighthouse  Estabiisnment. 

From  Cruiser  to  Racing  Machin^ 


CHAPTER    III. 
The  Navies  of  the  World 53-90 


Construction    and    Classification    of 

Warships. 
Navies  of  the  World  Compared. 
Relative  Strength  in  Materiel. 
Relative  Order  of  Warship  Strength. 
Sea  Strength  of  the  Principal  Naval 

Powers. 
Number    of    Torpedo    Vessels    and 
'    Submarines. 

Navies  of  the  World  in  Detail. 
Regulations  of  the  Naval  Academy. 


List  of  Ships  of  the  Navy. 

Submarine  Boats. 

The  Torpedo  Boat. 

Torpedoes. 

The  Interior  of  a  Battleship. 

The  Turret  of  a  Battleship. 

Submarine  Mines. 

Naval  Ammunition. 

Our  Naval   Guns  in  the  Civil 

and  To-day. 
Pay  of  Naval  and  Marine  Corps. 


War 


CHAPTER    IV. 
Armies  of  the  World » .  .* 91-116 


The  Army  of  the  United  States. 

Foreign  Armies. 

United  States  Military  Academy. 


Springfield  Magazine  Rifle. 
Sixteen-lnch  Gun. 
Foreign  Armies. 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Railroads  of  the  World 117-136 


Railroads  of  the  World. 
Railway  Signals. 
Railroads  of  the  United  State& 
Street  and  Electric  Railroads. 


Railway  Gauges. 
Cape  to  Cairo  Railway. 
Trans-Siberian  Railway. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
Population  of  the  United  States 


137-170 


Population  of  Each  State. 

Official  Census  of  the  United  States 

by  Counties. 
How  Population  is  Sheltered. 
Areas  of  States. 
Population  Living  in  Cities. 
Population   of   Cities   of   25,000   or 

over. 
Death  Rates. 


Foreign  Born  Population. 
Population  at  Work. 
Indians. 

Numt)er  of  Pensioners. 
Immigration. 
Labor's  Death  Roll. 
Acouisition  to  Territory  and  Center 
of  Population. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

Education,  Libraries,  Printing,  and  Publishing 171-184 

^g- 

Products     in 


The  Value  of  an  Education. 
Number  of  Students  in  Schools  and 

Colleges. 
Libraries  of  the  United  States. 


Printing  and  Publishinj 
Raw     and     Finished 

Printing. 
Libraries  of  the  World. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Telegraphs,  Telephones,  Submarine  Cables,  Wireless  Telegraphy, 

AND  Signaling 185-209 


Land  Lines  of  the  World. 
Mileage  of  Lines  and  Wires. 
Morse  Code. 

Statistics  of- Telephone  Companies. 
Telegraphic  Time  Signals. 
Standard  Time. 
Variation  of  Time. 
Submarine  Telegraphs. 


Wireless  Telegraphy. 
International  Code  of  Signals. 
Distress  Signals. 
Weather  Bureau  Stations. 
Distant  Signals. 
Cyclones. 

Life-saving  Signals. 
Weather  Bureau. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Patents    211-255 

Patents    in    Relation    to    Manufac-  Abstracts  of  Decisions. 

tures.  F'oreign  Patents. 

Distinguished  Inventors.  Patent  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

Progress  of  Inventions.  History    of    the    American    Patent 
General       Information       Regarding  System. 

Patents.  Copyright  Law  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Manufactures    257-309 


Localization  of  Industries. 
Manufacturing  in  the  United  States. 
Merchandise  Iroported  and  Exported. 
United  States  Trade  in  1903. 
Motive  Power  Appliances. 


Comparative   Summary  of  Power. 
Iron  and  Steel. 

Value  of  Agricultural.  Implements. 
Summary  of  Progress. 


CONTENTS. 


Til 


CHAPTER   XI. 
Departments  of  the  Federal  Government.  . . 


311-325 


Department  of  Justice. 
Department  of  State. 
Department  of  the  Treasury. 
Department  of  War. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 
Post  Office  Department. 
Department  of  Navy. 
Department  of  the  Interior. 
Commissioner  of  Patents. 
Board  on  Geographic  Names. 


Civil  Service  Commission. 

National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

International  Bureau  of  American 
Republics. 

American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science. 

National  Debts. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
The  Post  Office 327-336 


Postal  Information. 

The  Postal  Service  of  the  World. 

Suggestions  to  the  Public. 


The  United  States  Post  Office. 
Number  of  Post  Offices. 
Government  Expenditures. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
International  Institutions  and  Bureaus.  . . . 


The  Nobel  Prizes. 

The  Pollok  Prize. 

Court  of  Arbitration. 

Postal  Union. 

Bureau  of  Telegraphs. 

Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

Union  for  the  Protection  of  Indus- 
trial and  Literary  Property. 

Bureau  for  Repression  of  Slave 
Trade. 


337-342 

Union  for  Publication  Customs 
Tariffs. 

Bureau  of  Railroad  Transporta- 
tion. 

Bureau  of  Geodesy. 

Carnegie  "  Hero  "  Commission. 

Rhodes  Scholarships. 

Carnegie  Institution. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Mines  and  Mining 343-353 


Summary  of  the  Mineral  Production 
of  the  United  States. 


Mines  and  Quarries. 
Clay  Products. 


PART     II. 

CHAPTER   I. 
Geometrical  Constructions 399-412 


Geometrical  Figures. 
Geometrical  Constructions. 


The  Circle. 

Formulas  for  the  Circle. 


CHAPTER    II. 
Machine  Elements 413-416 


CHAPTER    III. 
Mechanical  Movements  417-441 


Toothed  Gear. 

Friction  Gear. 

Chain  Gear. 

Rope  Gear. 

Clutches. 

Angle  Shaft  Couplings  and  Universal 

Joints. 
Ratchet  Movements. 
Escapements. 


Gearing. 

Cams  and  Cam  Movements. 

Miscellaneous  Movements. 

Drafting  Devices. 

Governors. 

Springs. 

Belting. 

Types  of  Engines. 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PART     III. 

CHAPTER   I. 
Chemistry   443-452 


Table  of  Elements. 
International  Atomic  Weights. 
Common    Names   of    Chemical 

stances. 
Specific  Gravity. 
Thermometer  Scales. 
Value  of  Rare  Elements. 
Radium  and  Radio-Actlvity. 


Sub- 


Prices  of  French  Radium. 

Melting  Points  of  Chemical  Ele- 
ments. 

Boiling  Points  of  Chemical  Ele- 
ments. 

Heat  of  Combustion. 

Sizes  of  Dry  Plates. 


CHAPTER   II. 
Astronomy 453-464 


Astronomical  Summary. 
Astronomical  Symbols  and  Abbrevi- 
ations. 
Solar  System. 
Greek  Alphabet. 


Names  of  the  Principal  Stars. 
Magnitudes  and  Distances  of  some 

or  the  Stars. 
Star  Map  of  the  Heavens. 
Refractors  of  the  World. 


PART     IV. 


WEiiaHTs  AND  Measures 465-500 


Linear  Measure. 

Land  Measure,  Linear. 

Land  Measure,  Square. 

Geographical  and  Nautical  Meas- 
ure. 

Cubic  Measure. 

United  States  Dry  Measure. 

United   States  Liquid  Measure. 

Apothecaries'  Liquid  Measure 

Old  Wine  and  Spirit  Measure. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. 

Troy  Weight. 

Diamond  Measure. 

Household  Measures. 

Foreign  Weights  and  Measures. 

Decimal  System  of  Weights  and 
Measures. 

Approximate  Equivalent  of  French 
and  English  Measures. 

Table  of  Metric  Measures. 

French  and  English  Compound 
Equivalents. 

To  Reduce  Parts  to  Weight. 

Mensuration. 

Circular  Measure. 

Angular  Measure. 

Time. 

Table  of  Decimal  Equivalents. 

Bible  Weights  and  Measures. 

Jewish  Money. 

Roman  Money. 

Time  and  Watch  on  Ship. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Stones. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Mineral  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Fuels. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Woods. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Animal  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Vegetable  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Liquids. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Gases. 

Units  of  Log  Measure. 

Cord  Measure. 

Hardness  of  Minerals. 

Heat — Its  Mechanical  Equivalent. 

Steam  Pressure  and  Temperature. 


Table  of  Temperature. 

Expansion  of  Solids. 

Expansion  of  Liquids. 

Strength  of  Materials. 

Friction. 

Water. 

Air. 

Strength  of  Ice. 

Weight  of  Balls. 

Pipes. 

Animal  Power. 

Manual  Power. 

Windmills. 

Force  of  Wind. 

Metals,  Weights  for  Various  Dimen- 
sions. 

Weight  of  Castings. 

Pulling  Strength  of  Men  and  Ani- 
mals. 

Boiler  Tubes. 

To  Obtain  Index  of  a  Lathe. 

Nails. 

Rules  on  Gearing. 

Rules  for  Pulley  Speed. 

Wall   Paper. 

Standard  Gauge  for  Plate. 

Electrical  Engineering. 

The  Ohm. 

C.  G.  S.  Electrical  Standards. 

Electromagnetic  System  of  Electric 
Units. 

Units  of  Force,  Pressure,  Work, 
Power. 

Resistance. 

Res' stance  of  Metals  In  Standard 
Ohms. 

Heat  and  Electrical  Conductivity. 

Resistance  and  Weight  Tables. 

Weight  per  Mile  of  Copper  Wire. 

Wire  Gauges. 

Weight  and  Length  of  Iron  and 
Steel  Wire. 

Electrical  Horse-power. 

Composition  of  Battery  Cells. 

Table  of  Height  and  Weight. 

Table  of  Mortality. 

Compound  Interest. 

Roman  Notation. 


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revenue:  FUG.  BLL6IUM. 


CNiLE.  CRETE.  Cuba 


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HONDURAS  ITALY 


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MEXICO.  NORWAY.  PERSIA, 

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PERU.  ROUMANIA  RUSSIA 


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CHAPTER    I. 


PROOR&S8     OF     DieCOVEBT. 


DIVISIONS  INTO  KACBS. 
Race.  Location. 

Indo-Germanic  or  Aryan Europe,  Persia,  ludia,  etc.. . 

Mongolian  or  Turanian Greater  Fart  of  Asia 

Semitic  or  Hamitic North  Africa,  Arabia 

Negro  and  Bantu Central  Africa 

Hottentot  and  Bashinan Soutii  Africa 

Malay  and  Polynesian Aastralia  and  Polynesia. . ,  . 

American  Indian Nortb  and  South  America.. 


^umher. 
.  546.500.000 
.  630,000,000 
.  «5,000.000 
.  150,000.000 
150,000 
.  35,000,000 
.     15,000,000 


BACB8  or  UANSIND. 


TOTAL  AREAS  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Population. 

In            Per  Per 

Bguare                 Square     Thoatand*.  Square  Sguare 

mitt.              Kaometers.  Mile.  Kilo. 

(1)  Asia    17,071,999           44,216.523        820.7CA  48.0  18.5 

(2)  Europe 3.824,9.'>6            9.906,647        393.480  102.9  40.5 

(3)  Africa 11,500.785           29,802.003        1S0.321  15.0  6.2 

(41   America  15.284,872          39.587.860       146,432      9.5  3.6 

(5)  Australia    and 

Oceania 3.457,667  8.955.369  6,450       1.8  0.7 

(6)  Polar  Regions 1,656.394  4.290.065  13       0.008 

Total   ....    52,802.673         136,759.067     1,547,470   177.808     11.6 
—HubTter't  Gfographitch-Stalitlitche  TabeUm. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


3 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   DISCOVERY. 


Date. 


B  C 

140(K1*250 

7  1350 

1000 

750 

700 
600 
500 


470 
330 

329-325 

290 

218 

about  120 

61-58 
since  30 

20 

15 

A.D. 

84 

150 
518-21 
671-95 

861 

865 

876 

985 
7  1000 

1154 

about  1200 
1253 

1271-95 

1290 
1325-52 


1327 
1415-60 
1419-20 

1442 
7  1460 

1474 

1485 

1487 

1492-98 

1497-98 

1498 
1499 

1500 


1502 
1512 
1513 


Explorer  and  Nationality. 


Egyptians 

Greeks 

Phoenicians 

Greeks 

Samians 

Phoenicians 

Himilco  (Carthag.) 

Anaximander  (of  Miletus). 
Hecatseus  (of  Miletus). .  ,  . 

Hanno  (Carthag.) 

Pytheas  of  Massilia 

Nearchus  (Macedon.) 

Alexander  the  Great 

Egyptians 

Romans.  .  , 

Eudoxus  of  Cyzicus 

Romans 

Romans 

Strabo  (Greek) 

Romans 

Romans 

Claudius  Ptolemy  ( Egypt . ) 

Hoei-sing  (Chinese) 

I-tsing  (Chinese) 

Norsemen 

Naddod  (Norse) 

Gunnbjorn  (Norse) 

Erik  the  Red  (Norse).  .  .  . 

Lyef    Erikson    (son    of  I 

Erik  the  Red)  f 

Edrisi  (Sicily) 

Arabs 

Ruysbroek 

Marco  Polo  (Venet.) 

Genoese 

Ibn  Batuta  (Arab.) 

Sir  John  Mandeville  (Eng) 

Prince  Henry  (Port.) 

J.  Gonzales  and  Martin  f 

Vaz  (Port.) i" 

Nuno  Tristao  (Port.) 

Cintra  and  Costa  (Port.).  . 
Toscanelli  (Ital.) 

Diego  Cam  (Port.) 

Bartholomew  Diaz  (Port.) 

Columbus  (Gen.) 

Giovanni  (iiabot  (Anglo-  ( 

Ven.) ( 

Vasco  da  Gama  (Port.).  . . 
Amerigo  Vespucci  (Ital.). . 

Pinzon  (Span.) 

G.  Cortereal  (Port.) 

Alvarez  Cabral  (Port.).  .  .. 

Columbus  (Gen.) 

Ponce  de  Leon  (Span.).  .  . 
Portuguese 


Discovery  or  Exploration. 


Invasions  of  Habesh,  Arabia,  Phoenicia,  Syria. 

Argonautic  expedition  to  Colchis. 

Voyages  to  Ophir,  Gades,  Britain. 

Extension  of  Colonies  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Pon- 

tus  Euxinus. 
Spain  (Tartessus)  discovered  for  the  Greeks. 
Circumnavigation  of  Africa  by  order  of  Nee  ho. 
Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe.     Sargasso  Sea.     Said  to 

have  visited  Britain. 
Makes  the  first  maps. 
Writes  the  first  geography. 
West  Africa  as  far  as  Cape  Palmas. 
7  Thule,  North  Sea,  Scandinavia. 
Sails  from  the  Indus  to  Red  Sea. 
Expedition  to  Iran,  Turan,  and  India. 
Navigate  the  East  coast  of  Africa. 
Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps. 
Attempts  circumnavigation  of  Africa. 
Julius  Caesar  in  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Britain 
Extension  of  geographical  knowledge  and  commerce 

as  far  as  Central  Asia. 
Describes  Roman  Empire  and  first  mentions  Thuie 

and  Ireland. 
Tiberius  discovers  the  Lake  of  Constance;  Drusus, 

the  Brenner  Pass. 
Agricola  circumnavigates  Britain.  % 

Constructs  his  Geography  and  Atlas. 
Visits  Pamirs  and  Punjab. 
Visits  Java,  Sumatra,  and  India. 
Faroe  Islands.     North  Cape  of  Europe  rounded. 
Discovers  Iceland.     Visited  by  Irisn  monks  about 

795. 
Greenland  coast.     Rediscovered   by   Erik  the   Red 

(983). 
Colonizes  Greenland. 
Discovers  Newfoundland  (Helluland),  Nova  Scotia 

(Markland),  and  coast  of  New  England  (Vinland)[?]. 
Geographer   to   King   of   Sicily,  produces   his   geo- 
graphy. 
Trading  merchants  discover  Siberia. 
Reaches  Karakorum,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Mongol 

Empire. 
Travels  in  Central  Asia,  China,  India,  Persia. 
Canaries,  Azores,  etc. 
Travels  through  the  whole  Mohammedan  World,  N. 

Africa,  E.  Africa,  S.  Russia,  Arabia,  India    and 

China. 
?  Travels  in  India. 
Gives  an  impetus  to  Portuguese  voyages  of  discovery. 

Porto  Santo  and  Madeira  discovered. 

Cape  Verde,  etc. 

Coast  of  Guinea  reached 

Sends  Columbus  his  map  showing  the  western  route 

to  Cathay  (China). 
Mouth  of  the  Congo  reached. 
Rounds  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
America,  West  Indies,  Trinidad,  Cuba,  etc. 
Sails  along  E.  coast  of  America  from  Labrador  as  far 

as  Florida. 
Route  to  India  by  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Venezuela,  and  that  America  was  not '  'part  of  Asia." 
Discovers  mouth  of  R.  Amazon  and  Cape  St.  Roque. 
Reaches  entrance  of  Hudson  Strait,  called  by  him 

Strait  of  Anian. 
Brazil  (named  by  him  Ilha  da  Vera  Cruz,  being  S. 

part  of  Bahia  State). 
Central  America  on  his  fourth  voyage. 
Florida. 
Reach  the  Moluccas. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  T>lSCO\ERY— Continued. 


Date. 


A.D. 

1513 

1516 

1517 

1519-21 

1519-21 


1534 

1535 

1535-42 

1539 
about  1540 
1541 

1542 

« « 


1553 

1576 

1577-80 


1587 
1596 

1598 
1606 

160S 

1610 

1614-17 

1616 


1618 
1642 
1643 
1645 

1660 

1673 

1725-43 

1728  and  '41 

1764-66 
1768-79 


1770 

1785-88 
1789 
1792 

1795-1806 
1799-1804 

1801-1804 
1803-6 

1805-9 

1807-8 

1819 

1825 

1819 


Explorer  and  Nationality. 


Balboa  (Span.). 


Solis  (Span.) 

Sebastian  Cabot  ( Eng. ) , 

Cortez  (Span.) 

Magellan  (Span.) 


Pizarro  (Span.) 


Diego  d'Almagro  (Span.). 
Jacques  Cartier  (Fr.).  ... 


Discovery  or  Exploration. 


Francesco  de  Ulloa  (Span.); 

French 

Pizarro     and     Orellana  j 

(Span.) f 

Antonio  de  Mota 

Ruy  Lopez  de  Villalobos. . 

(Span.) 

Pinto  (Port.) 

Sir  H.  Willoughby  (Eng.). 

Frobisher  (Eng.) 

SirF.  Drake  (Eng.) 


J.  Davis  (Eng.) 

Barentz  and  Heemskerk  ) 

(Dut.) f 

Mendafia  (Span.) 

Quiros'(Span.) 

Torres  (Span.) 

Cham  plain  (French) 

H.  Hudson  (Eng.) 

Spillbergen  (Dut.) 

W.  Baffin  (Eng.) 

LeMaire   and    Schouten  | 

(Dut.) (  I 

Dirk  Hartog  (Dut.) ! 

G.  Thompson  (Eng.  mer.). 

Abel  Taaman  (Dut.) 

Vries  (Dut.) 

Deshnev  (Cossack) 

French 

Marquette  and  Joliet  (Fr  ) 

Russians 

Bering        (Dan.)       and  I 
Tishirikov  (Rus.).  .  ..\ 

Byron  ( Eng, ) 

Capt.  Cook  (Eng.) 


James  Bruce  (Scot.). 
Liakhov  (Russian).  .. 
La  Perouse  (French). 
A.  Mackenzie  (Scot.)- 
Vancouver  (Eng.).  .  . 


Mungo  Park  (Scot.) 

Alex,     von      Humboldt  I 

(Ger.) f 

Flinders  (Eng.) 

Krusenstern  ( Rus  )    

Salt  (Eng.) 

Klaproth  (Ger.) 

Sir  E.  Parry  (Eng.) 

Sir  J.  Franklin J 

Richardson    and     Back  > 

(Eng.) ) 

Long  (U.S.) 


Crosses  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  discovers  Pacific 
Ocean. 

Reaches  La  Plata. 

Hudson  Strait. 

Conquest  of  Mexico. 

First  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  Passes  through 
the  Strait  of  Magellan,  crosses  the  Pacific,  and  dis- 
covers the  Philippines. 

Completes  the  Conquest  of  Peru. 

(Conquers  Chili. 

Gulf  of  St.  T^awrence.  Ascends  river  to  Hochelaga 
(Montreal). 

Explores  Gulf  of  California. 

Continent  of  Australia  seen  by  French  sailors. 

Amazon  River. 

First  reaches  Japan. 

Discovers  Pelew  Islands,  and  takes  possession  of 
Philippine  Islands  for  Spain. 

Visits  Japan. 

Novaia  Zemlia. 

Labrador  and  Baffin  Land. 

Second  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  and  first  saw 
Cape  Horn.  Explored  W.  coast  of  N.  America 
nearly  as  far  as  Vancouver  Archipelago. 

Davis  Strait. 

Spitsbergen,  Bear  Islands,  etc. 

Discovers  Marquesas  Islands. 

Tahiti  (Sagittaria),  and  other  South  Sea  Islands. 

Torres  Strait.     Dutch  reach  Australia. 

Discovers  Lake  Ontario. 

Hudson  Bay  and  discoveries  in  N.  America. 

Circumnavi|?ation  of  the  globe. 

Enters  Baffin  Bay. 

Round  Cape  Horn. 

West  coast  of  Australia. 

Sails  up  Gambia. 

Van  Diemen's  Land  (Tasmania)  and  New  Zealand. 

Explores  E.  coast  Japan,  Saghalien,  and  Kurile  Is. 

Rounds  East  Cape  of  Asia  from  the  Kolyma  to  the 

Anadsrr. 
Lake  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence  discovered. 
Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  north. 
Exploration  of  the  coasts  of  Siberia. 

Bering  Strait  and  the  NW.  coast  of  America. 

Circumnavigation  of  the  globe 

Voyages  round  the  world.      Hydrographical  surveys 

of  the  Society  Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  E.  coast 

of  Australia,  Cook  Strait  in  New  Zealand,  Antarctic 

Ocean,  NW.  coast  of  America,  etc. 
Sources  of  the  Blue  Nile. 
Discovers  New  Siberian  Islands. 
North  of  Japan,  Saghalien,  etc. 
Exploration  of  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Vancouver  Island  circumnavigated.     Discovered  by 

Perez,  1774.    Exploration  of  NW.  coast  of  America. 
Journeys  and  explorations  in  the  Niger  districts. 

Explorations  in  South  America  and  "Cosmos." 

Southern  coasts  of  Australia. 

Surveys  in  Sea  of  Japan  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Sagha- 
lien, etc. 
Visit  to  Abyssinia 
Exploration  of  the  Caucasus. 
Parry  Archipelago. 

Coppermine  and  Mackenzie  Rivers  explored. 

Exploration  of  Rocky  Mountains 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  UNKNOWN   WOBU),   1800. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVER V—Conlinat, 


Dale. 

Explorer  and  Nstioaality. 

DiMovery  or  Eipioration. 

1819 

Wm.  Smith  (Eng.) 

South  Orkney  lalandB  and  South  Shetland^.    ViniUid 

1825-28 

Den^aadCl^ppertonf 

iie^:feiKljl^ihi.v:: 

Lake  Chad. 

Reached  Timbuktu  from  Tripoli. 

Journey  from  Katandy  to  Timbuktu  and  Morocco. 

Hoyal  Geographical  Society  founded  in  London. 

"&" 

ll^^i' 

6 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY— Con/tnu«i. 


Date.         Explorer  and  Nationality. 


Discovery  or  Elxploration. 


1837 

1837-40 

1839 

1839 

1840 

1841 
1841-73 
1844-45 

1845 

1848 
1849-55 

1850 

1852-4,1861 

1856-59 

1858 

4  ( 

1860 

1862 
1862-63 
1864-66 

1867-72 
1868-71 

1869 

1870-1886 

1871-75 

1872 

1872-76 

1872-76 

1873 
1874-75 

1876 
1876-90 

1876 

1878-79 
1878-89 

1878-85 
1878-92 

1879 

1881-85 

1885 

1886 
1887 

1893-96 

1897 
1893-97 
1895-96 

1896 
1896-98 

1897 

1897 

1898-99 

1899 

1900 

1900-02 


WoocKEng.) 

D'Urville  (French). 
J.  Balleny  (Eng.).  . 
Eyre  (Eng.) 


Trtimmer | 

Sir  James  C.  Ilos.s  ( Eng. ). .  | 
D.  Livingstone  (Scot.).  .  .  i 

Leichhardt  (Ger.) 

Sir  John  Franklin  (Eng.).  ' 
Rehmann  and  Krapf  ( Ger. )  | 
Richardson    and    Barth  |  i 

(Eng. -Ger) f 

Sir  R.  M'Clure  (Irish)...  J 
SirC.  R.  Markham  (Eng.). 

Du  Chaillu  (French) 

Sir  R.  Burton  (Scot.).  ... 
Speke  and  Grant  (Brit.).  .  i 

SirS.  Baker  (Eng.) I 

M'Douall  Stuart  (Scot.).  .  I 
W.  G.  Palgrave  (Eng.).  .  . , 
G.  Rohlfs(Ger.) I 

Richthofen  (Ger.) 

G.  Schweinfurth  (Ger.).  . 

G.  Nachtigal  (Ger.) 


Prejevalsky  (Rua.) 

Leigh  Smith  ( Eng. ) 

Payer    and    Weyprecht  I 

(Austrian) ( 

"Challenger"      Expedi- ) 

tion(Brit.) f 

Ernest  Giles 

Warburton  (Irish) 

Lieut.  Cameron  (Eng.)..  .  . 

De  Breeze  (French) 

H.  M.  Stanley  (Eng.) 

Sir     Geo.      Nares     and  I 

A.  H.  Markham  (Eng.)  f 

Nordenskjold  (Swed.).  .  .  . 

Thomson  (Scot.) 


Major  Serpa  Pinto  (Port.). 
Emin  Pasha  (Ger.) 

Mouatier  and  Zweifel  l 
(Swiss) f 

Greely  (U.  S.) 

Wiesmann  (Ger.) 

Junker  (Rus.-Ger.) 

Peary  (U.  S.) 

Capt.  Younghusband  I 
(Eng.) f 

Nansen  ( Norw. ) 

Jackson  (Scot.) 

Sven  Hedin  (Swed.) 

Pr.  Henri  d'Orl^ans 

Donaldson  Smith  (Scot.). . 

Capt.  Marchand 

Andr^e  (Swed.) 


D.  Carnegie 

De  Gerlache  (Belgian)..  . 

Major  Gibbons 

Borchgrevink  (Brit.  Ex.), 
Duke  of  Abruzzi  (Ital.). . 
Sven  Hedin  (Swed.) 


Sources  of  the  Oxus. 

Ad^lie  Land.     Reached  eff"  SO'  S.  lat. 

Balleny  Islands.  66°  44'  S.  lat. 

Discovers  Lake  Torrens,  S.  Australia,  and  in  1841 

journeys  from  Adelaide  to  Kisg  George's  Sound. 
Remains  of  ancient  Nineveh. 
Victoria  Land,  with  volcanoes  Erebus  and  Terror. 
Thirty  years*  travel  in  Central  South  Africa. 
Cro,sses  Australia,  Moreton  Bay  to  Port  E^ssington. 
Sails  on  his  last  voyage  never  to  return. 
Mt.  Kilima  Njaro.     Sighted  Mt.  Kenia. 

Western  Sudan  and  Sahara. 

Northwest  Passage. 

Explorations  in  Peru. 

Basin  of  Ogowp  River,  W.  Africa 

Lake  Tanganyika 

Victoria  Nyanza. 

Explores  Upper  Nile.  Discovers  Albert  Nyanza,  1864. 

Crossed  Australia. 

Journeys  in  (Antral  and  Eastern  Arabia. 

Journey  in  W.  Sudan  by  Ghadames,  Murzuk,  and 

Wadai  to  R.  Niger. 
Extensive  travel  and  exploration  in  China. 
Exploration  of  the  Jur.  Niam-Niam,  and  Monbuttu 

countries. 
Explorations  in  Lake  Chad  region  and  Central  Sudan 

States. 
Journeys  in  Mongolia.  Tibet,  etc. 
Exploration  of  N.  part  of  Spitsbergen.     Vaigats  Is. 

Franz  Josef  Land. 

Explores  the  depths  of  the  oceans. 

Traverses  Northwest  Australia. 
Crosses  Western  Australia  from  East  to  West. 
Crosses  Equatorial  Africa. 
Explorations  in  the  Ogowd  and  Gabun  region. 
Congo  Basin;   Mt.  Ruwenzori;    Forests  on  the  Aru- 
wimi,  etc. 

Grant  Land.     Penetrated  as  far  N.  as  83°  20^  lat. 

Northeast  passage. 

Journeys  through  Masai  Land,  British  South  Africa, 

Sokoto,  Morocco,  etc. 
Twice  crosses  Africa. 
Travels  and  Surveys  in  Equatorial  Africa.    Discovery 

of  Semliki  River,  etc. 

Sources  of  the  Niger. 

Grinnell  Land  and  NE.  coast  of  Greenland. 
Across  Africa  from  West  coast,  Congo  Basin. 
Welle-Mobangi,  etc. 
North  Greenland. 

Travels  from  Pekin  to  Kashmir. 

Hviotenland,  etc.;  reached  his  "Farthest  North"  in 

lat.  86°  13'  6"  N. 
Surveys  and  explorations  in  Franz  Josef  Land. 
Explorations  in  North  Central  Asia. 
Travels  in  Tonkin  and  China. 
Explores  region  of  Lake  Rudolf. 
Travels  from  Upper  Mobangi  to  Fashoda. 
Attempt  to  cross  over  the  North  Pole  in  a  balloon, 

with  fatal  results. 
Crosses  Western  Australia  from  S.  to  N. 
"Belgica,"  first  ship  to  winter  within  Antarctic  circle. 
Explorations  in  Congo  and  Zambezi  headwaters. 
Reached  lat.  78°  50'  S.  via  Victoria  Land. 
Reached  lat.  86°  33'  N.  via  Franz  Josef  Land. 
Important  Journey  in  Central  Asia. 


— BaHholomew'a  Atlaa. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


-mTnnffllWTPrVr^ 


L 


IHSTWBUTION  0 


IVE  CO.MISENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   HBFERBNCE   BOOK. 


TOTAL   AREAS   AND   POPULATION 

OF   THE 

POLAR    REGIONS 

■^"S" 

Vc" 

Tbou 
■anda 

*r  "ss- 

U8B5 

3SS80 

■BarthiiIom»i^t  AOaa. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


9 


THE  POLAR  REGIONS. 


National  emulation,  more  particu- 
larly since  the  great  success  of  Nan- 
sen,  seems  to  have  played  the  chief 
role  in  all  the  recent  researches  un- 
dertaken in  the  vicinity  of  the  poles. 

No  fewer  than  three  expeditions  were 
organized  in  1902  for  the  main  purpose 
of  reaching  the  North  Pole.  Otto 
Sverdrup,  the  Norwegian,  with  Nan- 
sen's  old  ship,  the  "Pram,"  started  in 
through  Smith  Sound;  Lieut.  Robert 
E.  Peary,  of  the  United  States  navy, 
pursued  a  like  course ;  while  Mr.  E.  B. 
Baldwin,  also  an  American,  selected 
Franz  Josef  Land  as  his  point  of  de- 
parture, although  Prince  Luigi,  of  Sa- 
voy, had  only  just  vainly  attempted  it. 

The  expedition  led  by  Capt.  Sver- 
drup was  incontestably  the  most  suc- 
cessful, says  Dr.  Herman  Haack  in  his 
Geographen  Kalender.  As  early  as 
1898  his  expedition  was  already  under 
way.  He  spent  the  first  winter  north 
of  Gape  Sabine,  where,  by  means  of 
extended  sledge  journeys,  he  explored 
the>  fiords  of  Hayes  Sound,  in 
the  following  spring  even  advancing 
as  far  as  the  west  coast  of  Elles- 
mereland.  Finding  the  ice  condi- 
tions no  more  favorable  in  1899 
than  in  the  previous  summer,  he 
abandoned  forthwith  his  former  plan 
and  fixed  upon  Jones  Sound  as  the 
starting  point  for  his  investigations, 
in  the  hope  of  finding  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ellesmereland  a  better  and 
freer  water  course  to  the  north  than 
the  narrow  neck  of  Smith  Sound  can 
afford,  which  is  so  easily  obstructed  by 
the  pack  ice  from  the  Pole.  Sverdrup 
met  with  difficulties  in  Jones  Sound 
also,  for  he  could  push  no  farther 
forward  than  Inglefeld  had  reached  in 
1852,  and  so  he  took  up  his  second 
winter  quarters  at  the  point  where  the 
coast  of  Ellesmereland  seemed  to  bend 
northward,  under  north  latitude  76 
deg.  29  min.  and  west  longitude  84 
deg.  24  min. 

The  sledge  journeys  of  the  fall  of 
that  year  established  the  fact  that 
Ellesmereland  extended  much  farther 
westward  than  was  supposed,  and  was 
separated  from  North  Kent  only  by 
the  Belcher  Channel,  a  small  arm  of 
the  sea.  In  the  spring  of  1900  Sver- 
drup continued  the  exploration  of  the 
west  coast  of  Ellesmereland,  where  he 
discovered  a  deep  fiord,  while  his  as- 
sistant, Isachsen,  examined  a  large 
body  of  land  lying  to  the  west  of  it. 
The  "Fram"-  being  free  from   ice   in 


August,  the  passage  through  Jones 
Sound  was  continued,  but  the  ship 
was  soon  fast  again  in  the  Belcher 
Channel  near  the  westernmost  point  of 
Ellesmereland,  and  Sverdrup  estab- 
lished his  third  winter  quarters  under 
latitude  76  deg.  48  min.  and  longitude 
89  deg.  The  fall  of  1900  and  the 
spring  of  1901  were  devoted  to  sledge 
journeys. 

Sverdrup  himself  continued  his  ex- 
ploration of  Ellesmereland,  examining 
anew  and  more  thoroughly  the  fiord 
which  he  discovered  the  year  before, 
after  which  he  turned  northward  and 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  most  west- 
erly point  occupied  by  him  in  the 
spring  of  1899,  to  which  he  had  then 
proceeded  from  Smith  Sound. 

Isachsen  proceeded  westward  and 
discovered  north  of  North  Cornwall 
two  larger  islands,  exploring  their 
southern  coasts  till  they  turned  to- 
ward the  north.  Under  latitude  79 
deg.  30  min.  and  longitude  106  de^., 
he  reached  his  farthest  western  limit, 
from  which  point  neither  to  the  west 
nor  to  the  north  was  any  land  visible, 
and  from  the  character  of  the  floating 
ice  it  was  not  probable  that  any  land 
existed  in  either  direction.  In  July  of 
that  year  the  north  coast  of  North 
Devon  was  explored  in  boats. 

All  attempts  to  get  the  "Fram"  out 
of  the  ice  having  failed,  Sverdrup  was 
compelled  to  pas9  a  fourth  winter  in 
1901-2  in  this  region,  during  which 
other  extended  sledge  journeys  were 
undertaken.  Following  the  west  coast 
of  Ellesmereland,  Sverdrup  attempted 
to  reach  80  deg.  16  min.  N.,  85  deg.  33 
min.  W.,  the  farthest  point  attained  by 
Lieut.  Aldrich,  of  the  English  Polar 
Expedition  of  1875-76,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Grinnell  Land,  coming  down 
from  the  north.  He  was  not  success- 
ful, however,  though  he  penetrated  as 
far  north  as  80  deg.  37  min.,  which 
was  but  a  short  distance  from  the  goal. 
Sledge  journeys  undertaken  by  other 
participants  in  the  expedition  resulted 
in  the  exploration  of  the  west  coast  of 
North  Devon.  In  the  beginning  of 
August,  1902,  when  the  "Fram"  was 
again  free  from  ice,  Sverdrup  started 
immediately  upon  his  homeward  way, 
reaching  Stavanger  on  the  19th  of  Sep- 
tember. The  chief  result  of  this  ex- 
pedition was  the  discovery  of  large 
land  areas  west  of  Ellesmereland,  and 
since  the  discovery  of  Franz  Josef 
Land  no  such  extension  of  our  knowl- 


10 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


edge    of    these    regions  has  been  sig-    , 
nalized.  ! 

Lieut.  Robert  N.  Peary,  I'.  S.  N.,  ' 
conceived  a  plan  of  reaching  the  North 
Pole  by  sledge  journeys,  accompanied 
by  no  one  but  Esquimaux  and  his 
black  servant  Henson.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  became  necessary  to  establish, 
well  to  the  south,  a  point  of  departure 
that  could  be  reached  every  year  by  a 
ship,  which  could  supply  fresh  pro- 
visions and  new  outfittings,  that  were 
to  be  pushed  toward  the  north  and  de- 
posited in  caches  along  the  coast.  The 
weak  point  of  the  scheme  lay  in  the 
fact  that  the  advance  to  the  farthest 
points  already  reached  required  so 
much  time'  for  so  small  a  sledge 
crew  that  further  penetration  into 
the  unknown  must  be  undertaken 
at  an  advanced  season  of  the 
j^ear,  when  the  stability  of  the  ice 
made  such  a  movement  questionable. 
The  winter  of  1898-99  Peary  passed  at 
Etah,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Smith 
Sound,  in  order  to  interest  the  abo- 
rigines in  his  plan,  buy  dogs,  and  per- 
fect other  preparations.  After  his 
ship,  the  ** Windward,"  reached  him 
with  fresh  supplies  in  the  fall  of  1899, 
he  was  transported  to  Cape  Sabine, 
which  he  had  fixed  upon  as  the  start- 
ing point  and  base  of  the  expedition. 
Here  he  passed  the  winter  of  1899- 
1900.  In  the  spring  of  1900  he  under- 
took a  sledge  journey  straight  across 
EUesmereland,  and  in  the  fall  of  that 
year  established  a  line  of  depots  to- 
ward the  north.  In  the  spring  of  1901 
he  made  the  first  energetic  move  to- 
ward the  Pole,  which  led  him  from 
Grant  Land  in  the  direction  of  Green- 
land. He  passed  the  most  northern 
point,  83  deg.  24  min.,  reached  by 
Lockwood  in  the  Greely  expedition  of 
1882,  and  fixed,  under  latitude  83  deg. 
39  min.,  the  northern  extremity  of 
Greenland.  He  followed  the  coast  to- 
ward the  east  until  it  began  to  bend 
decidedly  to  the  southeast  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Independence  Bay,  thus  estab- 
lishing the  insular  nature  of  Green- 
land. 

On  his  return  he  made  a  dash  for 
the  north  and  reached  83  deg.  50  min., 
the  highest  point  thus  far  attained  on 
the  American  side  of  the  polar  archi- 
pelago. During  the  spring  of  1902, 
Peary  even  exceeded  this.  Starting 
from  Cape  Hekla,  the  northernmost 
point  of  Grant  Land,  he  proceeded  over 
the  ice  as  far  as  84  deg.  17  min.,  while 
Capt.  Markham,  in  1876,  succeeded 
only  in  reaching  83  deg.  20  min.  from 
this    side.      From  the  European  side, 


however,  Capt.  Cagni,  of  the  Italian 
expedition,  starting  from  Franz  Josef 
Land,  attained  the  advanced  position 
of  86  deg.  34  min. 

Peary  was  obliged  to  make  his  dash 
in  April,  and,  as  was  the  case  with 
Markham,  he  found  the  ice  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  condition ;  the  immense 
hummocks  of  compressed  drift-ice  in- 
creased the  difilculties  of  travel  for 
both  dogs  and  men.  There  were  no 
traces,  however,  of  the  unchangeable 
paleocrystic  ice  mentioned  by  Mark- 
ham, for  on  the  return  Peary  met  with 
numerous  open  places  and  channels 
which  caused  serious  delays.  No  land 
was  visible  to  the  north  of  either 
Greenland  or  Grant  Land.  In  spite  of 
the  unsuccessful  termination  of  his  ex- 
pedition, Peary  is  still  convinced  that 
the  best  point  of  departure  is  from  the 
American  side  of  the  archipelago,  and, 
moreover,  that,  with  an  early  start 
from  Grant  Land,  the  Pole  may  be 
reached  by  sledge.  Though  Sverdrup 
and  Peary  added  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  Polar  regions,  the  third  expedition 
fitted  out  by  Mr.  Ziegler,  an  American, 
and  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Bald- 
win, who  started  from  Franz  Josef 
Land  for  the  Pole,  was  closed  without 
definite  results.  Several  small  islands 
were  discovered ;  the  hut  in  which 
Nansen  and  Johansen  lived  in  1895-6 
was  again  found ;  some  scientific 
events  were  noted ;  meteorological 
sketches  and  photographs  of  the 
Northern  Lights  were  made,  and  yet 
the  finality  of  the  expedition  was  a 
fiasco.  No  earnest  attempt  to  reach 
the  Pole  was  made.  Serious  friction 
between  Baldwin  and  Pridtjof,  the 
sailing  master  of  the  expedition,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  unsuccessful  termina- 
tion. 

Among  the  most  important  of  the 
Polar  expeditions  is  that  led  by  Baron 
Toll,  a  Russian,  for  the  discovery  and 
exploration  of  the  island  either  exist- 
ing or  supposed  to  exist  to  the  north 
of  the  New  Siberian  Islands.  Having 
twice  before,  in  1886  and  1894,  visited 
the  northernmost  of  thesie  islands.  Toll 
left  Europe  again  in  1900  in  the  steam- 
ship "Sarja"  upon  a  similar  quest. 
Upon  entering  the  Sea  of  Kara,  he  did 
not  pick  up  the  ship  which  was  bring- 
ing him  coal,  and  since  both  the  con- 
dition of  the  ice  and  the  open  sea  were 
favorable  to  his  designs,  he  preferred 
not  to  wait  for  it.  Cape  T^cheljuskin, 
the  extreme  northern  point  of  Asia, 
and  the  intended  termination  of  the 
first  summer's  journey,  was  not 
reached,  but  the  condition  of  the  ice 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


11 


compelled  him  to  put  into  Colin-Archer 
haven,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Taimyr 
Straits,  on.  September  26,  where  he 
passed  the  winter. 

Failing  in  two  attempts  to  gain  the 
mouth  of  the  Jenissei  by  crossing  the 
land,  Lieutenant  Kolomeizoff  finally 
reached  it  by  following  the  coast.  Dur- 
ing the  spring  of  1901,  the  extent  of 
Taimyr  Bay  was  carefully  explored 
upon  sleds,  and  through  the  discovery 
of  the  hut  in  which  Lapten  spent  the 
winter  of  1840-1,.  as  well  as  by  reach- 
ing the  most  northern  station  of  the 
2^fiddendorf  expedition  of  1843,  the 
mouth  of  the  Taimyr  River  was  def- 
initely fixed.  The  "Sarja"  could  not 
proceed  till  August  25.  Cape  Tschel- 
juskin  was  safely  rounded  and  the 
course  set  for  the  location  where,  ac- 
cording to  Toll's  observation  in  1886, 
the  distant  Polarland,  seen  as  early  as 
1811  by  Sannikow,  to  the  north  of 
Kotelny,  ought  to  be.  This  point  was 
passed  without  sighting  the  supposed 
land,  and  a  few  miles  before  reaching 
Gape  Emma,  the  southernmost  point 
ou  Bennett  Island,  discovered  by  the 
"Jeannette"  expedition,  the  ice  became 
so  packed  that  further  progress  north- 
ward was  impossible.  On  the  return 
voyage  the  ship  cruised  again  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  supposed  Sannikow 
land,  but  without  sighting  it.  On  Sep- 
tember 24,  1901,  the  "Sarja"  froze  in 
at  the  island  of  Kotelny,  in  Nerpitscha 
Bay,  where  the  expedition  passed  the 
winter.  Whether  or  not  Sannikow 
and  Toll  were  deceived  as  to  what  they 
saw  cannot  yet  be  determined.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  they  may  have  mis- 
calculated the  distance  and  that  the 
island  may  lie  farther  north  in  a  sec- 
tion   not    touched  even  by   Nansen's 


drift  in  the  "Fram"  during  the  long 
winter  night  of  his  journey  in  1893-4. 
Being  unable  to  get  coal  from  the  Lena 
River,  the  "Sarja"  became  unfit  for 
long  journeys;  accordingly  Toll  re- 
solved upon  sledge  journeys  to  the 
north,  similar  to  those  undertaken 
from  the  "Fram"  by  Nansen.  The 
geologist,  Birula,  began  such  a  journey 
May  11,  intending  to  explore  the  larg- 
est of  the  New  Siberian  Islands.  On 
June  5  Toll  followed  him,  accompanied 
by  the  astronomer  Seeberg  and  two 
Jakuts,  but  touched  only  at  the  north- 
ernmost point.  Cape  Wyssoki,  which 
he  left  on  July  13,  crossing  the  ice  for 
Bennett  Island.  Toll  left  Lieut.  F. 
Mattheissen  in  charge  of  the  "Sarja," 
but  August  21  arrived  before  any 
earnest  effort  could  be  made  to  proceed 
to  New  Siberia  and  Bennett  Land  to 
bring  back  the  sledge  parties.  About 
Kotelny  and  Faddejew  the  ice  was  so 
thick  that  these  islands  could  be  passed 
neither  to  the  north  nor  the  south,  and 
since  the  open  season  was  fast  drawing 
to  a  close,  Mattheissen  brought  the 
"Sarja"  back  to  the  Lena,  where  he 
anchored  in  the  bay  of  Tiksi  Septem- 
ber 8.  Being  too  deep  of  draft  to 
steam  up  the  river,  the  "Sarja"  was 
abandoned,  and  the  crew,  together 
with  the  scientific  collection  and  in- 
struments, were  transferred  to  Jakutsk 
on  the  small  steamer  "Lena." 

It  was  expected  that  Toll  and  Bi- 
rula would  return  to  the  mainland  at 
the  beginning  of  winter,  but  Birula  re- 
turned in  1903,  in  good  health,  without 
having  seen  Toll.  Perhaps  the  condi- 
tion of  the  ice  between  Bennett  Land 
and  New  Siberia  prevented  Toll's  re- 
turn, and  it  was  held  that  he  would  at- 
tempt it  again  in  the  spring  of  1903. 


THE  GREAT  [LAURENTIAN]  LAKES. 


Lakes. 


Superior * 

Huron  (with  Georgian  Bay) 

St.  Clair 

Erie 

Ontario 

Michigan 


Length, 
Miles. 


390 
400 
25 
250 
190 
345 


Breadth, 
Miles. 


160 
160 
25 
60 
52 
58 


Area, 
Sq.  Miles. 


31,420 
24,000 
360 
10,000 
7.330 
25,590 


Height 

above  Sea, 

Feet. 


602| 

576- 

57a  ^ 

566- 

240 

5781 


Lake  Michigan  is  wholly  within  the  United  States  and  is  connected 
with  Lake  Huron  by  the   Strait  of   Mackinaw. 

— StatUtical  Year  Book  of  Canada. 


12 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS. 


Though  the  quest  of  the  North  Pole 
has  monopolized  the  world's  attention 
for  more  than  a  century,  it  has  of  late 
not  been  entirely  without  a  rival. 
The  British  expedition  broke  the 
farthest-south  record  by  reaching  the 
latitude  of  82  deg.  17  min.  Mr.  Borch- 
grevink  previously  held  the  record  at 
78  deg.  51  min. 


THE   BRITISH   EXPEDITIOX 

sailed  from  London  in  July,  1901,  on 
the  Discovery,  under  command  of  Capt. 
Scott,  R.  N.  Fearful  lest  the  currents 
might  destroy  the  expedition,  a  rescu- 
ing party  was  dispatched  in  1902  un- 
der Lieut.  William  Colbeck,  who  took 
part  in  the  Borchgrevink  South  Polar 
expedition.    The  rescuers  on  the  Morn- 


MAP   OP  THE   ANTARCTIC   REGIONS. 

— Bartholomew* 9  Atlas  (with  additions.) 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


18 


ing  left  Wellington,  December  6,  1902, 
and  returned  to  the  same  place  March 
25,  iy03,  bringing  reports  of  the  suc- 
cessful work  of  the  main  expedition. 
The  Discovery  reached  Cape  Adare, 
the  northernmost  point  of  Victoria 
Land,  January  9,  1902,  and  followed 
the  coast  south ;  from  Mt.  Erebus  the 
ship  skirted  the  wall  of  ice,  discovered 
by  Ross,  as  far  as  longitude  1G5  deg. 
E.,  where  it  turned  more  to  the  north. 
Behind  the  ice  wall  reared  the  high- 
lands covered  with  glaciers  which  Ross 
had  sighted. 

Under  67  deg.  N.  and  152  deg.  30 
min.  E.  the  ship  reached  its  farthest 
point,  whence  it  returned  to  Victoria 
Land  to  go  into  winter  quarters  in 
MacMurdo  Bay,  near  the  volcano  Mt. 
Erebus,  in  longitude  174  deg.  E. 

Sledge  journeys  began  in  September, 
1902.  The  one  led  by  Captain  Scott 
mardied  for  three  months,  attaining  a 
point  under  82  deg.  17  min.,  which  sur- 
passed Borchgrevink's  78  deg.  50  min. 
by  nearly  3^  deg.  A  second  sledge 
party,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Armi- 
tage,  turned  westward  of  Erebus,  and 
during  a  march  of  fifty-two  days 
reached  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet.  This 
is  the  more  noteworthy  since  all  the 
dogs  died,  supposedly  from  spoiled  pro- 
visions. The  Morning  found  the  Dis- 
covery still  in  winter  quarters,  and 
when  the  rescuers  departed  the  Dis- 
covery seemed  still  fast  in  the  ice. 

Late  in  1903  the  Morning  and  the 
whaler  Terra  Nova  were  refitted' and 
started  on  a  second  expedition  to  the 
relief  of  the  Discovery.  The  latter 
was  found  on  February  14  and  the 
three  vessels  returned  to  Lyttleton, 
New  Zealand,  on  April  1,  1904.  Among 
the  chief  results  of  the  expedition  was 
the  discovery  that  Mount  Erebus  and 
Mount  Terror  are  on  a  small  island, 
and  that  there  is  a  large  land  mass 
lying  west  and  southwest  of  the  ice 
barrier,  with  ice  plateaus  9,000  feet 
in  height  and  peaks  which  reach  to 
14,000.  It  was  discovered  that  the  ice 
barrier  is  afloat,  though  fed  from  land, 
and  that  high  land  lies  to  the  southeast 
of  the  hitherto  unknown  extremity  of 
the  barrier. 

THE  GERMAN  EXPEDITION, 

which  entered  the  ice-pack  south  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  on  February  13,  1902, 
left  it  on  April  9,  1903,  and  returned 
from  a  voyage  highly  fruitful  of  scien- 
tific results,  although  not  comparable 
with  the  voyage  of  the  Discovery  in 
sensational  experiences.  Incidentally 
it  has  swept  away  the  Termination 
Land  of  Wilkes,  passed  the  winter  in 


the  close  pack,  carried  out  numerous 
and  important  sledge  journeys,  discov- 
ered new  land  (called  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II.  Coast),  and  actually  reached  land 
in  the  solitary  peak  called  the  Gauss- 
ber^.  Balloons  were  used  successfully 
during  the  expedition.  The  farthest 
south  was  66  deg.  2  min.,  and  the 
ship  was  frozen  for  many  months  in 
ice  30  feet  thick. 

THE    SWEDISH    EXPEDITION, 

under  Captain  Otto  NordenskjSld,  left 
Europe  in  October,  1901,  and  entered 
the  Antarctic  regions  in  February, 
1902.  The  ship  returned  from  the 
Falkland  Islands  to  Graham's  Land  in 
March,  1902,  went  south  again  in  the 
southern  summer  of  1902-1903.  With 
the  assistance  of  the  Swedish  govern- 
ment the  Norwegian  steamer  Frithjof 
was  dispatched  for  the  relief  of  the 
Antarctic,  whose  commander,  by  the 
way.  is  Captain  Larsen,  well  known 
for  nis  Antarctic  voyage  in  the  Jason. 
To  the  Republic  of  Argentine,  which 
sent  the  gunboat  Uraguay,  belongs  the 
honor  of  having  rescued  the  Swedish 
expedition,  which  was  found  at  Snow 
Hill  on  Louis  Philippe  Land  in  des- 
perate straits,  their  vessel  having  been 
crushed  by  the  ice  and  sunk  on  Febru- 
ary. 12,  1903. 

THE    SCOTTISH   EXPEDITION, 

on  the  Scotia,  under  the  command  of 
Mr.  W.  S.  Bruse  (formerly  of  the 
Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition),  set 
sail  on  November  3,  1902,  for  what  is 
known  as  the  Weddell  quadrant  of  the 
Antarctic  regions,  with  the  intention 
of  following  in  tne  wake  of  Captain 
Jas.  Weddell,  who  reached  a  high 
southern  latitude  in  open  sea.  This 
route  was  advisedly  selected,  as  the 
Scottish  expedition  is  devoting  its  at- 
tention to  oceanographical  work.  Cap- 
tain Robertson,  the  well-known  whal- 
ing skipper,  commanded  the  Scotia. 
Contrary  to  expectation,  the  Scotia 
wintered  in  the  ice,  and  no  further 
news  of  her  has  yet  been  received. 

THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION, 

under  the  command  of  Dr.  Charcot, 
sailed  from  Havre  in  August,  1903,  to 
explore  Alexander  Land.  The  origi- 
nal plan  of  the  expedition  was  to  ex- 
plore Nova  Zembla,  but  just  then  the 
Swedish  expedition  was  causing  a 
great  deal  of  anxiety,  and  it  was  de- 
cided to  direct  the  expedition  toward 
the  South  Pole  in  search  of  Norden- 
skjold.  The  rescue  of  the  Swedish  ex- 
pedition then  left  Dr.  Charcot  free  to 
make  explorations  in  Antarctic  re- 
gions. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 

AREA    AND   POPULATION    OF  THE    PRINCIPAL   COUNTRIES 
COMMEBCE  WITH 

Reviatd  and  CoffBTled  hy  tbe  BursMi  of 


^"^r. 

Bnt»h™.oni«, 

n.  B 

" 

Central  America:  Ccwta  Rica 


S°sS™dor..' 


104,751 


a.  772,000 

788,000 

45.-iOS.DO0 

"20,151,000 

>•  18,254.000 


3;5,i.o: 

2u!427:000 

^l.l:;^n 

5<.^4g.00fl 

3X* 


Netherlands. .... 
Dutch  East  Ii 


.■>,3-I7.00fl 
[1.^,73(1,000    I 
MiiS.OOO 


Turkey... 

United  Kingilom. 
United  States . . 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Stfitiatics,  Depan 


Foraign 

Coramerc 

■iththe 

United  States. 

Excno  o{ 

Eiporta  from 

Imoorla  into 

Y«r. 

Imports.  ■ 

Erports. 

Enporta(  +  )Dr 

United  States 

United  States 

Imports  (  -  ). 

to. 

from. 

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1«B 

99.43S.600 

173,  05  000 

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10.306.873 

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■203.844.000 

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28.101.784 

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302 

■no 

,  islm 

7,282,757 

1901 

2.987,000 

; 

000 

■DO 

:  00,371 

3,361,319 

1902 

8.850,000 

000 

33,140 

1903 

5.782.000 
178,487.000 

181 

So 

,B76>S9'  ' 

8.787,62  " 

190! 

1  4.605.000 

10; 

000 

m 

^30137 

4.103,30 

190S 

2  7.803.000 

€00 

203,357 

!0.8M,76 

I898-S9 

07    000 

>D0 

2.360,830 

2,5  lUlS^OOO 

1,371 

83  000 

m 

,773:397 

180.249,11 

'  903 

1,025,710.000 
2.972,000 

1.30; 

000 

bt,      000 

•  m 

,638,'9I»'  ■ 

■  ■ '  ■  ii;372:584'  * 

4,588.000 

fiS    000 

2.830.069 

89S 

8.560,000 

1' 

00,000 

.     ,000 

,736:726 

8.809,919 

11,621,386,000 

10.266 

667,000 

-1,354,699.000 

1,356,965,025 

1,003.224.820 

Cochin  Cliina.  Ton 


16 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAPTER    n. 


SHIPPIIfG     ANI>     YACHTS 


SUMMARY  OF   SHIPPING. 


The  growth  of  our  merchant  marine 
is  slow,  and  is  in  no  sense  commensu- 
rate with  our  phenomenal  advance- 
ment in  manufactures  and  commerce. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  a  fact  worthy 
of  note  that  the  documented  tonnage 
of  the  United  States  on  June  30,  1903, 
for  the  first  time  in  our  history  exceed- 
ed 6,000,000  gross  tons  register,  com- 
prising 24,425  vessels  of  6,087,345 
gross  tons.  These  figures  do  not  in- 
clude 1,828  yachts  of  74,990  gross  tons. 
The  total  shipping  of  the  United  King- 
dom for  1902  was  20,258  vessels,  of 
15,357,052  gross  tons  (vessels  of  Brit- 
ish colonies  number  15,533  of  512,268 
net  tons).  On  January  1,  1902,  the  to- 
tal shipping  of  the  German  Empire  was 
6,024  vessels  of  3,503,551  gross  tons. 
The  shipping  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  Germany  is  largely  employed  in 
developing  foreign  trade.  The  ship- 
ping of  the  United  States  is  almost 
wholly  a  part  of  our  domestic  trans- 

Eortation  system.  On  June  30,  1903, 
,141,037  gross  tons  were  engaged  in 
transportation  and  coastwise  trade, 
879,204  gross  tons  were  devoted  to 
foreign  trade,  and  67,044  to  fisheries. 
The  distribution  of  our  tonnage  on 
June  30.  1903,  was :  Atlantic  Ocean, 
3,157,37o  gross  tons;  Pacific  Ocean, 
812.179  gross  tons;  the  Great  Lakes, 
1,902,698  gross  tons;  Mississippi  sys- 
tem, 215,095  gross  tons.  Our  ship- 
ping on  the  Pacific  has  increased  more 
rapidly  than  on  the  Atlantic.  In  re- 
gard to  motive  power,  3,408,088  gross 
tons  were  propelled  by  steam,  and  1,- 
965,924  gross  tons  were  sailing  ves- 
sels, and  713.333  gross  tons  of  canal- 
boats  and  barges  were  variously  pro- 
pelled. As  regards  the  materials  of 
construction,  2,440,247  gross  tons  were 
of  iron  and  steel  construction,  and  3,- 
647,098  gross  tons  were  of  wood.  The 
following  table  shows  the  geographical 
distribution,  motive  power,  and  ma- 
terial of  construction  of  American 
shipping  June  30,  1903. 


17 


American  Shipping. 

Number. 

Gross 
Tonnage. 

QEOQRAPHICAL   DIS- 
TRIBUTION. 

Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts . 
Porto  Rico 

17,218 

59 

2,575 

69 

3.110 

1.394 

3,149.711 
7,662 

Pacific  coast 

775.859 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Northern  lakes 

36.320 
1,902.638 

Western  rivers 

215.035 

Total 

24.425 

16,187 
184 

6,087,345 

POWER  AND   MATERIAL. 

Sail: 

Wood 

2,391,017 

Iron  and  steel 

288,240 

Total 

16,371 

6.675 
1.379 

2,679,257 

Steam: 

Wood 

Iron  and  steel 

1.256,081 
2.152,007 

Total 

8,054 

695 
2.840 

3.418,088 

Canal  boats 

78.406 

Barges 

634.927 

Total 

3,535 

847 
191 
123 
150 

713,333 

CONSTRUCTION    DURING 
THE    YEAR    1903. 

Geographical  distrtbtUion. 

Altantic  and  Gulf  coasts . 
Pacific  coast 

244,860 
43,336 

Northern  lakes 

136,844 

Western  rivers 

11.112 

Total 

1,311 

466 
4 

451 

100 

19 

267 
4 

436,152 

Power  and  material. 
Sail: 

Wood 

77,795 

Steel 

12,184 

Steam : 

Wood 

31,674 

Iron  and  steel 

Canal  boats 

240.107 
2,215 

Barges: 

Wood 

66,249 

Steel 

5.928 

Total 

1.311 

436,152 

18 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


During  the  years  1902  and  1903, 
nearly  100,000  tons  of  large  ocean-go- 
ipg  steamers  have  been  added  to  our 
registered  fleet. 

The  subject  of  the  losses  of  vessels 
from  various  causes  is  a  most  impor- 
tant one.  During  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1903,  487  vessels  of  107,084 
'  gross  tons  were  reported.  The  num- 
ber and  rig  of  vessels  lost  is  shown 
by  the  annexed  table : 


nearby  countries.  The  excellent  light- 
house system  of  the  American  coast  and 
care  in  navigation  have,  however,  over- 
come liability  to  accident  from  the  na- 
ture of  our  trade  along  the  coasts. 
Collision  differs  totally  from  stranding 
in  that,  for  its  prevention,  one  must 
look  to  the  navigating  officers.  The 
figures  show  that  superior  care  and  in- 
telligence are  possessed  by  the  navi- 
gating officers  of  American  steamers. 


Rig. 

Stran(ied. 

Collision. 

Fire. 

Foun- 
dered. 

Aban- 
doned. 

TotaL 

Steam 

21 
153 

7 

ISl 

8 

25 

3 

49 

61 

2 

28 

107 

10 

106 

Sail 

13 

359 

Unrigged 

22 

Total 

36 

112                  145 

13 

487 

The  very  heavy  percentage  of  loss 
of  steamers  by  fire  discloses  unsatis- 
factory attention  to  duty  in  the  hold 
or  insufficient  fire  apparatus,  or  both. 
The  table  given  includes  lost  American 
vessels  of  all  sizes  on  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  country,  as  well  as  salt 
water.  For  comparison  of  the  relative 
losses  of  the  merchant  shipping  of  the 
United  States  and  foreign  nations,  the 
most  complete  figures  are  those  oi  the 
"Bureau  Veritas."  They  cover  only 
sea-going  steamers  of  over  100  gross 
tons  and  sea-going  sail  vessels  of  over 
50  net  tons.  The  proportion  of  for- 
eign vessels  on  the  ocean  is  so  great 
and  of  American  vessels  so  small  that 
the  figures  do  not  clearly  disclose  the 
relative  security  of  navigation  under 
various  flags  and  laws.  Figures  show 
that  American  sea-going  vessels  from 
1896  to  1903  have  been  less  liable  to 
accident,  but  more  liable  to  total  loss 
than  foreign  steamers,  while  American 
sea-going  sail  vessels  have  been  more 
liable  both  to  accident  and  loss  than 
foreign  sea-going  sail  vessels.  The 
losses  of  both  steamers  and  sail  vessels 
of  all  nations  are  due,  of  course,  more 
to  stranding  than  to  any  other  cause, 
as  it  accounts  for  47  per  cent,  of  the 
losses  of  American  sea-going  steamers 
and  53  per  cent,  of  the  losses  of 
American  sea-going  sail  vessels. 
The  losses  of  foreign  steamers  are 
44  per  cent.,  and  tne  losses  of  for- 
eign sail  vessels  46  per  cent.  There 
is  a  special  reason  why  American  ves- 
sels are  more  liable  to  stranding 
than  the  vessels  of  other  nations  which 
conduct  the  world's  deep-sea  trade. 
American  vessels  are  seldom  found  in 
midocean  on  long  voyages.  Their 
course  is  usually  along  our  own  coasts 
in  the  domestic  trade,  or  in  trade  with 


The  third  cause  of  loss  and  accident 
in  the  order  followed  by  the  **Bureau 
Veritas"  is  fire.  The  element  of  di- 
rect human  responsibility  in  the  case 
of  fire  is  considerably  greater  than  in 
cases  of  collision,  where  fog  and  the 
fault  of  the  second  party  to  the  colli- 
sion may  produce  disaster,  and  is 
much  greater  than  in  cases  of  strand- 
ing, where  fog,  defective  charts,  and 
an  inadequately  lighted  coast  add  to 
the  perils  which  stress  of  weather  al- 
ways creates.  Afloat  or  ashore  fire 
seems  usually  to  be  a  peril  to  life  and 
property,  to  be  guarded  against  only 
by  a  higher  degree  of  men's  watchful- 
ness or  by  better  extinguishing  ap- 
pliances. Each  vessel  is  separated 
usually  by  the  water  from  every  other 
vessel  as  buildings  ashore  are  not  sepa- 
rated, so  that  extra  precautions  should 
produce  better  results  with  ships  than 
with  buildings.  The  American  steam 
fleet  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  wooden  hulls,  while  foreign 
steamers  are  usually  steel.  Still  it  is 
not  pleasant  to  notice  that  while  the 
loss  of  18  per  cent,  of  lost  American 
steamers  may  be  charged  to  fire,  the 
loss  of  only  4  per  cent,  of  lost  for- 
eign steamers  is  charged  to  this  cause ; 
that  while  8  per  cent,  of  damaged 
American  steamers  suffered  from  fire, 
only  5  per  cent,  of  foreign  vessels  came 
from  this  cause ;  that  4  per  cent,  of 
lost  American  sail  vessels  were  burned 
and  only  2  per  cent,  of  lost  foreign 
sail  vessels  were  burned.  The  only  re- 
lieving feature  of  these  particular  fig- 
ures is  that  the  proportion  of  accidents 
from  fire  to  American  sail  vessels — 3 
per  cent,  of  the  total — was  the  same  as 
to  foreign  vessels.  The  situation  dis- 
closed may  be  corrected.  Whether  that 
correction  should  come  from  the  under- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


19 


writers  or  from  the  Government  in  its 
legislative  or  executive  branch  is  not 
now  considered. 

Collision  to  a  great  extent,  and  fire 
to  a  greater  extent,  •  cause  loss  or  acci- 
dent to  vessels  mainly  through  lack  of 
skill  and  vigilance  oi  the  officers  and 
crew.  Except  where  caused  by  unu- 
sual storms  or  waves  vessels  founder, 
on  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  struc- 
tural weakness  of  the  hull.  This 
weakness  may  be  inherent  and  the 
fault  of  the  builder,  or  it  may  be  due 
to  age  and  inadequate  repair,  the  fault 
of  the  owner.  In  rare  cases  a  new  ves- 
sel, splendidly  built,  may  yield  to  the 
tempest.  The  separation  of  causes  of 
loss  by  the  "Bureau  Veritas"  into 
foundered,  abandoned,  and  missing, 
while  proper  enough  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  statistician,  is  not  wholly 
satisfactory  to  those  required  to  deal 
with  facts  from  the  point  of  view  of 
possible  remedy.  The  three  classes, 
foundered,  abandoned,  and  missing, 
really  constitute  one  class  for  remedial 
purposes.  That  class  consists  of  ves- 
sels which,  on  account  of  defects  of 
the  hull,  are  lost  at  sea.  Most  of 
them  founder.  Some  of  them  are 
abandoned  by  their  crews  and  the  ship 
does  not  actually  go  down  before  their 
eyes.  All  of  these  ultimately  go  down 
except  the  proportion  kept  afloat  by 
their  cargoes,  such  as  lumber-laden 
schooners.  This  small  proportion  con- 
stitutes the  class  known  as  "derelicts." 
Leaks  (defects  in  a  vessel's  bottom) 
cause  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  accidents 
to  American  steamers  and  to  foreign 
steamers.  Leaks,  again,  cause  20  per 
cent,  of  the  accidents  to  American  sail 
vessels,  and  only  15  per  cent,  of  the 
accidents  to  foreign  sail  vessels. 

Stress  of  weather  or  storms  ac- 
counted for  10  per  cent  of  the  acci- 
dents to  American  steamers,  13  per 
cent,  of  accidents  to  foreign  steamers, 
30  per  cent,  of  accidents  to  American 
sail  vessels,  and  35  per  cent,  of  acci- 
dents to  foreign  sail  vessels.  Doubt- 
less the  excellent  system  of  weather 
reports  and  storm  warning  along  the 
American  coasts  helps  to  produce  this 
favorable  showing  for  American  ves- 
sels. The  principal  cause  of  accidents 
to  American  steamers  lies  in  the  en- 
gines and  boilers  to  which  29  per  cent, 
of  our  steamer  accidents  are  charged, 
compared  with  24  per  cent,  for  for- 
eign steamers.  Collision  (31  per  cent.) 
is  the  principal  cause  of  British  steam- 
er accidents;  stranding  (31  per  cent.) 
of  German  accidents.  Accidents  to 
engines  and  boilers  may  be  due  to  de- 


fective original  construction,  to  inade- 
quate repairs,  or  to  faults  of  the  men 
in  charge  of  them.  Generally  speak- 
ing, American  machinery  holds  a 
high  place  in  the  world's  esteem,  and 
while  positive  evidence  is  not  at  hand, 
it  still  seems  probable  that  American 
marine  engines  and  boilers  are  equal 
to  those  of  foreign  make.  If  that  be 
so  then  the  large  proportion  of  acci- 
dents from  engines  and  boilers  must 
proceed  from  one  or  both  of  the  other 
two  causes  mentioned.  The  returns 
of  the  number  of  men  including  mas- 
ters required  to  man  the  documented 
fleet  of  merchant  vessels  and  yachts 
of  the  United  States  report  crews  ag- 
gregating 135,828  men,  88,249  men  be- 
ing engaged  on  steamers,  while  the 
crews  of  sailing  vessels  number  45,- 
030  men,  and  unrigged  boats  require 
2,549  men  to  man  them.  These  fig- 
ures are  only  for  the  crews  reported. 

Returns  for  1903  show  that  3,086 
American  steam  vessels,  including 
yachts,  aggregating  2,994.866  gross 
tons,  are  propelled  by  engines  aggre- 
gating 2,369,202  indicated  horsepower. 
The  figures  indicate  an  annual  con- 
sumption of  about  10,000,000  long  tons 
of  coal  for  fuel  on  these  steamers,  and 
the  employment  on  board  of  about  20,- 
000  men  as  firemen  and  trimmers.  The 
total  number  of  steam  vessels  (includ- 
ing motor  launches)  on  June  30,  1903, 
was  8,801  of  3,459,644  gross  tons,  so 
that  the  figures  stated  cover  86  per 
cent,  of  our  steam  tonnage,  including 
yachts.  In  the  navy  207  steam  vessels 
of  206,953  tons  (displacement)  are 
propelled  by  engines  of  624,745  indi- 
cated horse-power. — Condensed  from 
the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Navigation. 


Flag  Day. — Flag  Day  is  .Tune  14. 
"Old  Glory"  was  127  years  old  on  June 
14,  1904. 


NATIONAL  S^yiSS  RAILWAYS. 

Four  of  the  chief  railway  lines  in 
Switzerland — the  Central  Suisse,  the 
Nord  Est,  the  Union  Suisse,  and  the 
Jura-Simplon — have  been  nationalized. 
There  only  remains  the  St.  Gothard 
Company.  The  existing  concession 
will  be  renounced  1905,  and  the  pur- 
chase price  fixed  on  the  basis  of  the 
average  returns  of  the  10  years  pre- 
ceding 1894-1904. 


20 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STATEMENT   OF   NUMBER  AND   NET    AND   GROSS   TONNAGE    OF 

STEAM  AND  SAILING  VESSELS  OF  OVER  100  TONS,  OF 

THE  SEVERAL  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD, 

AS  RECORDED  IN  LLOYD'S 

REGISTER  FOR  1903-4. 


Flag. 


British: 

United  Kingdom , 
Colonies , 


Total. 


American  (United  States) 

Sea 

Lake 

Total 


Argentine 

Austro-Hungarian. 

Belgian 

Brazilian 

Chilean. 

Chinese 

Cuban 

Danish 

Dutch 

French 

German 

Greek 

Italian 

Japanese 

Mexican 

Norwegian 

Philippine  Islands. 

Portuguese 

Russian 

Spanish 

Swedish 

Turkish 

Other  countries. . .  . 


Total,  including  coun- 
tries  not  specified.  . . 


Steam. 


Num- 
ber. 


7.530 
1,023 

8.553 


862 
349 

1,211 

119 

267 

112 

228 

49 

45 

41 

385 

360 

717 

1,425 

199 

365 

544 

32 

962 

92 

48 

573 

459 

750 

125 


Net  Tons. 


Gross 
Tons. 


8,233,721 
466,732 


13,410,894 
782,688 


17.761 


8,700,453      14,193.582 


810.003 
756,470 


1,566,473 

44,678 

348,461 

103,459 

84,110 

42,164 

38.807 

24,703 

283.490 

387,800 

584,180 

1,720,106 

205,996 

448,704 

366,232 

9.070 

570.869 

27.035 

32.642 

354.539 

461.333 

308,623 

57,970 


1,220,995 
1,001,072 


2,222,067 

70,862 

557.745 

156,559 

132,107 

67,186 

60,491 

38,550 

483.968 

613.219 

1,153,761 

2,794,311 

325.895 

704.109 

585,542 

15,210 

935.229 

43,138 

51,217 

578.343 

720.822 

502,581 

92.869 

23.330 


Sail. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber. 


16.822.466  I  27.183.365    12.182 


1,622 
959 

2,581 


2,119 
56 

2,175 

99 
29 
2 
90 
59 


12 
414 

98 
638 
473 
192 
861 
1,042 

16 
1,256 

37 
152 
726 
136 
764 
216 

15 


Net  Tons. 

Num- 
ber.   ' 

1,478,677 
334,115 

9,152 
1,982 

1.812,792 

1,259,986 
129,903 

11,134 

2,981 
405 

1,389,889 

24,918 
20.952 
488 
22,979 
36,572 


2,324 

97,279 

45,626 

468,255 

488,936 

52,304 

476,226 

141.276 

3,678 

718,511 

8,261 

50.087 

231,305 

43,625 

218,535 

61,625 

5.333 


6,459.766 


3,386 

218 
296 
114 
318 
108 
45 
53 
799 
458 

1,355 

1,898 
391 

1,226 

1,586 
48 

2,218 
129 
200 

1,299 
595 

1,514 

341 

47 


29,943 


Ton- 
nage. 


14,889,571 
1,116,803 

16,006,374 


2,480,981 
1.130,975 


3,611,956 

95,780 
578,697 
157,047 
155,086 
103,758 

60.491 

40.874 

581,247 

658,845 

1,622,016 

3.283.247 

378,199 

1.180,335 

726,818 

18,888 
1.653.740 

51.399 
101,304 
809.648 
764,447 
721,116 
154.494 

28,663 


33.643,131 


THE  WORLD'S  LARGE  AND  FAST  OCEAN  STEAMSHIPS. 


The  following  table  shows  the  sea- 
going screw  steamships  in  the  world  of 
12  knots  or  upward,  and  of  2,000  gross 
tons  or  more,  recorded  in  Lloyd's  Reg- 
ister on  July  1,  1903^  including  a  few 
vessels  building  at  that  time.  While 
in  tonnage  these  vessels  are  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  world's  sea-going  steam 
tonnage,  in  eflBciency,  due  to  their  size 
and  speed,  they  represent  more  nearly 
one-third  of  the  effective  ocean-carry- 
ing power  of  the  world  in  the  general 
foreign  and  colonial  carrying  trade, 
and  probably  85  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  foreign  passenger  trade. 


Speed. 


Twenty  knots  and  over.  .  .  . 
Under  20  and  over  19  knots. 
Under  19 and  over  18  knots, 
Under  18  and  over  17  knots. 
Under  17  and  over  16  knots. 
Under  16  and  over  15  knots. 
Under  15  and  over  14  knots. 
Uncler  14  and  over  13  knots. 
Under  13  and  over  12  knots. 


Total. 


1903. 


Num- 
ber. 


1.322 


Tons. 


20 

236,114 

9 

63,219 

24 

191,454 

56 

378,197 

80 

550,315 

98 

509,479 

154 

766.719 

379 

1,886.602 

502 

2.079,775 

6,661,874 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


22 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


flag: 


The  following  table  classifies  these    vessels  in  1903,  according  to  speed  and 


J^'lag. 

Speed  in  Knot?. 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

40 
7 

15 
5 
2 
2 

kb 

14 

13 

12 

TotaL 

British 

7 
5 
4 
2 
2 

"i' 

4 
1 

17 
3 
3 

25 

*    V  " 

19 

38 

8 
26 
1 
2 
2 

80 

9 
27 

3 

■  5" 

197 

38 

28 

42 

2 

6 

308 
68 
17 
39 
20 
7 

712 

German 

140 

American 

129 

French 

113 

Russian 

32 

Spanish 

23 

Roumanian 

1 

1 

Italian 

1 
2 
2 
3 

9 
3 
3 

6 
7 
2 

10 
24 
11 

12 
6 
6 

38 

Japanese 

3 

45 

Austro-Hungarian 

24 

Danish 

3 

Dutch 

5 

1 

6 
■  '  9  ■ 

3 

9 

:•  e  • 

3 

14 
2 
1 

"2  • 
502 

28 

Belgian 

1 

13 

Chilean 

10 

Portuituese 

6 

Brazilian 

3 

Argentine 

2 

20 

9 

24 

56 

80 

154 

• 

Total 

98 

379 

1,322 

MOTIVE  POWER  AND  CHIEF  MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF 

THE  WORLD'S  MERCHANT  MARINE. 

MOTrn:  POWER. 


Year. 


1890. 
1895. 
1900. 
1903. 


Total  Vessels. 


Num- 
ber. 


32,298 
30,368 
28.422 
29,943 


Tons. 


22,151,651 
25,107,632 
29,043,728 
33,643,131 


Steam. 


Num- 
ber. 


11,108 
13,256 
15,898 
17,761 


Gross 
Tons. 


12,985,372 
16,887.971 
22,369,358 
27,183,365 


Net  Tons. 


8,295,514 
10,573,642 
13,856,513 
16,822,466 


Sail. 


Num- 
ber. 


21.190 
17,112 
12,524 
12,182 


Net  Tons. 


9,166,279 
8.219.661 
6,674,370 
6,^^9,766 


Recorded  in  Lloyd's,  100  tons  or  over. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


Year. 


1890. 
1895. 
1900. 
1902. 


Total  Vessels. 


Num- 
ber. 


1,362 

794 

1,285 

1,336 


Tons. 


1,646,809 
1,211,615 
2,268,938 
2,346,315 


Steam. 


Num- 
ber. 


880 
629 
966 
900 


Gross  Tons. 


1,328,541 
1,114,019 
2,046,339 
2,218,600 


SaU. 


Num- 
ber. 


482 
165 
319 
436 


Net  Tons. 


318,268 

97,596 

222,590 

285,340 


Vessels  built  in  the  world  (over  100  tons),  according  to  Lloyd's  (including  vessels  not 
recorded  in  Lloyd's). 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN  CARRYING  TRADE— UNITED  STATES. 

The    following    statement     of     tbe  l   clearances  from  1821  to  1903,  is  fur- 
value  of  imports  and  exports  carried  nished   by   tlie   Bureau    of    Statistics, 
in   United   States  and  iu  foreign  ves-  Treasury  Department : 
sets,  and   the  tonnage  oE  entries  and  \ 


Importa. 

Eiports. 

Fiscal  Year— 

In  CaiB  and 
Other  I-snd 
Vehieles. 

"%'='."" 

In  Foreign 
Ve«els 

In  Can  and 
Olher  Land 
Vehicles 

In  American 

In  Foreign 

1 
1 

i 

1875 

IS 

890 

15  112  1U5 

»2  802  352 
ltr>  438  «1 
1  DOS    (H3 

iJ      '    3 

4,437  ^ 

uiil  m 

III 

1              01 
71         1   35 

17  B04  m 

liSSJJl 

tSSir-,J72 

111 

8BM3  4« 

2S0S3«2 
93  017  /56 

If  '^^  SI 
III  31^  088 
109  025  W 

82  ooi  mi 

s';1 

lol  7351689 

as 
IS 

71,»IH,284 

III 

747:378:844 
895,357.830 

"fse/to  It 


PANAMA  ROUTE. 
Tbe  followlug  table  shows  the  dis-   I   North  and  South  America,  I 


FnKD 

San  Frail- 

RnutB, 
Valpa- 

- 

4;|~- 

Panama 

5.210 

ii 

4.628 

1 
:oo2 

s 

,13 

I 
S:? 

8,54 

f|ifiiijil 

(>    07 

11 

si 

9  482 
qVfiO 

■ 

1 

1 
1 

1 

MO 

7:2s 

u 

Philadelphia. 

n? 

SanJuaii'{P.H.).:'.: 

s:s20 

St.  Petereburg 

fl"  68 



24 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


«      .    V^t'* 


PANAVfA, 
NICARA6UA1 


49M.LES   TOTAL    LENGTH. 

186.53  Mius 


l£AfGrf/\S^ARPN£SSOF  CU/tVATME  . 

TOTAL  LEA/GTN  PP.SSAf/us,    * 
TOTAL  m  Of  DEGREES  77/  " 


es-R. 


LENGTH  49.99 M. 
TO'-'DEGREES  2339!" 


lacKs. 


^  //o. 


-••"* 


M£ANS£A  L£y£L  O. 

r/M£  dr  r^ANs/  r 


i/AN./^T 


>»>'«>>.  I.,.. 


'J^ 


J  A  N.  fSr/2M. 


^ 


—"n'*^ 


i//^/V^f^/0/J/. 


-3  78  HNOrs  GAIN- 


<»h_.  P*  e««^ 


4M[)ft««^  -fH*  t.  ^-- 


/•<2^  /ff  a/^gt:  y£JSS£L^.^ 


a'lfr  jitf^;*  Y^  ?^  tUff' 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  SUPERIOR  ADVANTAGES     OF    THE    PANAMA    OANAL 

OVER    THE    NICARAGUA  CANAL. 


PANAMA,  SUEZ,  AND  CAPE  OF 
GOOD  HOPE  ROUTES. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dis- 
tance from  New  York  to  ports  named 
by  the  routes  specified : 


From 

Via 
Pan- 
ama. 

Via 

Suez. 

Via  Cape 

of  Good 

Hope. 

New  York  to — 

Tientsin 

Shanghai .... 

Tokyo 

Mamla 

Melbourne . . . 

10,908 
10,828 

9,692 
11,412 

9,911 

12,914 
12,187 
13,019 
11,435 
12,737 

15,063 
14,446 
15,178 
13,565 
12,206 

There  are  47  steamships  engaged  in 
cable-laying  and  repairing. 

The  longest  submarine  telephone 
cable  is  on  the  London-Brussels  route. 
It  extends  from  St.  Margaret's  Bay  to 
La  Panne,  a  distance  of  54  miles. 


WORLD'S  OUTPUT  OF  TONNAGE. 


Countries. 


United  Kingdom 

Germany 

United  States 

Holland 

France 

Italy 

Norway  and  Sweden  . 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Austria-Hungary 

Russia 

Spain  and  Portugal.  .  . 

Greece 

Canada 

Japan  (European).  ..  . 
China  (European).  .  .  . 
Hongkong  ( European ) 
Singapore  (European). 
Other  countries 


1903. 


Tons. 

1.409,630 

261,003 

493,144 

71,423 

107,431 

52,380 

61,057 

17,301 

23,849 

37,208 

63,726 

2,040 

72 

13,252 

35,411 

6,631 

4,309 

2,379 

16,000 


1902. 


Tons. 

1,619,040 

272.350 

314,900 

91,120 

189,930 

49,900 

34.330 

14.560 

22,440 

20,900 

2,740 

2,040 

200 

13,500 

35,570 

3,820 

3.006' 
10,000 


— London  Statist. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


25 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  LARGEST  FAST  OCEAN  STEAMERS. 


The  largest  and  in  many  respects 
the  highest  type  of  marine  architecture 
is  to  Be  found  in  the  modern  ocean 
greyhound -foi*  t»nsatlantic  trade.  In 
recent  years  the. rival  companies  have 
vied  ^ith  each  other  in  the  effort  to 
excel,   and   steamships   of   larger   size, 


greater  speed,  and  more  perfect  equip- 
ment have  followed  each  other,  until 
it  would  seem  that  the  limit  had  been 
reached.  In  the  accompanying  table 
the  largest  and  most  recent  steamers 
are  placed  in  comparison  with  the 
"Great  Eastern." 


Name  of  Ship. 


Great  Eastern 

Paris 

Teutonic 

Campania 

St.  Paul 

PCaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse, 

Oceanic 

Deutschland. 

Baltic 


Date. 

Length 
over  All. 

Beam. 

Depth. 

Draught. 
Feet. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Tons. 

1858 

692 

83 

57i 

25* 

27,000 

1888 

660 

63 

42 

26i 

13,000 

1890 

585 

57^ 

42 

26 

12,000 

1893 

625 

65 

m 

28 

19,000 

1895 

'  554 

63 

42 

27 

14.000 

1897" 

649 

66 

43 

29 

20,000 

1899 

704 

68 

49 

32i 

28,500 

1900 

686i 

67i 

44 

29 

22,000 

1904 

725i 

75 

49 

30i 

40,000 

Maxi- 

mimi 

Speed. 

Knots. 
12 
20 
20 
22 
21 

22.35 
20 
23.5 
20 


SPEEDS  OF  OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS. 


The  following  tables  show  the  fast 
recorded  times  in  which  journeys  have 
been  made  between  English  ports  and 


those  of  the  United  States,  Canada, 
India,  China,  Burmah,  Australia, 
South  Africa,  ajid  the  West  Indies. 


The  Atlantic 
Record. 


De  u  t  s  c  h 1 and 
(16,500). 

Kronprinz  Wil- 
helm ( 15,000). 

Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II. 

Lucania  ( 12,952) 

St.  Paul  (11,629) 
Teutonic 

(10,000). 
Minneapolis 

(13,402). 
New    England 

(11,400). 
Tunisian 

(10,576). 


Line  or  Company. 


Hamburg  -  Amer- 
ican. 

North  -German 
Lloyd. 

North  -German 
Lloyd. 

Cunard 

American 

White  Star 

Atlantic  Transport 

Dominion 

Allan 


Timing  of  Record  Run  taken 
between  . 


New  York  (Sandy  Hook)  and 
Plymouth  (off  Eddystone). 

New  York  (Sandy  Hook) 
and  Plymouth. 

New  York  (Sandy  Hook)  and 
Plymouth  (off  Eddystone). 

QueenstowQ  (Daunt's  Rock) 
and  New  York. 

Southampton  and  New  York. 

Queenstown  (Daunt's  Rock) 
and  New  York. 

(Off)  Dover  and  New  York 
(Sandy  Hook). 

Queenstown  (Daunt's  Rock) 
and  Boston  Light. 

Rimouski  and  Moville  (Ire- 
land) via  Belle  Isle. 


Dis- 
tance, 
Nauti- 
cal 
Miles. 


2,982 

2,978 

3,112 

2,779 

3,046 
2,778 

3,265 

2,636 

2,307 


Record 
Run. 


D.    H.  M. 

E.    5  7  38 

E..  5  8  18 

E.    5  11  58 

W.  5  7  23 

W.  6    0  31 
W.  5  16  31 

W.  8     2  31 

W.  6  12  42 

E.    6    5  20 


Speed, 
Knots 

per 
Hour. 


23.36 

23.21 

23.58 

21.81 

21.08 
20.34 

16.80 

16.62 

15.5 


E.  =  Sailing  eastward. 


W.  =  Sailing  westward. 


^DaUy  Mail  Year  Book,  1904 


RECORD  OF  ATLANTIC  PASSENGER  SERVICE  TO  NEW  YORK. 


Year, 

No.  of 
Pas- 
sages. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

252,350 
192,004 
219,651 
303.762 

Total. 

351,573 
382,936 
300,237 
411,177 

Year. 

1900 
1901 
1902 

No.  of 
Pas- 
sages. 

838 
887 
922 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Total. 

1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 

852 
901 
812 
826 

99,223 

90,932 

80,586 

107,415 

137,852 
128.143 
139,848 

403,491 
438,868 
574.276 

541,343 
567,011 
714.124 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


26 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


RETURN    OF    PASSENGERS    LANDED    AT    NEW    YORK    BY    FIVE 

PRINCIPAL    LINES. 


1902. 

1901. 

1900. 

Line. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

North-German  Lloyd 

Hamburg- American 

White  Star 

27,767 
20,698 
18,402 
16,308 
14,456 

110,697 
98,988 
40,225 
23,650 
20.658 

22,960 
20,977 
18,167 
17,783 
12,110 

101,384 
78,560 
30,483 
19,943 
12,511 

26,577 
23,657 
14,948 
20,000 
16,435 

92.143 
72.245 
29,370 

Cunard 

22,751 

American 

16.884 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


FIRST  STEAMBOATS,  PIONEER  SAILINGS,  AND 

EARLIEST  LINES. 


1707.  Denis  Papin  experimented  on  River 
Fulda  with  paddle-wheel  steamboat. 

1736.  Jonathan  Hulls  patented  designs 
similar  to  modem  paddle  boat. 

1769.  James  Watt  invented  a  double-acting 
side-lever  engine. 

1783.  Marquess  of  Jouffrey  made  experi- 
ments in  France. 

1785.  Jarne;?  Ramsey,  in  America,  propeUed 
a  boat  with  steam  through  a  stern-pipe. 

1786  Robert  Fitch,  in  America,  propelled  a 
boat  with  canoe-paddles  fixed  to  a  moving 
beam. 

1787.  Robert  Miller,  of  Edinburgh,  tried 
primitive  manual  machinery. 

1788.  Miller,  with  Symington,  produced  a 
double-hull  stern-wheel  steamboat. 

1802.  Charlotte  Dtindas,  the  first  practical 
steam  tugboat,  designed  by  Symington. 

1804.  Phcenix,  screw-boat  designed  by 
Stephens  in  New  York;  first  steamer  to  make 
a  sea  voyage. 

1807.  Clermont,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed ;  built  by  Fulton  in  U.  S.A, 

1812.  Comet,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed  in  Europe ;  built  by  Miller 
in  Scotland. 

1818.  Rob  Roy,  first  sea-trading  steamer  in 
the  world,  built  at  Glasgow. 

1819.  Savannah,    first    auxiliary    steamer. 

Saddle  wheels,  to  cross  the  Atlantic;  built  in 
[ew  York. 
1821.  Aaron  Manby,  first  steamer  (English 
canal  boat)  built  of  iron. 

1823.  City  of  Dublin  Steam  Packet  Co.  was 
established. 

1824.  General  Steam  Navigation  Co.  was 
established  at  London. 

1824.  George  Thompson  &  Co.  (Aberdeen 
Line),  were  established. 

1825.  Enterprise  made  the  first  steam  pass- 
age to  India. 

1825.  William  Fawcett,  pioneer  steamer  of 
the  P.  &  O.  S.  N.  (>). 

1830.  T.  &  J.  Harrison  (Harrison  Line)  were 
established  at  Liverpool. 

1832.  Elburkah,  iron  steamer,  took  a  private 
exploring  party  up  the  Niger. 

1834.  Lloyd*8  Register  for  British  and 
Foreign  Shipping  established. 


1836.  Austrian  Lloyd  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
established  at  Trieste. 

1837.  Francis  B.  Ogdeut  first  successful 
screw  tugboat;  fitted  with  Ericsson's  pro- 
peller. 

1838.  Archimedes,  made  the  Dover-Calais 
passage  under  two  hours,  fitted  with  Smith's 
propeller. 

1838.  R.  F.  Stockton,  built  for  a  tugboat, 
fitted  with  Ericsson's  propeller,  sailed  to 
America;  first  iron  vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic; 
first  screw  steamer  used  in  America. 

1839.  Thames,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Packet  Co. 

1839.  George  Smith  &  Sons  (Qty  Line) 
were  established  at  Glasgow. 

1840.  Britannia,  pioneer  steamer  of  the 
Cunard  Line. 

1840.  Chile,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Co. 

1845.  Great  Britain,  first  iron  screw  steamer, 
precursor  of  modem  Atlantic  steamer. 

1845.  Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co..  Ltd.  (Wil- 
son Line),  established  at  HuU. 

1847.  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  established 
in  America. 

1849.  Houlder  Brothers  &  Co.  established 
at  London. 

1850.  Bullard,  King  &  Co.  (Natal  Line)  es- 
tablished at  London. 

1850.  Messageries  Maritimes  de  France  es- 
tablished. 

1850.  Inman  (now  American)  Line,  estab- 
lished at  Liverpool. 

1861.  Tiber,  first  steamer  of  the  Bibby  Line, 
established  1821  at  Liverpool. 

1852.  Forerunner,  pioneer  steamer  of  the 
African  Steamship  C!)o. 

1853.  Union  Steamship  Co.  was  established 
(now  Union-Castle  Line.) 

1853.  Borussia,  first  steamer  of  the  Ham- 
burg-American Packet  Co.,  established  1847. 

1854.  Canadian,  first  steamer  of  the  Allan 
Line,  established  1820.  _ 

1855.  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
was  established. 

1856.  Temj}est,  first  steamer  Anchor  Line. 
1868.  Bremen,  first  Atlantic  steamer  of  the 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd,  established  1856. 

1858.  Great  Eastern  launched  into  the 
Thames.  Jan.  31;  commenced.  May  1.  1854. 

— Whittaker*8  Almanac 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


!■ 

?t 

m    - 

n 

i| 

-  ^MhI' 

11 

i' 

\^         ^^1 

^11 

k 

^1 

f.i 

V^H 

''  ^1 

1 

iiii- 

^ — 'If 

\    '  1 

^1 

28 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


NUMBER  OF  VESSELS  OVER  5,000  TONS  EACH,  AND  PARTICULARS 
OF  LARGEST  VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  EACH  COUNTRY. 


Country. 

Austria 

Belgium .... 

Brazil 

Chile 

Denmark.  . . 

France 

Germany.  .  . 
Gr.  Britain.  . 

Greece 

Holland. .  . . 

Italy 

Japan 

Norway.  . .  . 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

UnitedStates 

Total .... 


No. 


7 
2 

1 

5 

39 

139 

437 

13 

8 

21 

14 
9 
2 

54 

751 


Ship's  Name. 

Austria 

-Vaderland 

Rio  Gallejos 

RancaJua 

United  States. .  . . 

La  Savoie 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  11 

Oedric 

Keramiac 

Noordam 

II  Piemonte 

Aki  Mam 

Af  ton 

Moskva 

Alfonso  XII 

Kronprins  Gustaf . 
Minnesota 


Gr.  Tons. 

Speed. 

7,688 

12* 

11,899 

16 

2,987 

* 

5,975 

* 

10,100 

16 

11,884 

21 

19,036 

23i 

21,035 

17 

4,700 

* 

12,531 

15 

6.025 

* 

6.444 

14 

4.434 

* 

7.297 

20 

6,875 

19 

5,383 

* 

21,000 

* 

Owners. 


Austrian  Lloyd. 

Red  Star  Line. 

Hamburg  S.  American  SS.  Co. 

S.  American  Nav.  Ck). 

Forende  Dampskibs,  Copenhagen. 

Ciompagnie  G^n.  Transatlantique. 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd. 

White  Star  Line. 

M.  S.  Vagliano. 

Holland-American  Line. 

L.  Capuccio  &  Co. 

Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha. 

McLaren  &  McLaren. 

Russian  Vol.  Fleet  Assn. 

Compania  Transatlantica. 

A.  Johnson. 

Gt.  Northern  Steamship  Co. 


*  Under  12  Knots. 


(1)  Wood  Paddle-boats. 

(2)  Iron 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  PALACE. 

(5)  Steel  T win-Screw  Steamers. 


(3)  Iron  Screw  Steamers. 

(4)  Steel      " 


Date 

Name  of  Steamer. 

Owners. 

Remarks. 

1833 
1838 

Royal  William.  .  .(1) 
Sirius. 

Quebec  &  HalifaxS.N.Co.  j 

British  and  Amer.S.N.Co.  . 
Great  Western  S.N. Co.  .  .  . 

Transatlantic  SS.  Co 

Cunard  Line 

From  Pictou  (N.S.),  1st  to  cross  the 

Atlantic. 
From  Cork,  1st  departure  from  U.  K. 

ti 
1840 

Great  Western 

Royal  William  (2).  .. 
Britannia 

"  Bristol,  1st  built  for  Atlantic. 

*'  Liverpool,  1st  departure. 

"  Liveroool.  1st  carriedBritish  mails. 

1849 

Atlantic 

Collins      "     

"  New  York.  1st  carried  U.S.  mails. 

1854 

Canadian 

Allan        "      

"  Glasffow.  1st  steamer  of  Line. 

1856 

Temoest 

Anchor     "      

1st 

<< 

Borussia 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
Collins  Line 

"  Hamburg. Ist 

tt 

Adriatic 

Last  SailinflT  of  Line. 

1858 

Bremen 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

From  Bremen  to  New  York. 

1856 

Persia (2) 

Scotia 

Cunard 

1st  Cunard  iron  oaddle  steamer. 

1862 

it 

Last 

1845 
1850 

Great  Britain.  .  .  .  (3) 

City  of  Glasgow 

Great  Eastern.  .  .  . 
Italy 

Great  Western  S.N. Co.  .  .  . 
Inman  Line 

1st  Atlantic  iron  screw  steamer. 
1st  to  carrv  steerase  oassensrers. 

1858 
1868 

East.and  Australian  SS.Co. 
National  Line 

Paddle  wheels  and  propeller. 

1st  Atlantic  ss.  with  como.  enirines. 

1869 
1871 

City  of  Brussels.  • .  . . 

Oceanic  (1st) 

Pennsylvania 

Britannic 

Inman       *'     

White  Star  Line 

Ist       **         "       "  steam  steering  gear. 
1st  with'midshio  saloon.  Ac. 

1873 

American       *'      

1st  sailing  of  Line  to  Liverpool. 

1  st  to  exceed  5  000  tons.  Great  Eastern 

1874 

White  Star    *'     

1875 

City  of  Berlin 

Arizona 

Inman            '*     

1st  with  electric  light.             [excepted. 
Watertight  compartments  floated  her. 
1st  **ocean  greyhound." 
Sunk    outside   New  York;    every  one 

1879 

Guion.  .          '*     

1882 

Alaska 

•  4                                             (• 

(  ••            "(i*)'.'.V.V.' 

1  Cunard        "  (2) j^ 

1883 

Oregon 

saved  by  N.  D.  Lloyd  ss.  Fulda. 

1879 
1881 

Buenos  Ayrean.  .  (4) 
Servia 

Allan  Line 

Cunard  "   

1st  Atlantic  steel  steamer.* 
1st  Cunard        "           " 

1884 

City  of  Rome 

America 

j  Inman  (1)  Line ( 

1  Anchor(2)    "      f 

National         **      

Fitted  with  three  funnels. 

1st  and  last  express  ss.  of  Line. 

i  Umbria / 

Cunard           *'     

j  Etruria f 

AUer 

1st  with  20  knots  soeed. 

1886 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

1st  triole-exoansion  exoress  ss.t 

1888 
1889 

j  City  of  NewYork(5) 

\  City  of  Paris 

j  Teutonic 1 

1  Majestic \ 

Fiirst  Bismarck 

La  Touraine 

Inman  &International(l)  1 
American  Line  (2)    f 

White  Star  Line 

1st  twin-screw  ocean  expresses,  t 

1st  to  exceed  10.000  tons.G.E.excepted 

Designed  as  mercantile  cruisers. 

1890 
1892 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
Compagnie  G^n^rale  Trans. 

1st  under  6^^  days  from  Southampton. 
Record  Havre  to  New  York,  6f  days. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE   BOOK. 


29 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  FALACE— Continued. 


Date 


1893 

1895 

1897 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 


Name  of  Steamer. 


Campania ( 

Lucania ( 

St.  Paul > 

St.  Louis f 

KaiserWilhelm  d.  Gr. 

Oceanic 

DeutscfaJand 

Celtic 

Kronpri  nz  Wilhelm 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II. . . 

Baltic 


Owners. 


Cunard  Line. 


American 


Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

White  Star  Line 

Hamburg-American  Line. 

White  Star  Line 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

White  Star  Line 


Remarks. 


Lucania:  highest  day's  run  562  knots. 
Liverpool  to  New  York  records. 
Largest  express  steamers  ever  built  in 

America. 
Record  day's  run,  580  knots.        [tons. 
Balanced  engines.  1st  to  exceed  15,000 
Fastest  ocean  steamer  in  the  world. 
1st  to  exceed  20,000  tons. 

Largest  express  steamer  in  the  world. 
Largest  ss.  in  the  world — 726x76x49. 


*  Union  Co.  of  N.Z.'s  Rotomohana,  1,763  tons,  was  first  ocean  steel  ss.  1879. 

t  Martello,  2,432  tons,  of  Wilson  Line,  was  first  Atlantic  cargo  triple-expansion  ss.  1884. 

X  Notting  Hill,  3,921  tons,  of  Twin-screw  Cargo  Line,  came  out  so  engined,  1881. 


REDUCTION   OF  PASSAGE. 
Days.  Tons. 

1862.  Under  9  from  Q'town,Scotia 3,871 


1869 

1882. 

1889. 

1894. 

1897. 

1903. 


•< 


8 

7 

6 

5i 

6 

5* 


it 


•• 


atyofBruss'.  3,081 

Alaska 6,400 

City  of  Paris  10.669 
Lucania.  .  .  .  12,950 
Kaiser  Wil- 
helm der  Gr  14,349 
Cherb'gDeutschland  16,502 


S'ton. 


1838, 

1845 

1858 

1871 

1881 

1893 

1899 

1904 


PROGRESS   IN 
Feet 
1st  to  exceed 


LENGTH. 

Tons. 
200  Great  Western  1,340 
300  Great  Britain  2,084 
680  Great  Easternl8,918 
400  Oceanic  (1).  .    3,807 

500  Servia 7,392 

600  Campania.  .  .  12.952 
700  Oceanic  (2).  .  17,247 
725  Baltic 23,000 


LARGEST   STEAMSHIP  OWNERS   IN  THE  WORLD. 
Owners  of  over  100,000  gross  tons  in  order  of  tonnage. 


Lines. 


Hamburg-American  . . 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd. 
Brit.  Ind.  Steam  N.Co. 
P.  &  O.  Steam  N.  Co. . 

Union-Castle 

Leyland 

White  Star 

A.Holt ,... 

NipponYusen  Kaisha 
Messageries  Maritimes 
EUerman  Lines,  Ltd.  . 
Elder,Dempster  &Co.. 

Wilson 

Navigazione  Gen.Ital. 

Austrian  Lloyd 

Clan : 

Harrison 

American 

Canadian  Pacific  Ry. . 
Comp.  G^n^.  Trans.  . . 

Hansa 

Pacific  Steam  N.Co. .  . 
For.Damps.  Selskab.  . 
Atlantic  Trans.  Co.  .  . 

Anchor 

Allan 

Hamb'g  S.  American  . 

CunardT 

Dominion  Line 

Lamport  &  Holt 

Chargeurs  R^unis .... 

Kosmos 

Prince 

R.  Ropner  &  Co 

Royal  Mail  S.  P.  Co.  . 
Deutsch-Australische. 
Russ.  Steam  N.«&T.Co. 
Shell 


Head  OflBce. 


Hamburg 

Bremen 

London 

London 

London 

Liverpool 

Liverpool 

Liverpool 

Tokio 

Paris 

Liverpool 

Liverpool 

Hull 

Rome 

Trieste 

Glasgow 

Liverpool 

Philadelphia.  . .  . 

Montreal 

Paris 

Bremen 

Liverpool 

Copenhagen 

London 

Glasgow 

Glasgow 

Hamburg 

Liverpool 

Liverpool 

Liverpool 

Paris 

Hamburg 

Newcastle-on-T. 
West  Hartlepool 

London 

Hamburg 

St.  Petersburg. .  . 
London 


Total 
Tonnage. 

.Over 

20 
knots 

Knots. 

Under 

12 
knots 

20ll9ll8'l7 

1  1  1 

16 

4 
5 
5 
4 
2 

2 

'4 

2 

"4 

3 

"4 

3 

1 

e 

3 
3 

1 

2 

2 

4 

3 

15 

1 

7 
21 

1 

•  • 

"4 

3 

2 
1 
9 
3 

•  • 

"i 
1 

6 

14 

1 
1 

i 

"i 

1 

2 

14 

■  • 

8 
25 

11 
2 
6 

1 
3 

7 

1 

"i 

2 
2 

•  • 

5 
2 
6 

6 

■7 
2 

1 

i 

•  • 

2 

•  • 

•  • 

13|l2 

650,000 
683,000 
432,000 
349,000 
314,000 
281,000 
260.000 
263,000 
248,000 
239,000 
237,000 
236,000 
208,000 
231,000 
203.000 
189,000 
189,000 
180,000 
170,000 
169,000 
160,000 
151,000 
149,000 
138,000 
135,000 
134,000 
130,000 
129,000 
125,000 
124,000 
115,000 
109,000 
108,000 
108,000 
105.000 
105,000 
102,000 
100.000 

1 
3 

i 

2 
2 

1 
1 

2 

2 

4 

•  • 

2 

1 
2 

1 
2 

12 

i 
i 

•  • 

2 

4 
8 

3 

io 
i 

9 

i 

8 

7 

23 

23 

11 

4 

9 

13 

24 

23 

25 

6 

11 

12 

14 

11 

4 

23 

3 

3 

4 

4 
4 

'4 

4 
3 
1 
3 
2 
4 

i 

16 
23 
38 

9 
20 
20 

1 
13 

4 

7 
19 

4 
13 
13 
11 
21 

9 

2 

"7 

*7 
2 
2 
5 
7 
9 

3 
14 
25 
11 

2 

'5 

is 

93 
50 
11 
5 
13 
12 

is 

41 
11 
47 
93 
76 
65 
41 
24 

5 

6 
13 
15 
45 

3 
109 

6 
18 
15 
20 

9 

4 
17 

5 
17 
36 
38 
19 
23 
51 
33 

125 
122 
125 
59 
49 
47 
27 
55 
78 
58 
72 
113 
102 
107 
71 
49 
37 
25 
23 
52 
45 
41 
119 
19 
30 
30 
32 
19 
15 
35 
34 
28 
40 
38 
36 
23 
66 
33 


— WhittaJcer'a  Almanac 


30 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


OCEAN  STEAMERS.     16  Knots  and   over.     Number  belonging  to  eacli 

Country. 


Country. 

20  knots 
A  above. 

19  knots. 

18i  kts. 

18  knots. 

17^  knots. 

17  kts. 

16  knots. 

Total. 

Austria 

Belgium 

France 

Denmark 

Germany 

Great  Britain.  .  . 
Italy 

•  • 

5 
9 

•  • 

2 
5 

•  • 

a      • 

2 
2 

•  • 

•  • 
■    ■ 

4 
1 

•  • 

•  • 

i 

1 

a      • 
■      • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

a      • 
a      * 

1 

15 

a     * 

•  • 

■     • 

3 

a       ■ 

i2 

■  • 

8 

•   • 

■  • 

a      • 

2 

•  • 

7 
17 

•  • 

3 

•  • 

12 

2 
1 

•   • 

r 

40 

4 
2 
2 
2 
18 

2 

1 
21 

3 
13 
90* 

4 

Japan 

5 

Russia.  .  •. 

8 

Spain 

3 

United  States. .  . 

40 

21 

9 

2 

19 

22 

39 

78 

190 

♦P.  &  O.,  21;  R.  Mail,  11;  Union-Castle,  10;  White  Star,  8;  Cunard,  7;  Pacific  S.  N.  Co.,  7; 
Orient,  5;  Atlantic  Transport  Co.,  3;  Dominion,  3;  Elder,  Dempster,  3;  Canadian  Pac.  Rail.,  3: 
Union  of  N.  Zealand,  3;  Allan,  2;  Khedivial  Mail  Co.,  2;  Anchor,  1;  International  Nav.  Co.,  1. 
N.B. — There  were  on  June  30,  1903,  only  1,446  ocean  steamers  in  the  world  capable  of  a  sea- 
speed  of  at  least  12  knots  per  hour,  of  which  751  were  British.  See  article  on,"  Baltic  "  on  page  32. 

OCEAN  STEAMERS.    20  Knots  and  over.     In  order  of  Tonnage. 


Built 
in 


1902 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1897 
1893 
1893 
1897 
1900 
1900 
1895 
1895 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1889 
1890 
1884 
1884 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 


Names. 


*  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II 

Oceanic 

Deutschland 

Kronprinz  Wilhelm 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse 

Campania 

Lucania 

Kaiser  Friedrich     

La  Lorraine 

La  Savoie 

St.  Louis 

St.  Paul 

New  York 

Philadelphia  (ex  Paris) . 

Majestic.  . ' 

Teutonic 

Kaiserin  Maria  Theresa. 

Umbria 

Etruria 

Moskva 

Smolensk 

Tsis. 

Osiris 


i 


Owners. 


N.D.  Lloyd 

White  Star 

Hamburg-American 
N.D.Lloyd 


Cunard. 


F.  Schichau 

Com.  Gdn.  Trans. . . 

International  Mer 
cantile^Marine.  Co 


it 


:] 


White  Star  . 
it 

N.  D.  Lloyd. 
Cunard 


Russ.  Vol. Fit. Assoc. 


P.&O. 


Gross 
Tons. 


19,360 
17,274 
16,502 
14,908 
14,349 
12,950 
12,950 
12,480 

11,869 

11,864 

11,629 

10.798 

10,786 

10.147 

9,984 

8,278 

8.128 

8.120 

7,297 

7.270 

1.728 


Dimen- 
sions. 

Spd. 

23J 

21 

23^ 

23 

22i 

678x72x38 
685x68x44 
662x67x40 
640x66x43 
627x66x35 

601x65x37 

22 

581x63x44 

22 

563x60x35 

20 

535x63x37 

21 

527x63x22 

20 

565x58x39 

20 

528x51x36 

20 

501x57x38 

20 

487x58x26 

20 

300x37x17 

.20 

Builders. 


StettinV.Co. 
Harland&W. 
Stettin  V.  Co. 


Fairfield. 
Schichau. . 
Owners. 

Cramp&Sons. 

Clydebank. 

Harland&W. 
Stettin  V.Co. 
Fairfield. 

Qydebank. 

Caird  &  Co. 


*  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.    H.  P.  38.000 ;  room  for  775  1st  class,  342  2d  class,  and  770  3d  class  pas- 
sengers and  crew  of  620. 

SHORT  TRIP  STEAMERS   (British  and  Foreign).     20  Knots  and  over. 

Owners. 

4  City  of  Dublin  Steam  Packet  Co. 

3  Isle  of  Man  Steam  Packet  Co. 

5  London.  B.  &.  S.  C.  Railway. 

1  London  B.  &  S.  C.  Railway. 

4  London  &  North- Western  Railway. 
3     P.  A.  Campbell.  Ltd. 

2  Fairfield  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Ltd. 
2    John  Williamson. 


British  Boats. 
♦Connaught,  Leinster.  Munster,  Ulster,  all  23i  knots 
Empress  Queen  22,  Pr.  of  Wales  21.  Queen  Vict'ia  21 
France  21^.  Sussex,  Tamise,  Manche.  all  21i,Arundel 

Brighton  (turbine  engines) 

Banshee  21,  Cambria.  Anglia,  Hibernia,  Scotia 

Britannia.  Cambria,  Westward  Ho 

La  Marguerite  20^,  Royal  Sovereign 

King  Edward  (turbine  engines).  Queen  Alexandra.  .  . 


Total 24 

Foreign  Boats. 

Belgian  Government:  3,  22  kts. ;  3,  21  kts 6 

Cie.  des  Chemins  de  Fer  du  Nord  of  France 2 

Zeeland  Steamship  Co.  of  Holland 3 

Central  Railroad  Co.,  New  Jersey,  U.  S 1 

Total 12 


Dover — Ostend  Service. 
Dover — Calais  Service. 
Queensborough — Flushing  Service. 
New  York— The  Highlands. 


*  The  four  fastest  short-trip  steamers  in  the  world. 


■WhiUaker'a  Almanac. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


i 

i     ''' 

, -^ 

1    •• 

X, 

1 

i 

^H 

1 

ll 

1 

1 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The 


of     tb« 


O  e 


showed  that  the  most  remuQerati 
type  of  eraft  for  tip  tinniatimtii. 
traffic  IB  the  iPasel  of  a  medium  ap*ed 
mamtained  under  all  varjmg  coudi 
tions  but  of  a  tremendous  tonuage 
Although  speed  mav  be  an  important 
desi  ieratum  from  one  point  of  v  ew 
such  a  qualification  la  in  reality  only 
appealing  to  a  limited  quota  of  pas 
eengers  the  hulk  uf  travelers  prefei 
ring  greater  comfort  and  steadiness  of 
the  vessel  espec  ally  in  rough  weather 
Each  of  the  tno  lessels  built  after  the 

Oceanic  has  marked  an  imreaae  in 
size  and  tonnage  upon  its  prede  essor 
The  latest  hner  the  Baltic  aur 
passes  in  size  anything  that  has  thus 
far  been  attempted  though  it  is  bv  no 
means  the  finite  for  Messrs  Harlat  d 
&  Wolff  ha^e  declared  the  r  readinesh 

i  build  a  vessel  of  50000  tons     ™ 


of    I 


1  do  k 


pendent  upon  the  cap 
to  accommodate  it 

The  length  of  the  Baltic  over  alt 
i>  725  feet  9  inches  This  is  an  in 
crease  upon  the  length  of  the  Celtic 
and  Cedric  of  2  i  feet  The  beam  is 
the  same  being  75  feet  the  depth  4<> 
feet  The  gross  tonnage  is  23  0()0 
tons  an  increase  ot  about  3000  tons 
The  cargo  capac  ty  is  about  28  000 
tons  and  the  total  displa  ement  at  the 
load  draft  approximates  40  000  tons 

The  total  complement  o£  passengers 
is  1000  passengers  and  a  crew  of 
alKrat  550  The  general  arrai  gement 
of  the  ship  IS  similar  to  the  other  tno 
vessels  ot  this  tjpe— a  continuo  s 
shade  deck  running  fore  and  aft  nith 
three  tiers  of  deckhouses  and  two 
promenade  decks  abo\e  sam       On  the 


upper  promenade  deck  is  the  Grst-class 
Hmokeroom  and  library,  and  the  two 
houses  below  contain  the  deck  state- 
rooms. All  the  Grst-claaa  accommo- 
dation is  situated  amidships. 

The  vessel  is  not  speedy.  In  the 
case  of  the  "Oceanic"  a  speed  ot  20 
knots  can  be  maintained,  but  id  the 
subsequent  vessels  this  was  reduced  to 
about  10^  knots.  The  "Baltic"  will 
approximate  the  same  speed,  with  a 
great  reserve  of  power,  to  enable  this 
rate  of  traveling  to  be  maintained 
even  under  adverse  conditions. 

The  "Baltic"  is  fitted  with  engines 
of  Harland  &  Wolff's  quadruple-eipan- 
aion  type,  developing  about  13  000 
I  H  P  Th"  eng  nes  are  arranged  on 
the  balance  principle  which  practical 
ly  does  away  with  all  iihration  The 
twin  engines  and  twin  screws  afford 
another  element  of  safety  to  the  ship 
and  passengers,  and  the  possibility  of 
danger  la  redu  ed  to  a  minimum 

The  maiden  trip  of  the  Baltic  was 
made  without  incident  Her  tr  p  oc 
cupied  7  davs  13  hours  and  37  mm 
utes  She  left  Lnerpool  at  1  P  M 
on  Jnne  20  1904  and  by  8  21  had 
passed  Roik  Light  on  her  way  to 
Queenstown  Her  dail\  runs  were 
July  1  312  knots  JuK  2  S&5  knots 
July  3  401  knots  Tulj  4  417  knots 
July  5  3S7  knots  July  6  407  knots 
July-    ■-■  ■ 

Tl.   .   „     

to  eighty  revolutic. ... 

the  forty  eight  furnaces  consumed  o..  , 
235  tons  of  coal  a  day  Her  engine 
and    fireroom    tor-e    i  '      ' 

small — fourteen  engit 
ers,  th  rty  six  firemen  twpntj  sii  coal 
passers  two  storekeepers  two  stew 
arda  and  one  win  hman  making  up  the 
three  watches 


jiparatnely 
fifteen  oil 


Electricity  on  Shipboard  —  4mong 
the  later  developments  of  electricitj 
la  that  on  shipboard  The  most  com 
plete  installation  of  this  kind  is  that 
on  the  Kronpnnz  ^  ilhelm  Here 
all  the  cabins  have  telephones  in  ad 
dition  to  the  elei  trie  tight  and  call 
I  ella  The  first  class  cabins  and 
the  dining  room  are  heated  by  elec 
Ire  stoies  A  sjhtem  of  bulkhead 
telegraph  V  enables  the  laptain  in  a 
mon  ent  of  danger  caused  h}  collision 
to  spp  while  tn  the  bridge  whether 
all  'he  watertight  doors  are  closed 
There  are  fort\  s  ich  doors  and  each 
one   falls   into   place 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CoiiTTJKbt.U«,bTl 


'fHK     QUADRUPLE     SCREW    TURBINE     ClINARDERS     OK     190G    (■OMPARED 

WITH    THE     PARK     ROW     BUII.PTNi:,    TRINITY    CHURCH,    THK 

WHITE     STAR    STEAMSHIP     "BALTIC"     OF     1871.  AND 

THE     FIRST    CUNARD    STEAMSHIP 

"BRITANNIA"     OF     1840. 


34 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AMERICAN  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  THE  ENGINES  OF  THE 
"OCEANIC"— A  COMPARISON  OF  HORSEPOWER. 


We  are  told  that  ''Comparisons  are 
odious,"  and  the  statement  would 
seem  to  be  based  upon  a  fairly  cor- 
rect estimate  of  human  nature ;  but 
as  soon  as  we  get  outside  of  the  range 
of  human  susceptibilities  and  apply 
our  comparisons  to  insensate  things, 
comparisons  become  not  only  extreme- 
ly interesting,  but  at  times  a  valua- 
ble means  of  increasing  our  general 
knowledge  and  our  sense  of  the  prop- 
er relative  proportion  of  things. 

The  pictorial  comparison  to  be 
found  here  is  based  upon  one  of  the 
mammoth  freight,  locomotives  which 
are  being  turned  put  in  considerable 
numbers  just  now"  f  y  the  leading  loco- 
motive works  of  the  country.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  information  as  to 
dimensions  and  construction,  Mr.  R, 
Wells,  the  superintendent  of  the  Rog- 
ers Locomotive  Works,  has  favored  us 
with  particulars  of  some  novel  ex- 
periments which  he  carried  out  to  de- 
termine the  exact  location  of  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  this  locomotive  above 
the  rails.  He  has  also  given  us  particu- 
lars of  its  horsepower  and  freight- 
hauling  capacity  on  a  level  road,  and  it 
occurs  to  us  that  a  comparison  of  the 
relative  power  of  one  of  these  engines 
when  working  up  to  its  maximum  indi- 
cated horsepower  with  the  maximum 
indicated  horsepower  of  the  "Oceanic," 
the  second  largest  steamship  in  the 
world,  will  be  attractive  to  that  sec- 
tion of  our  readers  that  likes  to  have 
its  facts  enlivened  occasionally  with  a 
touch  of  the  fanciful  and  curious. 

The  locomotive  shown  is  an  extreme- 
ly powerful  Consolidation  which  was 
recently  built  by  the  Rogers  Company 
for  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  for 
use  on  one  of  the  divisions  of  their  line 
where  the  grades  are  somewhat  heav- 
ier than  on  the  divisions  connecting 
with  it.  It  was  designed  to  haul 
trains  of  a  maximum  weight  of  2,000 
tons  over  grades  of  38  feet  to  the  mile. 
The  cylinders  are  23  inches  in  diam- 
eter, by  30  inches  stroke;  the  drivers 
are  57  inches  in  diameter  and  they 
carry  108,000  pounds  weight  of  the 
locomotive  out  of  a  total  weight  of 
218,000  pounds.  The  boiler,  which  is 
of  the  Belpaire  type,  is  80  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  smoke-box ;  the  fire- 
box measures  42  inches  by  132  inches, 
and  there  are  437  2-inch  tubes  which 
are  13  feet  8  inches  in  length.  There 
are  252  square  feet  of  heating  sur- 
face in  the  fire-box,  and  2,951  square 


feet  in  the  tubes,  making  a  Total  heat- 
ing surface  of  3,203  square  feet.  The 
tender  is  exceptionally  large,  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  tank  being  5,000  gallons, 
while  the  coal  space  has  a  capacity  of 
10  tons. 

The  increase  in  the  diameter  of  lo- 
comotive boilers  which  has  taken  place 
of  late  years  has  necessitated  their  be- 
ing carried  above  the  tops  of  the 
wheels,  with  the  result  that  the  cen- 
ter of  the  boiler  is  in  some  recent  loco- 
motives as  much  as  9  feet  above  the 
rails.  To  the  uninitiated  these  im- 
mense machines  have  an  exceedingly 
top-heavy  appearance,  and  it  looks  as 
though  their  stability  would  be  endan- 
gered, especially  when  they  are  run- 
ning at  high  speed  around  a  curve. 
Before  sending  this  engine  out  of  the 
shops,  the  Rogers  Locomotive  Com- 
pany made  an  experimental  test  to 
determine  the  exact  location  of  its  cen- 
ter of  gravity.  The  result  is  certain- 
ly surprising,  for  although  the  top  of 
the  boiler  is  fully  9  feet  above  the 
rails,  the  center  of  gravity  was  found 
to  be  only  50^  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  rails,  that  is  to  say,  about  6^ 
inches  below  the  top  of  the  driving 
wheels.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  boiler  is  very  decep- 
tive to  the  eye,  and  one  is  liable  to  for- 
get that  the  greatest  concentration  of 
weight  lies  in  the  heavy  frame,  the 
wheels,  the  axles,  cranks  and  running 
gear,  and  the  heavy  saddle  and  cylinder 
castings.  The  test  was  made  by  sus- 
pending the  engine  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  two  3-inch  steel  pins  or  jour- 
nals as  pivots,  the  one  at  the  front  be- 
ing located  6  inches  in  front  of  the 
cylinder  saddle,  and  the  one  at  the  rear 
6  inches  back  of  the  boiler,  both  pivots 
being,  of  course,  the  same  distance 
above  the  rails  and  on  the  vertical  cen- 
ter line  of  the  engine.  After  several 
trials,  points  of  suspension  were  found 
which  were  in  line  with  the  center  of 
gravity,  which,  as  thus  determined, 
was  found  to  be  50^  inches  above  the 
top  pf  the  rail.  As  the  bearing  points 
of  the  drivers  on  the  rails  are  about 
56  inches  apart,  the  base  on  which  the 
engine  runs  must  be  1.1  times  as  wide 
as  the  height  of  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  engine  above  the  rails.  It  is 
evident  from  this  test  that  the  center 
of  gravity  of  such  a  locomotive  could 
be  raised  still  higher  without  endan- 
gering the  stability  of  the  engine  under 
the  ordinary  conditions  of  service. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.  86 


A  COMPARISON  OF  MARINE  KNGINK  AND  LOCOMOTIVK  POWIilt. 


36 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


A  COMPARISON  OF  MARINE  ENGINE  AND 
LOCOMOTIVE   HORSEPOWER. 

In  order  to  secure  a  basis  for  com- 
parison of  the  power  of.  a  modern 
freight  locomotive  with  that  of  a  mod- 
ern steamship,  we  have  chosen  the 
"Oceanic."  This  truly  gigantic  ship, 
which  exceeds  the  "Great  Eastern"  in 
length  and  in  displacement,  is  704 
feet  in  length,  and  on  a  draft  of  32% 
feet  displaces  28,500  tons.  As  the 
depth  of  water  in  the  entrance  chan- 
nels to  New  York  Harbor  will  not 
accommodate  a  vessel  drawing  that 
amount,  for  the  purpose  of  this  com- 
parison we  will  suppose  that  the 
"Oceanic"  is  drawing  30  feet,  at 
which  draft  she  would  displace  about 
26,000  tons.  On  this  displacement 
her  engines  will  indicate  about  28,000 
horsepower  when  driving  the  vessel  at 
a  speed  of  22  land  miles  an  hour. 

Now,  it  is  estimated  that  the  big 
Rogers  Consolidation  could  haul  about 
3,250  tons  weight  of  train  at  a  speed 
of  22  miles  an  hour,  on  the  level,  and 
that  while  doing  this  work  it  would  in- 
dicate about  1,760  horsepower.  Here 
then  we  have  a  basis  of  comparison, 
and  we  may  apply  it  in  two  ways. 
Either  we  may  ask  how  many  of  these- 
locomotives  would  have  to  be  crowded 
into  the  hold  of  the  "Oceanic,"  and 
coupled  to  her  main  shafts,  in  order  to 
drive  her  through  the  water  at  22 
miles  an  hour,  or  we  may  determine 
how  many  or  these  locomotives  it 
would  take  to  haul  the  "Oceanic"  if 
she  were  placed  upon  a  movable  cradle 
of  the  kind  designed  by  Captain  Eads 
for  his  Tehuantepec  Ship  Railway. 
In  the  first  case,  we  know  that  when 
the  main  shafts  of  the  "Oceanic"  are 
making  about  90  turns  a  minute,  the 
engines  are  indicating  about  28,000 
horsepower,  which  is  their  maximum 
capacity.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
know  that  when  the  drivers  of  one  of 
these  locomotives  are  making  about 
150  turns  a  minute,  and  the  maxi- 
mum tractive  effort  is  being  exerted 
at  the  periphery  of  the  wheels,  it  is 
indicating  about  1,760  horsepower, 
which  represents  its  possible  maximum 
indication  at  that  speed.  If  now  the 
sixteen  necessary  locomotives  (the 
number  being  found  by  dividing  the 
horsepower  of  the  ship  by  the  horse- 
power of  the  locomotive)  were  ar- 
ranged in  two  lines,  one  above  each 
main  shaft,  and  the  tractive  effort  of 
the  drivers  transmitted  by  means  of 
friction  wheels  to  the  shafts,  the  speed 
of  the  rotation  being  reduced  by  in- 
termediate gearing,  in  the  ratio  of  150 


to  90,  we  should  have  the  conditions 
shown  in  the  engraving  on  the  pre- 
vious page,  where  the  locomotives,  in 
double  phalanx,  are  shown  grinding 
merrily  away  at  their  unwonted  task 
of  driving  a  modern  transatlantic  liner. 

To  determine  how  many  Rogers 
Consolidations  it  would  take  to  haul 
the  "Oceanic"  over  a  ship  railway 
whose  grade  is  perfectly  level,  we  will 
neglect  the  weight  of  the  cradle  and 
assume  that  its  rolling  friction  is  the 
same  as  that  of  a  weight  of  loaded 
freight  cars,  equal  to  that  of  the  ship. 
The  displacement  (that  is,  the  weight 
of  the  water  which  the  ship  displaces 
at  a  given  draft)  on  a  draft  of  30  feet 
would  be  about  26,000  tons,  and  di- 
viding this  amount  by  3,250  tons, 
which  is  the  maximum  weight  of  train 
which  one  locomotive  can  haul  at  22 
miles  an  hour,  we  find  that  it  would 
take  just  eight  locomotives  to  haul 
the  "Oceanic"  by  rail  at  a  speed  of  22  . 
miles  an  hour.  This  result  is  par-t 
ticularly  interesting  as  showing  how 
quickly  the  resistance  of  the  water  to 
the  motion  of  the  ship  increases  with 
the  speed.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it 
increases  as  the  cube  of  the  speed, 
with  the  result  that,  although  the 
"Oceanic"  could  be  moved  at  a  canal- 
boat  speed  of  2%  miles  an  hour  by 
less  locomotives  than  it  would  take  to 
haul  it  at  that  speed  on  land,  at  a 
speed  of  22  miles  an  hour  it  requires 
just  twice  the  power  on  the  water  that 
it  would  on  the  land. 

The  "Oceanic,"  as  she  rests  upon  the 
ship  railway  cradle,  represents  both 
the  dead  and  the  live  load ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  ship  and  the  cargo.  With  a 
view  to  showing  graphically  what  an 
enormous  mass  is  represented  by  her 
26,000  tons  displacement,  attention  is 
drawn  to  the  sketch  showing  an 
equivalent  weight  in  loaded  box  cars 
of  40.000  pounds  capacity,  each  of 
which  with  its  load  would  weigh  about 
thirty  long  tons.  If  this  weight  were 
made  up  into  two  separate  trains  each 
train  would  contain  433  cars  and 
would  be  about  three  miles  in  length. 


Between  Brussels  and  Charleroi 
there  is  a  length  of  nearly  30  miles  of 
canal  served  by  overhead  wires.  The 
motor  "tractors"  run  on  the  rough 
canal  towpath,  with  plain  wheels  of 
hard  steel.  In  another  style  on  the 
Finow  and  the  Tetlow  Canals,  the 
"tractor"  runs  on  a  single  rail  by  the 
pair  of  wheels  on  one  side,  and  on  the 
towpath  by  a  plain  pair  of  wheels  on 
the  other  side. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBFBatENCB    BOOK. 


SUPPLIES  OF  THE    -  DEUISCHLAND." 


38 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUPPLIES  OF  THE   "  DEUTSCHLAND. 


II 


Not  by  any  means  the  least  im- 
pressive evidence  of  the  huge  size 
to  which  the  modern  transatlantic 
steamship  has  grown  is  to  be  found 
in  the  graphic  representation,  now 
presented,  of  the  bewildering  amount 
of  provisions  that  have  to  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  trip  across  the 
ocean.  A  mere  tabulation  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  food  which  go  to  re- 
plenish the  ship's  larder,  during  the 
few  days  which  she  spends  in  port, 
fails  to  convey  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  vast  amount  of  stores  taken 
aboard.  Our  pictorial  representation 
is,  of  course,  purely  imaginary,  par- 
ticularly as  regards  -the  live  stock ; 
the  beef,  mutton,  game,  etc.,  being  re- 
ceived on  the  ship  in  the  dressed  condi- 
tion, no  live  stock  whatever  being  car- 
ried. The  drawing  was  made  up  from 
a  list  of  the  actual  amount  of  pro- 
visions carried  on  a  recent  eastward 
trip  on  the  Hamburg- American  liner 
"Deutschland,"  and  the  number  of  live 
stock  which  contributed  to  meet 
the  supplies  for  one  voyage  was  es- 
timated from  the  actual  number  of  cat- 
tle, sheep,  etc.,  that  would  be  required 
to  make  up  the  total  weights  in  dressed 
meats.  With  the  exception  of  the  live 
stock,  the  provisions  are  shown  in  the 
actual  shape  in  which  they  would  be 
taken  on  board. 

The  dimensions  of  the  vessel  are : 
Length,  G86  feet ;  beam,  67  feet,  and 
displacement,  23,000  tons ;  her  highest 
average  speed  for  the  whole  trip  is 
23.36  knots,  and  she  has  made  the 
journey  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the 
Lizard  in  five  days  seven  hours  and 
thirty-eight  minutes.  In  considering 
the  question  of  feeding  the  passengers 
on  a  vessel  of  this  size,  the  thought 
is  suggested  that  here  are  other  hun- 
gry mouths  within  the  hull  of  the  ship 
besides  those  to  be  found  in  the  din- 
ing saloons  of  the  passengers  and  the 
messrooms  of  the  crew ;  mouths  that 
are  so  voracious  that  they  require 
feeding  not  merely  at  the  three  regular 
meal  hours  of  the  ship,  but  every  hour 
of  the  day  and  night,  from  the  time 
the  moorings  are  cast  off  at  one  port 
until  the  vessel  is  warped  alongside  at 
the  other.  We  refer  to  the  112  fur- 
naces in  which  the  fuel  of  the  sixteen 
boilers  in  the  boiler-room  is  consumed 
at  the  rate  of  572  tons  per  day.  Now, 
although  the  voyage  from  New  York 
to  Hamburg  lasts  only  six  or  seven 
days,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  the  bunkers  of  the  ship  are 


constructed  to  hold  a  sufficiently  large 
reserve  of  coal  to  cover  all  contin- 
gencies, her  total  coal  capacity  being 
about  5,000  tons ;  and  at  each  voyage 
care  is  taken  to  see  that  they  are 
pretty  well  filled. 

The  total  number  of  souls  on  board 
of  the  vessel  when  she  has  a  full  pas- 
senger list  is  1,61 7,  made  up  of  467  first 
cabin,  300  second  cabin,  300  steerage 
and  a  crew  of  550,  the  crew  compris- 
ing officers,  seamen,  stewards  and  the 
engine-room  force.  Sixteen  hundred 
and  seventeen  souls  would  constitute 
the  tatal  inhabitants  of  many  an 
American  community  that  dignifies 
itself  with  the  name  of  "city,"  and  it  is 
a  fact  that  the  long  procession  which 
is  shown  in  our  illustration,  wending 
its  way  through  the  assemibled  pro- 
visions on  the  quay,  by  no  means  rep- 
resents the  length  of  the  line  were  the 
passengers  and  crew  strung  out  along 
Broadway  or  any  great  thoroughfare 
of  that  city.  If  this  number  of  people 
were  to  march  four  deep  through 
Broadway,  with  a  distance  of  say 
about  a  yard  between  ranks,  they 
would  extend  for  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile,  or  say  the  length  of  five  city 
blocks. 

To  feed  these  people  for  a  period  of 
six  days  requires,  in  meat  alone,  the 
equivalent  of  fourteen  steers,  ten 
calves,  twenty-nine  sheep,  twenty-six 
lambs,  and  nine  hogs.  If  the  flocks  of 
chickens,  geese  and  game  required  to 
furnish  the  three  tons  of  poultry  and 
game  that  are  consumed  were  to  join 
in  the  procession  aboard  the  vessel, 
they  would  constitute  a  contingent  by 
themselves  not  less  than  1.500  strong, 
The  ship's  larder  is  also  stocked  with 
1,700  pounds  of  fish,  400  pounds  of 
tongues,  sweetbreads,  etc.,  1,700  dozen 
eggs  and  14  barrels  of  oysters  and 
clams.  The  1,700  dozen  eggs  packed 
in  cases  would  cover  a  considerable 
area,  as  shown  in  our  engraving,  while 
the  1,000  brick  of  ice  cream  would  re- 
quire 100  tubs  to  hold  them.  Of  table 
butter  there  would  be  taken  on  board 
1,300  pounds,  while  the  2,200  quarts  of 
milk  would  require  64  cans  to  hold  it, 
and  the  300  quarts  of  cream  8  cans. 

In  the  way  of  vegetables  there  are 
shipped  on  board  175  barrels  of  pota- 
toes, 75  barrels  of  assorted  vegetables, 
20  crates  of  tomatoes  and  table  celery, 
200  dozen  lettuce :  while  the  require- 
ments of  dessert  alone  would  call  for 
4  1-4  tons  of  fresh  fruits.  For  making 
up  into  daily  supply  of  bread,  biscuits, 


SCIBNTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFBHBNCE    BOOK. 


40 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cakes,  pies,  and  the  toothsome  odds- 
and-ends  of  the  pastry  cook's  art,  there 
are  taken  on  board  at  each  trip  90  bar- 
rels of  flour, each  weighins  195  pounds, 
this  item  alone  adding  a  weight  of  8% 
tons  to  the  cooks'  stores.  To  this  also 
we  must  add  350  pounds  of  yeast  and 
600  pounds  of  oatmeal  and  hominy. 

Under  the  head  of  liquids  the  most 
important  item  is  the  400  tons  of 
drinking  water,  whose  bulk  is  ade- 
quately represented  by  the  circular 
tank  shown  in  our  engraving.  This  is 
supplemented  by  12,000  quarts  of  wine 
and  liquors,  15,000  quarts  of  beer  in 
kegs,  besides  3,000  bottles  of  beer. 
Last,  but  not  by  any  means  least,  is 
the  supply  of  40  tons  of  ice. 

Of  course,  it  will  be  understood  that, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  coal,  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  all  of  this  supply  will 


be  consumed  on  the  voyage.  There 
must  be  a  margin,  and  a  fairly  liberal 
margin,  of  every  kind  of  provision. 
Moreover,  the  extent  to  which  the 
larder  and  cellar  are  emptied  will  vary 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  voy- 
age. In  tempestuous  weather,  where 
the  trip  is  a  succession  of  heavy  gales, 
and  the  dining  room  tables  are  liable 
to  be  practically  deserted  for  two  or 
three  days  at  a  stretch,  the  consump- 
tion will  be  modified  considerably. 
Stormy  voyages  of  this  character, 
after  all,  occur  at  infrequent  intervals, 
and  as  a  rule  the  supplies  are  pretty 
well  consumed  by  the  time  the  pas- 
sage is  over. 

Now,  having  dealt  with  the  general 
food  supplies,  we  will  deal  with  the 
food  supplies  of  another  large  liner  for 
a  single  trip. 


PROVISIONING  THE  "  KRONPRINZ  WILHELM  "  FOR  A  SINGLE 

TRANSATLANTIC    TRIP. 


The  Book  of  Genesis  does  not  record 
the  tonnage  of  the  huge  vessel  which 
finally  stranded  on  Mount  Ararat,  af- 
ter finishing  the  most  wonderful  voy- 
age ever  described  in  the  annals  of 
mankind.  But  it  is  quite  safe  to  as- 
sume that  the  dimensions  of  the  Ark, 
that  old-time  floating  storehouse,  are 
exceeded  in  size  by  the  largest  of 
steamships  now  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Not  the  least  striking  evidence  of 
the  size  of  these  modern  monsters  of 
the  deep  is  afforded  by  the  vast  quan- 
tities of  food  which  must  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  six-day  trip  across 
the  Atlantic.  For  the  1,500  passen- 
gers and  the  several  hundred  men  con- 
stituting the  crew,  carloads  of  food 
and  whole  tanks  of  liquids  are  neces- 
sary. To  enumerate  in  cold  type  the 
exact  quantities  of  bread,  meat,  and 
vegetables  consumed  in  a  weekly  trip 
would  give  but  an  inadequate  idea  of 
the  storing  capacity  of  a  modern  liner. 
We  have,  therefore,  prepared  a  picture 
which  graphically  shows  by  compari- 
son with  the  average  man  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  meat,  poultry,  and  bread- 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  liquors  used. 
Each  kind  of  food  has  been  concen- 
trated into  a  giant  unit,  compared 
with  which  the  figure  of  the  average 
man  seems  puny. 

On  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  of  the 
North     German     Lloyd     Line,     which 
steamship  we  have  taken  for  the  pur- 
pose   of   instituting   our   comparisons,^ 
some  19,800  pounds  of  fresh  meat  and 


14,300  pounds  of  salt  beef  and  mut- 
ton, in  all  34,100  pounds  of  meat,  are 
eaten  during  a  single  trip  from  New 
York  to  Bremen.  This  enormous  quan- 
tity of  meat  has  been  pictured  in  the 
form  of  a  single  joint  of  beef,  which, 
if  it  actually  existed,  would  be  some- 
what less  than  10  feet  high,  10  feet 
long,  and  5  feet  wide.  If  placed  on 
one  end  of  a  scale,  it  would  require 
about  227  average  men  in  the  other  end 
to  tip  the  beam. 

For  a  single  voyage  the  "Kronprinz 
Wilhelm"  uses  2,640  pounds  of  ham, 
1,320  pounds  of  bacon,  and  506  pounds 
of  sausage — in  all,  4,466  pounds. 
Since  most  of  this  is  pork,  it  may 
well  be  pictured  in  the  form  of  a  ham. 
That  single  ham  is  equivalent  in 
weight  to  374  average  hams.  It  is 
7^  feet  high,  3  feet  in  diameter  and 
2  feet  thick. 

The  poultry  eaten  by  the  passen- 
gers of  the  steamer  during  a  trip  to 
Bremen  or  New  York  weighs  4.840 
pounds.  Suppose  that  we  show  these 
4,840  pounds  of  poultry  in  the  form 
of  a  turkey,  dressed  and  ready  for 
the  oven.  The  bird  would  be  a  giant 
10  feet  long,  8  feet  broad,  and  5  feet 
high. 

Sauerkraut,  beans,  peas,  rice,  and 
fresh  vegetables  are  consumed  to  the 
amount  of  25,320  pounds.  Packed  for 
market,  these  preserved  and  fresh  vege- 
tables would  be  contained  in  290  bas- 
kets of  the  usual  form,  which  piled  up 
make  a  formidable  truncated  pyramid- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


41 


The  quantity  of  eggs  required  is  no 
less  startling  than  the  quantity  of 
vegetables,  for  some  25,000  are  needed 
to  satisfy  the  wants  of  passengers  and 
crew.  Eggs  are  usually  packed  in 
cases,  30  dozen  to  the  case.  The 
"Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  when  she  leaves 
New  York  or  Bremen,  must  therefore 
take  on  board  69  of  these  cases,  which 
have  been  shown  in  a  great  pile,  23 
cases  high  and  3  cases  wide. 

The  bakers  of  the  ship  find  it  neces- 
sary to  use  33,000  pounds  of  flour  dur- 
ing the  trip.  In  other  words,  169  bar- 
rels are  stowed  away  somewhere  in  the 
hold  of  the  big  ship. 

Besides  the  foods  already  enumerat- 
ed, 1,980  pounds  of  fresh  fish  and  330 
pounds  of  salted  fish  are  eaten  during 
the  six-day  voyage.  The  total  amount 
of  2,310  pounds  would  be  equivalent 
to  a  single  bluefifh  20  feet  long,  5  feet 
ill  greatest  diameter,  and  1^  feet 
broad.  Such  a  fish  compares  favor- 
ably in  length,  at  least,  with  a  good- 
sized  whale. 

The  potatoes  required  far  outweigh 
any  other  single  article  of  food  con- 
tained in  the  storerooms ;  for  their  en- 
tire weight  is  61,600  pounds.  If  it 
were  possible  to  grow  a  single  tuber  of 
that  weight,  it  would  have  a  height  of 
14  feet  and  a  diameter  of  7  feet. 

The  butter,  too,  if  packed  into  a  sin- 
gle tub,  would  assume  large  dimen- 
sions. This  single  tub  would  contain 
6,600  pounds,  and  would  be  6  feet 
high. 


Of  dried  fruit,  2,640  pounds  are  eat- 
en, and  of  fresh  fruit  11,000  pounds, 
in  all  13,640  pounds.  If  this  fruit 
were  all  concentrated  into  a  single 
pear,  its  height  would  be  7  feet,  and 
the  width  at  the  thickest  part  5  feet. 

Whole  lakes  of  liquids  are  drunk  up 
by  the  thirsty  passengers  and  crew. 
No  less  than  425  tons  of  fresh  water 
are  required,  which  occupy  14,175  cu- 
bic feet  and  would  fill  a  tank  25  feet 
in  diameter  and  30  feet  high.  The 
1,716  gallons  of  milk  used  for  drinking 
and  cooking  would  be  contained  in  a 
can  6  feet  1  inch  in  diameter  and  11^ 
feet  high.  The  gallons  and  gallons  of 
wines,  liquors,  and  beer  consumed 
should  dishearten  the  most  optimistic 
-temperance  advocate.  Under  the  joy- 
ous title  of  "beverages"  the  following 
items  are  to  be  found  in  the  purser's 
account  book : 

Champagne 850  bottles. 

Claret 980  bottles. 

Madeira,  sherry,  etc....    135  bottles. 
Rhine  and  Moselle  wines.1,700  bottles. 

Rum  and  cordials 760  bottles. 

Mineral  water 5,250  bottles. 

Beer  in  kegs 2,960  gallons. 

Beer  in  bottles 600  bottles. 

Suppose  these  things  to  drink  were 
contained  in  one  claret  bottle.  Some 
idea  of  the  hugeness  of  this  bottle  may 
be  gained  when  it  is  considered  that  its 
height  would  be  over  24  feet  and  its 
diameter  over  6  feet. 


THE    ATLANTIC    LINERS. 

NEW     CUNABDEBS — ^PASSENGERS     CARRIED — ^PRICE     OF     SPEED — ATLANTIC     TRUST. 


The  New  Cunarders. — The  most 
notable  event  in  shipping  circles  during 
1903  was  the  government  agreement 
with  the  Cunard  Company,  for  the 
building  of  two  vessels  of  higher 
speed  than  any  liners  in  existence.  It 
is  an  eminently  desirable  and  satisfac- 
tory arrangement  from  the  British 
point  of  view,  and  the  development  of 
its  scientific  and  technical  aspects  will 
be  followed  with  an  intensity  of  in- 
terest which  can  perhaps  only  be  par- 
alleled within  living  memory  by  the 
construction  of  the  "Great  Eastern." 
The  reasons  for  this  we  shall  note  di- 
rectly. 

Cunard  Agreement. — Ten  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  "Campania" 
and  "Lucania"  made  the  last  British 
record  of  22  knots,  since  which  period 
five  German  liners  have  eclipsed  the 
performance  of  these  ships.     It  is  con- 


fidently believed  that  the  Cunard  Com- 
pany will  be  able  to  exceed  the  limits 
imposed  by  the  government  terms — of 
a  minimum  average  ocean  speed  of 
24%  knots  an  hour  in  moderate  weath- 
er. This  will  be  a  knot  above  the 
"crack"  German  vessels. 

Subject  to  certain  very  fair  condi- 
tions, the  government  will  advance  a 
sum  not  exceeding  $3,000,000  for  the 
building  of  the  two  new  vessels.  This 
will  be  secured  by  a  charge  upon  the 
whole  of  the  company's  assets.  It  is 
to  be  advanced  in  instalments  on  the 
inspector  certifying  the  attainment  of 
certain  stages  of  progress  in  the  work, 
and  the  sum  will  have  to  be  repaid  in 
twenty  yearly  instalments. 

For  the  mail  service  the  company 
will  receive  $340,000  per  annum,  with 
extra  payment  for  mails  weighing  over 
100  tons  (or  4,000  cubic  feet  measure- 


42 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ment),  carried  in  any  one  week.  The 
plans  for  the  vessels  are  not  yet  made 
public. 

The  Fast  Boats. — That  the  new 
departure  will  pay  seems  assured,  be- 
cause statistics  show  that  the  fastest 
boats,  notwithstanding  their  higher 
rates,  attract  more  passengers  than  the 
slower  boats  do.  The  latter  are  just 
as  comfortable,  and  the  cuisine  is  the 
same,  yet  a  knot  or  two  more  in  speed 
doubles  and  trebles  the  first-class  pas- 
sengers, to  whom  in  many  cases  time 
is  money. 

Thus,  in  one  week  in  April,  1903, 
the  "Kaiser  Wilhelm  II."  left  New 
York  with  521  first-class,  and  355  sec- 
ond-class passengers,  while  on  the 
same  day  a  vessel  of  the  American 
Line  left  with  only  82  first-class  and 
72  second-class  passengers.  On  one 
day  in  May  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm" 
left  with  380  first  and  187  second  class 
passengers,  while  on  the  following  day 
a  White  Star  liner  took  149  first  and 
160  second  class.  Such  significant 
contrasts  might  be  largely  multiplied. 

"Cedbic"  Record. — The  big  fast 
ships  suffer  less  from  rough  weather 
than  the  smaller,  slower  ones,  and  that 
apart  from  speed  attracts.  The  sur- 
geon of  the  "Cedric,"  next  to  the  larg- 
est liner,  reported  that  on  her  maiden 
voyage  not  a  single  passenger  was  sea- 
sick. A  wine  glass,  brimming  full, 
was  placed  on  the  edge  of  a  sideboard, 
and  left  undisturbed  throughout  the 
voyage,  but  not  a  drop  was  spilled, 
nor  did  the  glass  move. 

The  Price  of  Speed. — The  in- 
creased  price   that  must   be   paid   for 


speed  is  a  matter  that  lies  in  a  nut- 
shell. The  reason  is  that  a  slight  ad- 
vance in  speed  requires  an  immense 
increase  in  engine  power  and  vast  coal 
storage.  These  increase  the  displace- 
ment, which  again  makes  still  greater 
demands  on  the  power  required.  By 
the  time  these  are  provided  for,  there 
is  no  cargo  space  left  worth  mention- 
ing. There  the  limit  to  size  for  that 
speed  is  reached,  and  to  obtain  higher 
rates  involves  bigger  vessels.  This, 
too,  explains  why  improvements  in  the 
design  of  and  economical  working  of 
engines  and  boilers  is  so  eagerly  sought 
after  with  a  view  to  reduce  the  cubical 
space  required  for  these  in  the  hull, 
and  is  also  one  reason  why  steam  tur- 
bines are  being  put  on  vessels  of  in- 
creasingly large  dimensions. 

Cost  in  Coal. — The  Admiralty 
Committee  on  "Subsidies  to  Merchant 
Cruisers'*  have  issued  some  tabular 
statements  which  show  the  price  of 
speed  in  a  very  graphic  way.  From 
one  of  these  we  see  that  while  a  20- 
knot  steamer  consumes  2,228  tons  of 
coal  on  a  3,000  mile  voyage,  a  26-knot 
one  will  be  expected  to  consume  6,131 
tons;  and  that  the  19,000  horsepower 
of  the  first  must  give  place  to  the  enor- 
mous total  of  68,000  horsepower  for 
the  last.  The  cost  again  of  the  vessel 
is  $1,750,000  in  the  slower  ship,  and 
$6,250,000  in  the  swifter.  A  heavy 
price  truly  to  pay  for  the  extra  six 
knots !  But  the  investment  is  a  good 
one  on  passenger  liners  as  the  previ- 
ous paragraph  shows.  The  next  table 
shows  these  and  other  points  in  a 
striking  manner : 


Speed,  in  knots 

Time  of  voyage  (chronom- 
eter hours') 

Prime  cost,  dollars 

Indicated  horsepower.  . .  . 

Length,  in  feet 

Displacement  tonnage.  .  . 

Coal,  in  tons 

Steam    pressure,    pounds 
per  square  inch 

Machinery     department, 
number  of  hands 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

150 

1,750,000 

19,000 

600 

13,000 

2,228 

143 

2,000,000 

22,000 

630 

15,000 

2,456 

136 

2,350,000 

26,500 

660 

17,300 

2,912 

130 

2,875,000 

30.000 

690 

19,800 

3,058 

125 

4,250,000 

40,000 

720 

22,400 

3,900 

120 

5,000,000 

52.000 

750 

25.400 

4.876 

150 

165 

181 

198 

216 

234 

100 

110 

125 

150 

200 

260 

26 


115.5 

6.250,000 

68,000 

780 

28.500 

6.131 

25J 

34  ;> 


The  following  table  compiled  from  Lloyd's  gives  the  number  of  vessels  built  in  Great  Britain, 
arranged  according  to  size.     They  vary  somewhat  from  the  returns  quoted  on  other  pages. 


4 

77 

Oi 
Oi 

CO    rr. 

69 

09 

25 
25 

r 

15 
15 

QO 

10 
10 

1,000  to 
1,499  Tons. 

• 
OQ 

o  S 
-*J  o 

sS 

6 
36 

42 

-M  o 
oH 

csf 

6 
53 

• 

o  S 
-«j  0 

oH 
ccos 

3 

89 

• 

■^  o 
oH 

60 
60 

on 

o  9 

to 

41 
41 

7,000  to 
9,999  Tons. 

10,000  Tons 
and  above. 

Grand  Total. 

Vessels. 

No. 

19 
537 

556 

Tonn'ge. 

Sail 

Steam  .... 

34 
34 

19 

9 

36.384 
1.376,327 

Total..     81       69 

59 

92 

19 

9 

1,412,711 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


43 


STEAM  TURBINES  AND  SPEED. 


Growth  of  the  Steam  Turbine. — 
The  steam  turbine  has  been  applied 
to  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  and  is 
steadily  growing  in  favor. 

The  number  of  vessels  so  fitted  is 
not  large,  but  the  development  is 
none  the  less  remarkable  when  we 
remember  that  pleasure,  and  cross- 
channel  steamers,  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, and  yachts  are  now  fitted 
with  these  engines,  while  ten  years 
ago  not  one  turbine  vessel  was  in 
service. 

Early  Types.— The  "Turbinia," 
1894,  was  the  first  of  the  kind,  fol- 
lowed by  the  "Viper,"  1898,  and  the 
"Cobra."  The  "King  Edward,"  1901, 
was  the  first  passenger  steamer  so  fit- 
ted, followed  by  the  "Queen  Alexan- 
dra," 1902,  both  for  passenger  service 
on  the  Clyde. 

Cross-Channel  Boats. — The  suc- 
cess of  these  vessels  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  application  of  the  steam 
turbine  to  the  cross-channel  services — 
the  "Queen"  for  the  Dover-Calais 
route,  and  the  "Brighton,"  the  New- 
haven-Dieppe  boat.  On  an  unoflScial 
trip  made  in  August,  1903,  this  vessel 
maintained  a  speed  of  20  knots.  The 
"Brighton"  is  282  feet  in  length,  and 
accommodates  1,000  passengers.  Her 
engines  are  rated  at  7,000  horsepower. 
The  reversing  turbines  are  fitted  to 
the  outside  screw  shafts,  and  are  ca- 
pable of  moving  her  astern  at  about 
12  knots.  The  lubrication  of  the  en- 
gines is  automatic,  the  oil  being  sup- 
plied at  a  pressure  of  6  lbs.  per  square 
inch.  The  "Queen"  has  also  behaved 
excellently,  running  between  Dover 
and  Calais  within  the  hour,  in  a  gale 
of  wind. 

Irish  Boats. — Two  steam  turbine 
vessels  are  being  built  for  the  Mid- 
land Railway  service  between  Eng- 
land, the  Isle  of  Man,  and  Belfast. 
Two  others  of  the  same  class  will  be 
fitted  with  ordinary  reciprocating  en- 
gines, so  that  relative  tests  of  the  two 
kinds  of  propulsion  will  be  available 
under  equal  conditions.  The  steamers 
will  be  of  20  knots  speed.  330  feet  long, 
by  40  feet  beam,  and  25  feet  depth. 

Three  Yachts  have  been  fitted  with 
steam  turbines.  "  Two  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, the  "Velox"  and  the  "Eden," 
and  the  "Amethyst,"  third-class  cruis- 
er, are  designed  for  turbine  propulsion, 
the  first  being  in  commission,  the  oth- 


ers at  the  time  of  writing  being  on 
order. 

A  Commission  has  been  appointed, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Inverclyde, 
to  investigate  the  question  of  the 
economy  of  -steam  turbines  and  their 
suitability  to  the  new  big  Cunarders. 
The  commission  comprises  representa- 
tives of  the  Admiralty,  the  Cunard 
Company,  Lloyd's,  and  three  shipbuild- 
ers. At  the  time  of  writing  no  deci- 
sion has  been  published.  But  the  fact 
of  such  a  commission  having  been  ap- 
pointed testifies  to  the  rapid  headway 
which  the  turbine  is  making.  But  two 
or  three  years  since,  most  shipbuilders 
would  have  declined  even  to  seriously 
entertain  or  to  discuss  such  a  proposal. 
The  Allan  Line  and  the  T^nion  Steam- 
ship Co.  are  building  a  17  and  an  18- 
knot  turbine  vessel  respectively. 

Objections. — Though  the  above  is 
not  a  large  list,  it  must  be  remember- 
ed that  shipowners  and  the  Admiralty 
are  naturally  very  cautious  in  fitting 
vessels  with  novel  means  of  propul- 
sion. The  whole  history  of  steam 
navigation  is  one  of  slow  but  sure  ad- 
vances. The  installation  of  water- 
tube  boilers  is  another  case  in  point. 

The  great  objection  to  the  use  of 
turbines  for  driving  ocean  liners  is  that 
this  form  of  engine  does  not  reverse. 
A  separate  set  of  engines  is  employed 
for  reversing,  at  lower  speeds.  The 
captains  of  big  vessels  strongly  object 
to  this,  because  they  say  that  even 
greater  power  would  be  desirable  for 
going  astern  than  ahead,  in  order  to 
avoid  sudden  collision. 

Land  Turbines. — On  land.  Par- 
sons' turbines  are  being  used  exten- 
sively for  driving  electric  generators, 
aggregating  about  250,000  horsepower, 
and  in  sizes  up  to  5,000  horsepower. 
Yet  the  first  practical  steam  turbine 
was  not  built  until  1884,  and  that  is 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
A  recent  computation  gives  the  total 
aggregate  power  of  steam  turbines  of 
all  types  in  use,  under  construction,  or 
ordered,  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
at  over  500,000  horsepower. 

Advantages  of  Turbines. — The 
principal  point  in  favor  of  a  turbine 
is,  that  it  has  no  reciprocating  mo- 
tion, like  that  of  the  piston  of  a  com- 
mon engine,  and  therefore  the  hull  of 
a  vessel  is  not  shaken  so  much  as  by 
reciprocating     engines.     Turbine     en- 


44 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


gines  weigh  much  less,  and  occupy 
less  room  than  ordinary  engines  of  the 
same  power,  so  that  passenger  accom- 
modation can  be  increased.  Usually 
three  sets  of  engines  are  employed, 
each  driving  a  separate  propeller  shaft, 
which  again  conduces  to  steadiness  of 
motion. 

ExpiBATiON  OF  Parsons*  Patent. 
— Several  circumstances  have  occurred 
latterly  to  help  on  the  progress  of  the 
steam  turbine  besides  its  recent  suc- 
cessful application  to  steam  yachts, 
Clyde  pleasure  steamers,  and  cross- 
channel  services.  One  of  these  is 
the  expiration  during  the  year  1903 
of  the  five  years'  extension  of  the 
patent  that  was  granted  to  the  Hon. 
C.    A.    Parsons    in    1884.      A    result 


of  this  is  that  several  firms  now  ex- 
press their  intention  of  going  in  for 
the  manufacture  of  Parsons'  turbines. 
Another  is  that  the  success  of  these 
turbines  has  acted  as  a  stimulus  to 
other  inventors,  and  the  Parsons  tur- 
bine will  have  to  face  the  rivalry  of 
others,  including  the  De  Laval,  and 
another  promising  one,  that  of  Mr.  C. 
G.  Curtis,  of  New  York. 

It  is  safe  to  predict  that  the  old- 
fashioned  steam  engines,  the  big  mill 
type  excepted,  will  gradually  give  place 
to  the  steam  turbines,  and  to  the  gas 
and  oil  engines.  Apart  from  economy 
and  compactness,  the  turbines  are 
cleaner  than  any  other  engines,  being 
self-lubricating  and  enclosed. 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


UNITED   STATES   LIFE-SAVING  SERVICE. 


The  number  of  disasters  to  docu- 
mented vessels  within  the  scope  of  the 
Service  was  346  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1903.  On  board  these 
vessels  were  3,682  persons,  of  whom 
20  were  lost.  The  estimated  value  of 
the  vessels  was  $7,101,605  and  that 
of  their  cargoes  $1,746,610,  making 
the  total  value  of  property  involved 
$8,848,215.  Of  this  amount  $7,683,- 
580  was  saved  and  $1,164,635  lost. 
The  number  of  vessels  totally  lost  was 
57.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there 
were  351  casualties  to  undocumented 
craft — sailboats,  rowboats,  etc. — car- 
rying 655  persons,  4  of  whom  per- 
ished. The  value  of  property  involved 
in  these  instances  is  estimated  at 
$202,935,  of  which  $198,465  was  saved 
and  $4,470  lost. 

The  results  of  disasters  to  vessels 
of  all  descriptions  within  the  scope  of 
the  Service,  therefore,  aggregate  as 
follows : 

Total  number  of  disasters 697 

Total  value  of  property  involved .  .   $9,051 , 1 60 
Total  value  of  property  saved  ....  *  $7,882,045 

Total  value  of  property  lost $1,169,105 

Total  number  of  persons  involved .  4,337 

Total  number  of  persons  lost 24 

Total  number  of  shipwrecked  per- 
sons succored  at  stations *  1,086 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  af- 
forded       •  *  2,414 

Number  of  vessels  totally  lost 57 


The  foregoing  summary  does  not  in- 
clude 56  persons  not  on  board  of  ves- 
sels who  were  rescued  from  various  po- 
sitions of  peril. 


VESSELS  ASSISTED. 

The  life-saving  crews  saved  and  as- 
sisted in  saving  438  imperiled  vessels, 
valued  with  their  cargoes  at  $4,598,- 
840.  Of  this  number  287,  valued  with 
their  cargoes  at  $793,670,  were  saved 
without  other  assistance.  In  the  re- 
maining instances,  151  in  number,  the 
life-saving  crews  co-operated  with 
wrecking  vessels,  tugs,  and  other 
agencies  in  saving  property  estimated 
at  $3,661,875,  out  of  a  total  of  $3,805,- 
170  imperiled.  Besides  this  the  crews 
afforded  assistance  of  greater  or  less 
importance  to  573  other  vessels,  ren- 
dering aid.  therefore,  altogether  to 
1,011  vessels  of  all  kinds,  including 
small  craft.  This  number  is  exclu- 
sive of  218  instances  in  which  vessels 
running  into  danger  were  warned  off 
by  station  patrolmen.  One  hundred 
and  ninety-eight  of  these  warnings 
were  given  at  night  by  Coston  lights. 

The  apportionment  of  the  foregoing 
statistics  to  the  Atlantic,  Lake  and 
Pacific  coasts,  respectively,  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


*  It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  entire  amount  represented  by  these  figures  was  saved 
by  the  Service.  A  considerable  portion  was  saved  by  salvage  companies,  wrecking  tugs,  and 
other  instrumentalities,  often  working  in  conjunction  with  the  surfmen.  It  is  manifestly  im- 
possible to  apportion  the  relative  results  accomplished.  It  is  equally  impossible  to  give  even 
an  approximate  estimate  of  the  number  of  lives  saved  by  the  station  crews.  It  would  be  pre- 
posterous to  assume  that  all  those  on  board  vessels  suffering  disaster  who  escape  would  have 
been  lost  but  for  the  aid  of  the  life-savers;  yet  the  number  of  persons  taken  ashore  by  the  life- 
boats and  other  appliaaces  by  no  means  indicates  the  sum  total  saved  by  the  Service. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


45 


APPORTIONMENT  TO  ATLANTIC,  LAKE  AND  PACIFIC  COASTS. 


Disasters  to  Vessels. 


Total  number  of  disasters 

Total  value  of  vessels dollars.  .  .  . 

Total  value  of  cargoes do 

Total  amount  of  property  involved. .  .  do 

Total  amount  of  property  saved do 

Total  amount  of  property  lost do 

Total  number  of  persons  on  board 

Total  number  of  persons  lost 

Number  of  shipwrecked  persons  succored  at 

stations .* 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  afforded 

Number  of  disasters  involving     total     loss     of 

vessels 


Atlantic 

and  Gulf 

coasts. 

Lake 
coasts.* 

Pacific 
coast. 

33 

Total. 

438 

226 

697 

3,501.520 

2,888.860 

910.575 

7.300.955 

973,370 

720,025 

56.800 

1,750,195 

4,474.890 

3,608.885 

967.375 

9.051,150 

3,636,746 

3.360,145 

885.155 

7,882,046 

838,145 

248.740 

82.220 

1,169,105 

2,694 

1,177 

466 

4,337 

20 

3 

1 

24 

t970 

tl02 

tl4 

1 1,086 

t2,238 

tl62 

tl4 

t2,414 

46 

10 

I 

57 

GENERAL  SUMMARY 

Of  disasters  which  have  occurred  with- 
in the  scope  of  life-saving  operations 
from  November  1,  1871  (date  of  intro- 
duction of  present  system),  to  close  of 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1903.$ 

Total  number  of  disasters 14,076 

Total  value  of  vessels $148,098,035 

Total  value  of  cargoes $62,253,644 

Total  value  of  property  involved .  $210,351,679 
Total  value  of  property  saved .  .  .$166,253,022 

Total  value  of  property  lost $44,098,657 

Total  number  of  persons  involved        §  102,474 

Total  number  of  lives  lost ||  1,027 

Total  number  of  persons  succored 

at  stations f  17,747 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  af- 
forded   43,006 


The  Board  on  Lite  Saving  Appli- 
ances was  constituted  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  January  3,  1882, 
and  meets  periodically  for  the  transac- 
tion of  such  business  as  may  come  be- 
fore it.  Inventors  and  exhibitors  are 
allowed  to  appear  before  the  court  to 
explain  the  methods  of  construction 
and  set  forth  the  merits  claimed  for 
their  devices.  Committees  are  then 
appointed  to  consider  the  various  de- 
vices submitted  to  the  Board,  and  each 
committee  reports  upon  each  device, 
and  the  results  are  published  in  the 
Iteport  of  the  Board  on  Life  Saving 
Appliances,  which  is  incorporated  in 
the  Annual  Report  of  the  United 
States  Life  Saving  Service. 


THE  LIGHTHOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT. 


There  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Lighthouse  Establishment,  Oct.  15, 
1903,  the  following  named  aids  to 
navigation : 

Light-houses  and  beacon  lights 1,425 

Light- vessels  in  position 45 

Light- vessels  for  relief 8 

Gas-lighted  buoys  in  position 119 

Fog-signals  operated  by  steam,  caloric, 

or  oU  engines,  about 200 

Fog-signals  operated  by  machinery,about    250 

Post  lights,  about 1,875 

Day  or  unlighted  beacons,  about 550 

Whistling  buoys  in  position,  about 90 


Bell  buoys  in  position,  about 130 

Other  buoys  m  position,  including  pile 
buoys  and  stakes  in  Fifth  district  and 
buoys  in  Alaskan  waters 5,500 

In  the  construction,  care  and  main- 
tenance of  these  aids  to  navigation 
there  are  employed : 

Steam  tenders 39 

Steam  launches 7 

Sailing  tenders 2 

Light-keepers,  about 1,650 

Officers  and  crews  of  light-vessels  and 

tenderSj  about 1,225 

Laborers  m  charge  of  post  lights,  about .  1,600 


*  Including  the  river  station  at  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

t  These  figures  include  persons  to  whom  succor  was  given  who  were  not  on  board  vessels 
embraced  in  table  of  casualties. 

X  It  should  be  observed  that  the  operations  of  the  Service  dyring  this  period  have  been  limited 
as  follows:  Season  of  1871-72,  to  the  coasts  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey;  seasons  of  1872-74 
to  the  coasts  of  Cape  Cod,  Long  Island,  and  New  Jersey;  season  of  1874-75,  to  the  coasts  of  New 
P^ngland,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  and  the  coast  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape  Hatteras;  season 
of  1875-76,  to  the  coasts  of  New  England,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  the  coast  from  Cape  Hen- 
lopen  to  Cape  Charles,  and  the  coast  from  Cape  Heiry  to  Cape  Hatteras;  season  of  1876-77  and 
since,  all  the  foregoing  with  the  addition  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Florida  and  portions  of  the 
lake  coasts.     In  1877-78  the  Pacific  coast  was  added,  and  in  1880  the  coast  of  Texas. 

§  Including  persons  rescued  not  on  board  vessels. 

11  Eighty-five  of  these  were  lost  at  the  disaster  to  the  steamer  Metropolis  in  1877-78,  when 
.service  was  impeded  by  distance,  and  14  others  in  the  same  year  owing  to  similar  causes. 

If  Including  castaways  not  on  board  vessels  embraced  in  Tables  of  Casualties. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FROM  CRUISER  TO  RACING  MACHINE. 


What  might  be  called  the  scieotiGc 
period  of  yacht  deaigoing  in  this  coun- 
try begins  at  about  the  period  of  the 
races  of  "Puritan"  against  "Genesta," 
in  1S85.  The  growth  to  the  exaggerat- 
ed proportions  of  hull  and  sail  plan 
shown  in  our  accompanying  diagram, 
js  the   logical  and  inevitable  outcome 


a  little  less  than  these  lengths,  tbeir 
rating  will  be  dimioished  accordingly. 
Outside  of  this  restriction  you  may  do 
just  anything  you  please  in  modeling 
your  hulls.  They  may  be  built  of  any 
material :  they  may  be  broad  or  nar- 
row, shallow  or  deep :  light  and  leak- 
able  as  a  wicker  basket,  or  tight  and  ' 


of  a  rule  of  measurement  altogether 
too  broad  and  loose  io  its  spec'ifica- 
tions.  The  only  elements  taxed  in  this 
rule  are  length  on  the  water-line  when 
on  an  even  keel,  and  total  sail  area. 
To  the  competing  designers  the  rule 
has  said,  "Wben  j-our  yachts  are  placed 
under  the  measurer's  tape,  if  90-footers 
they  must  not  be  over  90  feet  long  on 
the  water-line,  or  if  TOfooters  not  over 
70  feet.    If  you  eboose  to  make  them 


heavy  as  an  ironclad.  As  to  the  spread 
of  sail,  you  may  crack  on  just  as  much 
as  you  please ;  always  with  the  under- 
standing, however,  that  the  more  you 
carry  the  greater  will  be  your  racing 

Now  at  the  time  of  the  "Puritac"- 
"Genesta"  races,  our  yacht  designers 
were  beginning  to  emerge  from  the 
rnle-of-thumb  methods  that  character- 
ized the  days  of  the  center-board  sloop 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


47 


and  schooner,  and  were  beginninsr, 
thanks  to  the  victorious  career  of  one 
or  two  imported  deep-keel  English  cut-- 
ters,  to  appreciate  the  value  of  outside 
lead  as  an  element  of  sail-carrying 
power.  Hence,  the  "Puritan"  carried 
a  large  proportion  of  her  48  tons  of 
lead  ballast  on  the  keel,  and  although 
she  was  marked  by  the  shoalness  of 
body  and  limited  draft  of  the  prevail- 
ing centerboard  type,  she  was  an  ex- 
tremely able  sea  boat,  fast  and  com- 
fortable, a  wooden  vessel  of  first-class 
construction,  with  a  reasonable  spread 
of  sail  which  she  was  well  able  to  carry 
in  a  blow,  as  was  proved  in  that  me- 
morable race  of  twenty  miles  to  lee- 
ward and  back  in  half  a  gale  of  wind 
in  which  she  won  by  a  narrow  margin 
over  "Genesta."  At  the  close  of  her 
racing  career  "Puritan"  was  changed 
from  sloop  to  schooner  rig,  and  to-day 
she  is  doing  service  as  a  snug  and  com- 


to  carry  it ;  and  like  her  predecessor 
she  was  changed  after  the  cup  races  to 
a  schooner,  and  is  to-day  in  service  as 
a  successful  cruiser.  After  a  lapse  of 
six  years  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
was  called  upon  once  more  to  defend 
the  cup,  and  on  this  occasion  they  went 
to  Herreshoff,  from  whom  they  ob- 
tained two  yachts,  one  of  which,  the 
"Colonia,"  was  a  keel  boat,  drawing 
14  feet  of  water,  built  of  steel,  and  car- 
rying about  11,000  square  feet  of  sail. 
She  was  a  failure,  for  the  reason  that, 
like  the  "Navaho,  another  Herreshoff 
90-footer  of  the  same  year,  she  was 
a  poor  boat  on  the  wind. 

The  other  yacht  built  for  cup  de- 
fense by  Herreshoff  was  the  "Vigil- 
ant," and  in  her  we  see  the  engineer 
attacking  the  problem  of  yacht  design 
from  his  own  particular  point  of  view. 
Tobin  bronze  is  used  for  the  plating, 
hollow  spars  are  experimented  with,  and 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  90-FOOT  RACING  YACHT. 


Yachts. 

Water- 
line 
Length. 

Base  of 

Fore 
Triangle. 

Hoist 

from. 

Boom  to 

Topmast 

Sheave. 

ft.     in. 
104      0 
111       0 
111       0 
122       0 
129       5 
138      5 
142       0 
155      0 

Boom. 

Gaff. 

Spinna^ 

ker 
Boom. 

Total 

Sail 

Area. 

Puritan 

ft.    in. 
81     H 
85    7 

85  10 

86  2 

88  54 

89  7{ 

89  9 

90  0 

ft.     in. 
62      0 
67       0 
67      0 
69       0 
73      3 
73      3 
78      0 
84      0 

ft. 

76 

80 

84 

98 

106 

107 

110 

115 

in. 
6 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

ft. 
47 
50 
61 
57 
64 
64 
72 
72 

in. 
0 
0 
6 
0 
10 
10 
0 
0 

ft.     in. 
62      0 
67      0 
67       0 
69      0 
73      4 
73       4 
78      0 
84      0 

sq.  ft. 
7,370 

Mayflower 

Volunteer 

Vig^ant 

8,824 

9,107 

11,312 

Defender 

Columbia 

Constitution 

Reliance 

12,640 
13,211 
14.400 
16,247 

fortable  cruiser.  "Mayflower,"  the 
next  cup  defender,  was  an  improved 
"Puritan,"  with  5  feet  more  length  on 
the  water-line  and  8,824  square  feet  of 
sail ;  she  was  built  of  wood,  and  sub- 
sequently to  her  defense  of  the  cup  she 
was  turned  into  a  comfortable  cruiser. 
Her  sail  area  is  so  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  her  successor,  "Volunteer,"  that 
to  avoid  crowding  our  drawing  her  sail- 
plan  does  not  appear.  "Volunteer"  was 
designed  by  Burgess,  the  designer  of 
"Puritan"  and  "Mayflower."  She  was 
the  first  of  our  large  sloops  to  be  built 
of  steel.  She  was  about  5  feet  longer 
on  the  water-line  than  "Puritan"  and 
carried  a  much  larger  sail-plan,  .the 
boom  being  84  feet  as  against  7(»  1-2 
feet  of  "Puritan,"  and  the  hoist  to  the 
topmast  sheave  being  111  feet  as 
against  104  feet  in  the  earlier  boat. 
"Volunteer"  also  was  a  perfectly  sound 
and  wholesome  vessel.  Although  her 
rig  was  a  large  one,  she  was  well  able 


high-grade  steel  wire  rope,  blocks  and 
other  gear  of  extreme  lightness,  make 
their  appearance  in  the  spar  and  sail- 
plans.  As  a  consequence,  although  the 
"Vigilant"  was  only  a  few  inches 
longer  on  the  water-line  than  the  "Vol- 
unteer," she  carried  over  2,000  square 
feet  more  sail.  The  boom  was  length- 
ened out  to  nigh  upon  100  feet,  while 
the  hoist  went  up  to  132  feet ;  and  the 
sail  spread  to  11,312  square  feet.  "Vig- 
ilant" was  to  be  the  last  of  the  cen- 
terboard yachts ;  for  although  she  beat 
"Valkyrie  XL"  in  the  series  of  races, 
she  was  beaten  badly  to  windward  by 
that  boat  in  a  stiff  breeze ;  and  subse- 
quently, during  a  season  in  English 
waters,  was  beaten  eleven  times  out  of 
eighteen  by  the  deep-keel  cutter 
"Britannia,"  a  sister  boat  to  "Valky- 
rie II."  That  season's  experience 
sealed  the  fate  of  the  centerboard.  and 
when  the  next  challenge  came,  the  Her- 
reshoffs,  entrusted  with  the  contract  of 


i 


48 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Z 


10 

00 


h 

n 
u 

z 

u 


lal     M 


< 

19 


< 


0 


(8 


bl 


(8 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


49 


RACING    YACHT    FROM    1885  TO  1903. 


50 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


building  a  yacht  to  beat  her,  turned 
out  to  meet  her  the  deep-keel  cutter- 
sloop  "Defender."  "Vigilant"  was  the 
last  of  the  cup-defenders  that  was  good 
for  anything  but  cup  defense.  She  has 
been  changed  into  a  yawl,  and  has 
proved  to  be  an  excellent  cruiser  under 
her  i*educed  rig.  In  "Defender"  we  see 
the  engineer  still  at  work,  reducing 
scantling  and  lightening  up  on  con- 
struction even  to  the  smallest  detail. 
"Defender"  was  built  of  manganese 
bronze  in  the  underbody,  and  alumi- 
nium in  the  topsides  and  fr&m^ng.  She 
carried  a  hollow  steel  mast,  Doom  and 
gaff.  As  a  consequence,  although  she 
was  a  smaller  boat  than  "Vigilant," 
having  some  3  feet  less  beam,  so  great 
was  the  lightening  of  her  weights,  and 
the  increase  in  stability  due  to  lower 
ballast,  that  she  carried  over  1^000 
feet  more  sail  than  the  larger  yacht, 
spreading  12,640  square  feet.  The  main 
boom  reached  far  over  the  taffrail,  be- 
ing 106  feet  in  length  over  all.  The 
hoist  was  7 1-2  feet  greater  and  the 
forward  measurement  from  mast  to 
end  of  bowsprit  had  increased  to  over 
73  feet 

When  the  "Defender"  commenced 
her  trials  it  began  to  be  evident  that 
in  the  development  of  the  90-foot 
racing  yacht  the  limit,  not  merely  of 
convenience  but  of  actual  safety,  had 
been  passed.  The  draft  of  19  feet  was 
in  itself  prohibitive  of  the  use  of  the 
boat  as  a  cruiser,  since  it  shut  her  out 
from  many  of  the  harbors  and  desir- 
able anchorages,  while  the  experience 
of  the  boat  in  fresh  to  moderate  breezes 
was  marked  by  breakdowns  which,  on 
one  occasion,  came  very  near  to  being 
disastrous.  In  some  races,  when  the 
wind  breezed  up,  rivets  were  sheared 
off  and  the  climax  came  when  in  a  bit 
of  a  squall  the  pull  of  the  weather 
shrouds  was  so  great  that  the  mast 
came  very  near  punching  a  hole  for 
itself  through  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 
Herreshoff  evidently  had  overlooked 
the  fact  that,  in  cutting  into  the  keel 
until  its  forward  edge  was  aft  of  the 
mast-step,  he  had  left  nothing  but  the 
light  floor-plates  and  the  frail  plating 
to  take  the  enormous  downward  thrust 
of  the  mast.  Emergency  repairs  were 
at  once  made  by  carrying  a  pair  of 
^-inch  by  8-inch  steel  straps  from 
the  toot  of  the  mast  up  to  a  junction 
with  the  chain-plates  at  the  deck. 
Trouble  was  also  experienced  in  keep- 
ing the  bowsprit  from  coming  inboard  ; 
several  of  the  frames  of  the  boat  broke 
at  the  turn  of  the  garboards ;  and  from 
first  to  last   the  extreme  lightness  of 


the  craft  was  a  source  of  unceasing 
anxiety  to  her  owners. 

Four  year^  later  the  Bristol  yard 
turned  out  "Columbia,"  a  yacht  that 
embodied  some  of  those  features  of 
hull  and  sail-plan  which  experience 
in  the  smaller  classes  had  shown  to  be 
conducive  to  high  speed.  She  had  a 
foot  more  depth,  or  20  feet ;  her  over- 
hangs, forward  and  aft,  were  carried 
out  until  on  a  water-line  length  of  89 
feet  7  1-8  inches  she  had  an  over-all 
length  of  about  50  per  cent  more,  or 
132  feet.  Although  a  90-footer  when 
at  anchor  she  was  a  115-footer  when 
heeled  to  her  sailing  lines,  the  great 
increase  in  the  overhangs  being  due 
to  the  effort  to  build  the  biggest  pos- 
sible boat  on  the  arbitrar^r  so-called 
90-foot  length.  The  enlargement  of 
the  sail-plan  was  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  greater  hoist,  the  distance  from 
main  boom  to  topmast  sheave  being 
138 1-2  feet.  The  disastrous  experi- 
ence with  "Defender"  showed  the  ab- 
solute necessity  of  using  more  reliable 
materials  in  the  hull,  which  was  con- 
structed of  Tobin  bronze  plating  on 
steel  frames.  The  hull  structure  proved 
satisfactory,  but  the  lightening  up  of 
the  spars  and  standing  .  rigging  had 
been  carried  too  far,  as  shown  by  the 
fact  that  in  her  trial  races  she  car- 
ried away  her  mast. 

Two  years  later,  to  meet  "Sham- 
rock II.,"  Herreshoff  brought  out  the 
"Constitution,"  which  differed  in  form 
from  "Columbia"  merely  by  an  in- 
crease of  one  foot  in  the  beam.  The 
sail-plan  was  greater  than  that  of 
"Columbia"  by  about  1,200  square  feet. 
The  hoist  had  now  increased  to  142 
feet,  the  boom  to  110  feet,  and  the  base 
of  the  forward  triangle  to  78  feet. 
"Constitution's"  appearance  is  com- 
parable only  to  that  of  "Defender"  in 
the  constant  succession  of  breakdowns 
that  have  occurred ;  but  with  this  dis- 
tinction, however,  that  whereas  "De- 
fender's" trouble  was  in  the  hull,  "Con- 
stitution's" has  been  up  aloft.  At  dif- 
ferent times  she  has  carried  away  her 
mainmast,  her  topmast  and  her  gaff. 
Of  the  hull,  however,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  system  of  belt-and-lon- 
gitudinal  framing  adopted  by  Herres- 
hoff has  been  eminently  successful. 
Although  it  is  probable  that  no  large 
amount  of  weight  is  saved  over  the  old 
system  of  framing,  it  is  certain  that 
weight  for  weight  it  is  considerably 
stronger.  "Constitution"  proved  so 
much  of  a  disappointment  that  it  was 
really  realized  that  to  defend  the 
cup  successfully    some   radical   depar- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


51 


ture  must  be  taken,  and  Herreshoff 
struck  out  most  boldly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  "scow"  type,  which  had 
proved  so  fast  in  the  smaller  classes  of 
yachts.  On  a  water-line  of  90  feet 
the  new  boat  has  a  beam  of  over  2C 
feet,  a  draft  •  of  20  feet,  and  an 
over-all  length  of  close  upon  150  feet. 
Although  she  is  a  90-footer  at  anchor, 
she  is  fully  a  120-footer  when  heeled 
to  a  breeze ;  and  to  this  fact  is  to  be 
ascribed  the  astonishing  sail-carrying 
power  which  she  has  shown,  the  area 
under  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
measurement  being  16,247  square  feet ; 
and  if  changes  are  made  they  will  be 
rather  in  the  direction  of  an  increase 
than  a  reduction  of  sail-plan.  The 
growth  of  sail  power  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  may  be  summed  up  in  the  state- 


ment that  on  an  increased  water-line 
length  of  only  10  feet  the  "Reliance" 
of  1903  spreads  over  twice  as  much 
sail  as  did  "Puritan"  in  1885.  In  her 
we  see,  unquestionably,  the  highest 
possible  development  under  the  exist- 
ing rule,  and  although  the  boat  is  an 
overgrown  monstrosity  as  a  sailing 
craft,  she  is  certainly  a  great  tribute 
to  her  builder,  both  as  a  naval  archi- 
tect and  as  a  wonderfully  resourceful 
and  ingenious  mechanic.  She  is  the 
biggest,  lightest  constructed,  most  pow- 
erful, and  probably  the  fastest  yacht 
of  her  water-line  length  that  ever  was 
or  ever  will  be  constructed,  and  she 
possesses  that  dual  quality,  never  be- 
fore found  in  one  and  the  same  yftcht, 
of  being  relatively  just  as  fast  in  light 
as  she  is  in  strong  winds. 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE    NAVIES    OF    THE    WORI.I>. 


The  subject  of  the  navies  of  the 
world  is  a  most  important  one. 
Schemes  of  classification  vary,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  obtain  any  figures  which 
agree.  The  three  English  authorities 
are  "The  Naval  Annual,"  by  T.  A. 
Brassey;  "The  Naval  Pocket  Book," 
by  Sir  W.  Laird  Clowes,  and  F.  T. 
Jane's  "All  the  World's  Fighting 
Ships"  (Munn  &  Co.,  publishers).  The 
latter  is  filled  with  illustrations,  dia- 
grams,   etc.,    and    has    an    excellent 


thumb  index,  facilitating  easy  refer- 
ence. Our  comparison  of  naval 
strength  is  based  on  these  three  books. 
In  addition,  we  give  the  tables  of  the 
Hydrographic  Office,  and  for  those  who 
care  to  pursue  the  matter  further,  we 
give  an  abstract  of  the  section  of 
Hazell's  Annual  dealing  with  the  sub- 
ject. With  this  explanation  it  is  hoped 
that  the  dissimilar  figures  will  not  be 
as  confusing  as  they  otherwise  would 
be. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MODERN 

WARSHIPS. 


The  modern  warship  is  an  ever  pop- 
ular subject  with  the  readers  of  the  il- 
lustrated press.  This  is  proved  by  the 
tenacit}*^  with  which  guns,  ships  and 
armor  hold  their  place  as  conspicuous 
subjects  for  the  pen  and  the  brush. 
It  is  a  question,  however,  in  spite  of 
the  familiarity  of  the  public  with  the 
technical  phraseology  of  the  warship, 
whether  the  average  reader  has  a  very 
accurate  idea  of  the  distinctions  be- 
tween the  various  classes  of  ships  and 
between  the  various  elements  from  the 
combination  of  which  these  ships  de- 
rive their  distinctive  class  character- 
istics. He  is  told  that  the  "Indiana" 
is  a  battleship,  the  "Brooklyn"  an  ar- 
mored cruiser,  the  "Columbia"  a  pro- 
tected cruiser,  and  the  "Puritan"  a 
monitor.  But  it  is  probable  that  he 
has  only  a  vague  idea  as  to  what  quali- 
ties they  are  that  mark  the  distinction, 
or  why  the  distinctions  should  need  to 
exist  at  all. 

With  a  view  to  answering  these 
questions  in  a  general  way,  we  have 
prepared  three  diagrams  and  a  per- 
spective drawing  which  show  the  con- 
structive features  of  the  several  types 
of  warship  to  which  we  have  referred 
above.  In  diagrams  I  to  111  the  armor 
is  indicated  by  full  black  lines  or  by 
shading,  the  approximate  thickness  of 
the  armor  being  shown  by  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lines  and  the  depth  of  the 


53 


shading.  The  fine  lines  represent  the 
unarmored  portions  of  the  ordinary 
plating  of  the  ships.  In  the  end  view 
the  armor  is  shown  by  full  lines  and 
shading  and  the  ordinary  ship  plating 
by  dotted  lines. 

When  the  naval  architect  sits  down 
at  his  desk  to  design  a  warship  of  a 
certain  size,  he  knows  that  there  is 
one  element  of  the  vessel  which  is 
fixed  and  unalterable,  and  that  is  her 
displacement.  By  displacement  is 
meant  the  actual  weight  of  the  ship, 
which  is,  of  course,  exactly  equal  to 
the  weight  of  water  which  she  dis- 
places. This  total  weight  is  the  cap- 
ital with  which  the  architect  has  to 
work,  and  he  uses  his  judgment  in  dis- 
tributing it  among  the  various  ele- 
ments which  go  to  make  up  the  ship. 
Part  is  allotted  to  the  hull,  part  to 
the  motive  power,  part  to  the  armor 
protection,  part  to  the  guns,  and  part 
to  the  fuel,  stores,  furnishing  and  gen- 
oral  equipment. 

It  is  evident  that  the  allotment  of 
weights  is  a  matter  of  compromise — 
whatever  excess  is  given  to  one  ele- 
ment must  be  taken  from  another ; 
else,  the  ship  will  exceed  the  given 
displacement.  Among  the  elements 
above  mentioned  there  are  some,  such 
as  weight  of  hull,  provisions,  stores, 
and  furnishings,  which  for  a  given 
size  of  ship    will    not    vary    greatly. 


SCIENTIFrC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


56 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


There  are  other  elements,  such  as  guns, 
armor,  engines  and  fuel-supply,  which 
may  vary  considerably  in  different 
ships,  according  to  the  type  of  vessel 
that  is  produced.  If,  for  instance,  the 
architect  is  designing  an  extremely 
fast  ship  of  type  No.  1,  which  has  a 
speed  of  23  knots,  he  will  have  to  al- 
lot such  a  large  amount  of  weight  to 
the  motive  power  that  he  will  only  be 
able  to  give  the  ship  very  slight  armor 
protection  and  a  comparatively  light 
battery  of  guns.  If  he  wishes  to  pro- 
duce a  fast  ship  that  shall  be  more 
heavily  armed  and  armored,  he  has  to 


besides  protecting  his  water  line  in  the 
region  of  the  engines  and  boilers  with 
a  belt  of  steel  of  the  same  dimensions. 

The  swift  and  lightly  armed  and  ar- 
mored ship  is  known  as  a  protected 
cruiser ;  the  less  speedy  but  more  heav- 
ily armed  and  armored  ship  belongs  to 
the  armored  cruiser  type,  and  the 
slowest  ship,  with  its  capacity  for  tak- 
ing and  giving  the  heaviest  blows  that 
modern  guns  can  inflict,  is  known  as 
a  battleship. 

In  the  construction  of  a  warship 
the  two  qualities  of  attack  and  de- 
fense have  to  be  supplied.     The  offep- 


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COMPARATIVE  ARMOR  PROTECTION  IN  PRINCIPAL  TYPES  OF  MODERN 

WAR  VESSELS. 


be  content  with  less  speed,  say  20  or 
21  knots,  as  in  No.  2,  and  the  weight 
so  saved  on  the  motive  power  appears 
in  the  shape  of  a  side  belt  of  armor  at 
the  water  line,  more  complete  protec- 
tion for  the  guns  in  the  shape  of  bar- 
bettes and  turrets  and  considerably 
heavier  armament.  If,  again,  he  de- 
sires to  produce  a  ship  capable  of  con- 
tending with  the  most  powerful  ships 
in  line  of  battle,  as  in  No.  3,  he  is 
content  with  much  lower  speed,  say 
16  or  17  knots  an  hour,  and  he  in- 
creases the  power  of  his  guns  until 
they  weigh  over  60  tons  apiece,  and 
protects  them  with  great  redoubts 
and  turrets  of  steel  11-2  feet  thick, 


sive  powers  are  furnished  by  the  guns, 
the  torpedoes  and  the  ram ;  the  defen- 
sive powel-s  are  provided  by  giving  the 
ship  a  complete  double  .bottom  and  an 
abundance  of  watertight  compart- 
ments, and  by  providing  it  with  as 
much  armor  plating  as  it  will  carry  to 
keep  out  the  shells  of  the  enemy.  The 
greatest  danger  to  which  a  warship  is 
exposed  is  that  of  being  sunk  either 
by  under-water  attack  by  torpedoes  or 
the  ram,  or  by  beinf  penetrated  at  the 
water  line  by  hea  ihell  fire.  The 
destructive  force  oi  a  torpedo  is  so 
great  that  all  that  can  be  done  is  to 
localize  its  effects.  For  this  purpose, 
and  also    to  give    greater    structural 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


atrength,  the  bull  belon  the  water  line 
is  built  double — a  bull  witbiD  a  hull. 
The  longitudinat  and  transverse  plate 
frsniiog  of  the  ship  is  built  in  between 
these  Hhells,  which  are  known  as  the 
inner  and  outer  bottoms,  and  the  space 
is  thiiH  divided  into  in  numerable  wa- 
tertight compartmentB  or  cells.  There 
ia  a  posaibility  that  a  blow  that  would 
burst  Id  the  outer  shell  might  not  rup- 
ture the  inner  shell :  but  if  it  should. 
the  inflow  of  water  Is  confined  to  a  lim- 
ited portion  of  the  bull  by  dividing 
the  latter  by  transverse  and  longitudi- 
nal walls  or  bulkheads  of  plating.  A 
blow  that  burst  in  both  outer  and  in- 
ner shells  would  only  admit  water  to 
one  of  many  compartments,  and  the 
ship  would  still  have  a  large  reserve 
of  buoyancy. 

In  protecting  warships  against  shell 
lire    it    is    recognized    that    there   are 


the  battleship  this  deck  is  generally 
flat  from  side  to  side  amidsblps  Cor 
about  two-thirds  of  the  ship's  length. 
At  the  sides  it  rests  upon  a  wall  of 
vertical  armor  from  15  to  18  inches  in 
thickness,  which  extends  in  the  wake 
of  the  magazines,  engines  and  boilers. 
This  side  armor  is  usually  about  7  1-2 
feet  in  height,  3  feet  of  it  being  above 
and  41-2  feet  below  the  water  line. 
At  each  end  of  the  side  armor  a  trans- 
verse wall  of  armor  extends  clear 
aorosH  the  ship.  This  rectangular  wall 
with  its  roof  of  S-in.  steel  thus  forms  a 
kind  of  inverted  box,  sDUgly  sheltered 
below  which  are  the  before  mentioned 
"vitals"  of  the  ship.  At  each  end  of 
this  inverted  box  two  huge  barbettes, 
with  walls  15  to  17  inches  thick,  are 
bnill  up  to  a  few  feet  above  the  main 
deck,  and  just  within  and  above  them 
revolve  a  pair  of  turrets  with  walls  of 


(lUputBBbaretli 


3^ 


certain  parts  of  the  ship  which  are  of 
paramount  importance,  inasmuch  as 
their  disablement  would  leave  it  at  the 
mercy  of  the  enemy.  These  are  the 
"vitals"  of  the  ship,  and  they  com- 
prise the  magazines,  the  boilers,  the 
engines  and  the  steering  gear.  If  a 
shell  penetrated  the  magazines,  it 
would  be  liable  to  result  lu  the  blowing 
up  of  the  whole  ship,  and  if  it  entered 
the  Itoiler,  engine  or  steering  rooms, 
it  would  probably  render  the  ship  un- 
man a  genhle,  In  which  event  she  would 
run  the  risk  of  t>elng  rammed  and 
sunk  by  the  enemy. 

In  all  warshiiMi  the  vitals  are  cov- 
ered by  a  complete  protective  deck  of 
Bteel.  which  varies  in  thii'kncss  from 
1 1-2  to  3  inches.  The  highest  part  of 
the  deck  is  generally  at  a  sligbtlv 
higher  level  than  the  water  line  amid- 
ships, and  it  curves  down  at  each  end 
to  meet  the  bow  and  the  stern.    In 


15  to  17  inch  steel.  (See  perspective 
view.)  The  turrets  give  shelter  to  the 
big  guns,  of  which  there  are  a  pair  in 
each,  and  the  barbettes  protect  the 
turning  gear  by  which  the  turrets  are 
rotated.  There  ii  thus  a  continuous 
wall  of  15  to  17  inch  steel  eitend- 
ing  from  4  feat  below  the  water  line 
to  the  roofs  of  the  turrets. 

With  this  description  in  mind  the 
reader  will  see,  on  looking  at  diagram 
No.  III.,  that  before  heavy  shells 
can  injure  the  engines,  boilers  or  guna. 
they  must  pass  through  from  15  to  18 
inches  of  solid  and.  in  the  case  of 
American  battleships,  face-hardened 
Harvey  steel.  The  fi-inch  and  8-inch 
guna  are  protected  by  6  and  8  inches 

Now  it  can  readily  be  understood 
that  all  this  amount  of  heavy  armor 
and  guns  adda  greatly  to  the  weight 
of  the   ship,   and   for  this   reason,   in 


68 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


spite  of  her  smaller  engine  power,  a 
firstclass  battleship  rarely  displaces 
less  than  10,000  tons,  and  in  some  for- 
eign navies  the  displacement  runs  up 
to  nearly  16,000  tons.  This  will  be 
understood  by  reference  to  the  perspec- 
-tive  view,  where  the  armored  portions 
of  the  ship  are  indicated  by  full  lines 
and  shading.  It  will  be  seen  that  all 
that  part  of  the  ship  lying  below  the 
water  line  is  shut  in  by  a  continuous 
roof  of  steel  which  is  3  inches  in 
thickness  forward  and  aft  of  the  bulk- 
heads. Over  the  central  armored  cita- 
del it  is  2  3-4  inches  thick.  All  the 
plating  indicated  by  dotted  lines  might 
be  shot  away  without  the  "vitals"  suf- 
fering injury  or  the  ship  being  sunk. 
The  reader  will  see  that  it  is  the  bat- 
tleship's sides  and  the  extra  deck  and 
freeboard  which  they  provide  which 
constitute  practically  the  difference  be- 
tween a  battleship  and  a  monitor. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration 
of  the  monitor  type.  Take  away  from 
a  battleship  all  that  portion  which  is 
shown  in  our  drawing  in  shaded  lines 
above  the  water  line ;  lower  the  bar- 
bettes until  they  rise  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  steel  deck,  and  we  have  a 
ship  of  the  general  monitor  type.  The 
monitor  is  distinguished  by  very  low 
freeboard — only  a  few  inches  in  the  ex- 
treme type — the.  absence  of  a  heavy 
secondary  battery  and  the  possession 
of  a  main  armament  of  heavy  guns. 
Such  a  ship  labors  heavily  in  bad 
weather  and  is  not  intended  for  ser- 
vice at  any  distance  from  the  coasts. 
To  make  a  seagoing  vessel  out  of  her 
it  would  be  necessary  to  add  one,  or 
even  two  decks,  placing  the  guns  well 
up  above  the  water,  after  which 
changes  she  would  be  no  longer  a  moni- 
tor, but  a  seagoing  battleship. 

In  the  cruiser  type  the  protective 
deck  does  not  extend  across  the  ship 
at  one  level,  but  curves  down  to  meet 
the  hull  at  a  point  several  feet  below 
the  water  line.  This  sloping  portion 
is  made  thicker  than  the  flat  portion, 
as  in  diagram  No.  II.,  where  the  deck 
is  3  inches  thick  on  the  flat  and  G 
inches  on  the  slopes.  In  the  case  of 
the  armored  cruisers,  a  belt  of  vertical 
armor  is  carried  at  the  water  line  and 
in  all  cruisers  the  V-shaped  space  be- 
tween belt  and  sloping  deck  is  filled 
in  with  coal  or  with  some  form  of  wa- 
ter-excluding material,  such  as  corn- 
pith  cellulose.  In  diagram  II.,  which 
represents   the   fine    armored    cruiser 


«i 


Brooklyn,"  it  will  be  seen  that  before 
it  could  reach  the  engine  room  a  shell 
would  have  to  pass  through  3  inches 
of  vertical  steel,  about  6  feet  of  coal 
and  6  inches  of  inclined  armor — a  to- 
tal resistance  equal  to  14  or  15  inches 
of  solid  steel.  The  guns  and  turning 
gear  are  protected  by  51-2-inch  steel 
turrets  and  d-inch  barbettes.  The  bar- 
bettes, it  will  be  seen,  do  not  extend 
continuously  down  to  the  armored 
deck,  as  in  the  battleship,  for  this 
would  require  a  greater  weight  of 
armor  than  can  be  allowed.  Conse- 
quently, the  architect  is  only  able  to 
furnish  the  guns  with  a  small  armor- 
plated  tube  for  protecting  the  ammu- 
nition in  its  passage  from  the  maga- 
zines to  the  barbettes. 

In  the  protected  cruiser  the  side  arm- 
or at  the  water  line  disappears  alto- 
gether, and  dependence  is  placed  en- 
tirely upon  the  sloping  sides  of  the 
protective  deck,  the  water-excluding 
cellulose  and  the  6  or  8  feet  of  coal 
which  is  stowed  in  the  bunkers  in  the 
wake  of  the  engines  and  boilers.  The 
barbettes,  turrets  and  armored  am- 
munition tub5s  of  the  armored  cruiser 
disappear,  and  their  place  is  taken 
by  'comparatively  light  shields  and 
casements  of  4-inch  steel  which  serve 
to  protect  the  gun  crews. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  de- 
scription that  each  class  of  vessel  is 
only  fitted  to  engage  ships  of  its  own 
type.  The  protected  cruiser  "Colum- 
bia" rNo.  I.)  might,  with  her  light  6 
and  4  inch  guns,  hammer  away  all  day 
at  the  "Indiana"  (No.  III.)  without 
being  able  to  do  much  more  than 
knock  the  paint  off  the  latter's  18-inch 
armor.  wh(n*eas  one  well-directed  shot 
from  the  13-inch  guns  of  the  "Indiana" 
would  be  sufficient  to  sink  or  disable 
the  "Columbia."  The  "Brooklyn" 
would  fare  better,  and  at  close  range 
her  8-inch  guns  might  happen  to  pene- 
trate the  belt  or  turret  armor  of  the 
"Indiana,"  but  the  issue  of  the  duel 
would  never  be  in  doubt  for  an  in- 
stant. A  "Columbia"  or  a  "Brook- 
lyn" would'  show  its  heels  to  an  "In- 
diana" or  "Massachusetts,"  and  their 
great  speed  would  give  them  the  op- 
tion of  refusing  or  accepting  battle 
with  almost  any  craft  that  is  afloat 
upon  the  seas  to-day. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  in  con- 
clusion, that  the  dividing  lines  in  the 
classification  of  warships  are  some- 
what flexible. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


59 


RELATIVE   STRENGTH   IN   MATERIEL:    PRINCIPAL   NAVIES. 

A  Parliamentary  Return  dated  March  26th,  1903,  was  issued  in  May  of  that  year,  showing 
the  Fleets  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  Germany,  Italy,  the  United  States  of  America,  and 
Japan.  This  return  is  here  brought  up  to  date  Dec.  31st,  1903.  This  refers  to  the  text  matter. — 
HcuelTa  Annual. 

The  figures  in  the  tables  show  the  condition  of  affairs  on  Jan.  1,  1904;  since  this  time  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  shows  great  changes.  The  severe  losses  of  the  Russians  and  the  slight 
losses  of  the  Japanese  have  been  taken  into  account  in  the  tables.  Tlie  third,  fourth  and  filth 
tables  are  issued  by  the  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence,  U.  S.  N.,  with  modifications,  according  to 
newspaper  reports,  occasioned  by  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 

BUILT. 


Type. 


Battleships,  1st  class 

"  2nd  class 

3rd  class , 

Coast  defence  vessels 

Cruisers,  armored 

"  protected,  1st  class  . 
2nd  class. 
3rd  class. 

"        unprotected 

Torpedo  vessels 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 

Torpedo  boats 

Submarines 


Great 
Britain. 

France. 

49 

20 

4 

9 

2 

1 

2 

14 

24 

10 

21 

7 

51t 

16 

32t 

17 

10 

1 

34 

16 

112 

14 

85 

247 

5 

15 

14 

4 

12 

11 

2 

1 

8 

10 

20 

2 

32 

93 


Russia. 


Italy. 


United 
States. 


12 
2 
1 

13 
6 
2 
4 

3 

8 

40 

150 


12 

12 

— 

1 

5 

— 

15 

5 

2 

— 

3 

5 

12 

11 

2 

— 

11 

14 

11 

20 

145 

27 

1 

3 

Japan. 

6 
1 

2 

J§ 

10 

7 

9 

1 

17 

63 


BUILDING. 


Type. 


Battleships,  1st  class j 

2nd  class 

Coast  defence  vessels 

Cruisers,  armored j 

"        protected,  1st  class. . . . 

2nd  class.  .  . 
3rd  class. .  j 

Scouts j 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 

Torpedo-boats 

Submarines j 


Great 
Britain. 

France. 

Russia. 

7 

\l' 

6* 

6 

13 

J  12 
1* 

—^ 

4* 

3* 

__ 

^_ 

\h 

2 

^-^ 

2 

4 

3* 

— 

4 

4*  , 

^     — 

19 

J  19 

■     4* 

6 

15* 

5 

J  18 
•  25* 

7 

4 

25 

2 

10* 

18* 

Germany. 

Italy. 

United 

States. 

6 

6 
3* 

\h 

3 
1* 

1 

1 
11 

5 

2* 

.      1* 

5 

1* 

6* 

2* 
8 

4 

1 

2 

5 

Japan. 


4* 


6* 


2 
1 


2 
18 


RELATIVE    ORDER   OF   WAR   SHIP   STRENGTH. 


At  Present. 


Nation. 


Great  Britain. 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

United  States 

Italy 

Japan 

Austria 


Tonnage. 


1,516,040 
576,108 
387,874 
346.458 
294.405 
258,838 
243,586 
93,913 


As      WOULD     BE     THE     CaSB      WERE      VeSSELA 

Building  now  Completed. 


Nation. 


Great  Britain. 

France 

United  States, 
Germany.  .  . .  , 

Russia 

Italy 

Japan  

Austria 


Tonnage. 


1,867,250 
755.757 
616,275 
505.619 
458,432 
329,257 
253,681 
149,833 


*  Signifies  programme  1903-4  (ordered  or  projected). 

t  Including  three  partially  protected. 

1  Including  one  partially  protected. 

i  Including  two  vessels  purchased  from  the  Argentine  for  $7,500,000,  Dec.  31st,  1903. 


60 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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e 


THE  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 
IN   DETAIL. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

Personnel, — There  are  321  executive  oflS- 
oers  and  158  engineer  officers  on  the  active  list, 
and  from  5,000  to  6,000  men.  The  executive 
officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral, 
2  rear-admirals,  3  commodores,  11  captains, 
42  commanders,  30  lieutenants,  91  sub-lieu- 
tenants, 81  midshipmen,  and  60  cadets. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships 1 

Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Armored  cruisers 4 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo  vessels 6 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 3 

Torpedo  boats 22 

BUILDING. 

♦Armored  cruisers 2 

DocKTARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

San  Fernando. — Three  small  docks  take 
cruisers. 

Puerto  Belgrano.: — One  large  dock  takes 
battleships. 

Buenos  Ayres. — Very  limited  accommo- 
dation. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Personnel. — The  number  of  all  ranks  in 
the  Austrian  Navy, including  reserves,  isl0,841. 
The  officers  of  the  Austrian  Navy  are  distri- 
buted as  follows:  1  admiral,  2  vice-admirals, 
17  captains,  27  commanders,  37  lieutenant- 
commanders,  200  lieutenants,  191  sub-lieu- 
tenants, and  180  midshipmen. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built, 
building,  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903, 
was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  3rd  class 5 

Coast  defence  ships 3 

River  monitors 4 

Armored  cruisers 1 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 4 

Torpedo  vessels 15 

Torpedo  boats 37 

building. 

Battleships,  1st  class 4 

Monitors 2 

Armored  cruisers 1 

Torpedo  vessels 5 

Dockyard. — The  principal  Government 
dockyard  of  Austria-Hungary  is  situated  at 
Pola.     There  are  three  small  docks  there. 

*  These  two  vessels  are  the  Bemadino 
Rivadavia  and  the  Mariano  Moreno^  which 
were  built  in  Italy,  and  were  sold  (Dec.  3l8t, 
1903)  to  the  Japanese  Government. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


68 


BRAZIL. 

Personnel. — The  personnel  of  the  Brazil- 
ian navy  numbers  about  8,500  of  all  ranks. 
The  executive  officers  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 1  admiral,  2  vice-admirals,  10  rear- 
admirals,  18  captains,  30  commanders,  60 
lieutenant-commanders,  175  lieutenants,  and 
160  sub-lieutenants. 

Materiel. — The  ships  built  for  the  Brazil- 
ian Navy  number  in  all  63.  There  are  no 
vessels  under  construction. 

BUILT. 

Coast  defence  ships 9 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 18 

Torpedo  boats 28 

Submarines 2 

Dockyards. — ^The  only  important  dock- 
yard is  situated  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  there 
are  three  docks  to  take  cruisers,  and  two 
smaller  ones.  Besides  this  there  are  naval 
bases  at  Para,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and 
Ladario  de  Matto  Grosso. 

CHILE. 

Personnel. — The  numbers  of  officers  and 
men  on  the  active  list  are  variously  stated  to 
be  from  6,000  to  8,000.  The  executive  officers 
are  distributed  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  4 
rear-admirals,  11  captains,  18  commanders, 
16  lieutenant-commanders,  25  lieutenants, 
and  36  midshipmen. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships 2 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 5 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo  boats 24 

Dockyards. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Talcahuno. — One  dock  takes  any  warship. 
Valparaiso. — Two  small  floating  docks  take 
cruisers. 

DENMARK: 

Personnel. — The  personnel  numbers  about 
4,000  of  all  ranks.  The  executive  officers  are 
divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  2  rear- 
admiralq,  16  captains,  38  commanders,  63 
lieutenants,  33  sub-lieutenants,  and  23  mid- 
shipmen. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was:— 

BUILT. 

'  Battleships 4 

Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo  boats 25 

BUILDING. 

Coast  defence  vessel 1 

Dockyard. — At  Copenhagen  there  are  three 
small  docks. 


FRANCE. 

personnel. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the  active 
list  of  the  French  Navy  in  1903  was  53,247,  and 
in  the  Reserve  there  were  49,346  officers  and 
men.  The  number  of  men  effective  during 
1903  was  less  by  2,940  than  the  number  avail- 
able during  the  preceding  year. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  French  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 15  vice-admirals,  30 
rear-admirals,  124  captains,  212  commanders, 
751  lieutenant-commanders,  574  lieutenants, 
146  sub-lieutenants,  100  midshipmen,  183 
cadets. 

MATERIEL. 

The  number  of  ships  built,  building,  and 
projected  for  the  French  Navy  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  was:— 

BUIL/r. 

Battleships,  1st  class 20 

2nd  class 9 

3rd  class- 1 

Coast  defence  vessels 14 

Armored  cruisers 10 

Protected    cruisers,    1st  class 7 

2nd  class 16 

*      ••             ",         3rd  class 17 

Unprotected  cruisers 1 

Torpedo  vessels 16 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 14 

Torpedo  boats 247 

Submarines 15 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Aimored  cruisers 12 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 19 

Torpedo-boats 18 

Submarines 25 

projected. 

Armored  cruiser* 1 

Torpedo-boat  destrosrers 4 

Torpedo  boats 25 

Submarines 18 

dockyards. 
The  Government  dockyards  in  France  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Cherbourg. — One    dock    takes    battleships 

14,000  tons;  seven  smaller. 
Brest.— One  dock  takes  battleships;  others 

very  small. 
Lorient. — One  dock  takes  battleships  14,000 

tons;  one  takes  small  cruisers. 
Rochefort. — Three  docks,  take  small  vessels 

only. 
Toulon. — Three     docks     take     battleships 

14,000  tons;  six  others  take  cruisers. 


GERMANY. 
personnel. 
The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the  ac- 
tive list  is  35,685,  and  on  the  regular  reserve 
there  are  5,114.  The  total  number  of  able- 
bodied  men  liable  for  service  in  the  Reserve, 
however,  is  about  70,000. 

♦  This  armored  cruiser  if  the  Ernest  Renan 
of  13,562  tons. 


64 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  executive  officers  of  the  German  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 8  vice-admirals,  16 
rear-admirals,  58  captains,  125  commanders, 
245  lieutenant-commanders,  382  lieutenants, 
332  sub-lieutenants,  401  midshipmen,  200 
cadets. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  German  Navy  in  ships 
built  and  building  on  Nov.  30thi  1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 14 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class 12 

Coast  defence  ships 11 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 1 

2nd  class 8 

3rd  class 10 

Unprotected  cruisers 20 

Torpedo  vessels 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 32 

Torpedo  boats 93 

Submarines 7 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

A-rmored  cruisers 3 

Protected  cruisers,  3rd  class 5 

PROJECTED. 

Armored  cruiser* 1 

Protected  cruisers 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo  boats — 

Submarine 1 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  German  dockyards  are  situated  as 
follows: — 

Kiel. — Two  docks  take  any  ship.  Also  two 
floating  docks.  Four  docks  take  any 
ship  up  to  10,000  tons. 

Wilhelmshaven. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ; 
one  takes  up  to  10,000  tons.  Three  float- 
ing docks;  two  new  ones  building. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers,  seamen,  boys,  and 
marines  provided  for  sea  and  other  services  for 
the  year  1903-4  amounts  to  127,100,  being  an 
increase  of  4,600  on  the  previous  year.  The 
strength  of  the  Royal  Marines  on  Jan.  1st, 
1903,  was  19,579. 

The  passing  of  the  Naval  Forces  Act  during 
the  year  will  strengthen  the  Naval  Reserves  by 
increasing  its  numbers,  and  by  authorizing 
short-service  system  in  the  Navy,  on  condition 
that  those  accepting  such  employment  shall 
complete  a  term  of  seven  years  in  the  reserve. 
The  Royal  Naval  Volunteers  authorized  by 
the  Act  of  1902  have  commenced  enrolment, 
and  Divisions  have  been  formed  at  London 
and  Glasgow. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  British  Navy  in  ships 
built,  building,  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  was: — 


BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 49 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class 2 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Armored  crusiers 24 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 21 

2nd  class 51 

3rd  class 32 

Unprotected  cruisers 10 

Torpedo  vessels 34 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 112 

Torpedo  boats 85 

Submarines 5 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 7 

Armored  cruisers 13 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 4 

Scouts 4 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 19 

Torpedo  boats 5 

Submarines 4 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 4 

Protected  cruisers 3 

Scouts 4 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 16 

Submarines 10 

Two  of  the  first-class  battleships  are  those 
purchased  from  Chile. 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  public  dockyards  in  Great  Britain  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Portsmouth. — Six  docks  take  any  ship ;  three 
take  armored  cruisers,  10,000  tons  and 
smaller. 

Devonport. — ^Two  docks  take  battleships; 
two  smaller. 

Keyham. — One  dock  takes  small  battle- 
snips;  three  smaller. 

Chatham. — Six  docks  take  battleships 
(four  small  ones  onlv) ;  four  smaller. 

Sheerness. — Five  small  docks. 

Pembroke. — One  dock  taJces  small  battle- 
ships. 

Haulbowline. — ^Two  docks  take  any  ship. 


ITALY. 

PERSONNEL. 

There  are  26,948  officers  and  men  on  the 
active  list  for  the  current  financial  year,  and 
the  reserve  numbers  33,667  officers  and 
men.  This  latter  is,  however,  of  doubtful 
efficiency,  for  many  of  the  officers  are  over 
sixty-five  years  of  age,  and  the  men  have  but 
little  training. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  Italian  Navy  are 
divided  as  follows: — 1  admiral,  7  vice-admirals* 
14  rear-admirals,  58  captains,  70  commanders, 
75  lieutenant-commanders,  410  lieutenants, 
160  sub-lieutenants,  130  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  ships  built,  building  and 
projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


65 


BUILT. 

Battleships,  Ist  class 12 

3rd  class 5 

Armored  cruisers. 5 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 5 

3rd  class 11 

Torpedo  vessels 14 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 11 

Torpedo  boats 145 

Subnuuines 1 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 1 

Submarines 1 

PROJECTBD. 

Battleships,  1st  class 3 

Protected  cruisers,  3rd  class 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Torpedo  boats 8 

Submarines 1 

DOCKTARDB. 

The  Government  dockyards  of  Italy  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Spesia. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  one  takes 

all  Italian  ships;  four  smaller. 
Venice. — One    dock    takes    cruisers;    one 

smaller.     One  building  to  take  any  ship. 
Taranto. — One  dock  takes  any  ship. 


JAPAN. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  available 
for  active  service  is  about  31,000.  There  is 
also  a  small  reserve  of  some  4,000. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  in  ships  built,  building,  and 
projected  on  Nov  30th,  1903,  less  loss,  was:  — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

2nd  class 1 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Armored  cruisers 8* 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 10 

3rd  class 7 

Unprotected  cruisers 9 

Torpedo  vessels 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 17 

Torpedo  boats 63 

BUILDING. 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Torpedo  boats 18 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,!  Ist  class 4 

Armored  cruisers. 6 

DOCKTARDB. 

The  Government  dockyards  in  Japan  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Yokosuka. — One  dock  takes  any  ship;  two 

smaller. 
Kure. — One  dock  takes  cruisers. 

*  Including  two  vessels,  each  of  7700  tons 
displacement  and  a  speed  of  20  knots,  pur- 
chased from  the  Argentine  Government  for 
97,600,000  (Dec.  31st,  1003). 

t  The  projected  vessels  have  not  been 
named. 


NETHERLANDS. 

Perbonnel. — The  total  of  officers  and  men 
enlisted  for  the  navy  reaches  11,000,  but  this 
figure  includes  the  marine  infantry.  The 
executive  officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1 
vice-admiral,  3  rear  admirals,  25  captains,  40 
commanders,  400  lieutenants  and  sub-lieu- 
tenants, and  200  midshipmen. 

Materiel. — ^The  strength  in  ships  built, 
building  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903, 
was: — 

built. 

Battleships,  3rd  class 2 

Coast  defence  ships 19 

Unprotected  cruisers 11 

Torpedo  vessels 12 

Torpedo  boats 29 

building. 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Torpedo  boats 5 

projected. 

Coast  defence  ships 3 

Torpedo  vessels 7 

Torpedo  boats 2 

Submarine  (to  be  purchased) 1 

Docktardb. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  foUows: 

Helder. — Two  docks  take  cruisers. 
Hellevoetsluis. — One     dock      takes     small 

battleships. 
Amsterdam. — Two     floating     docks     take 

cruisers. 
Rotterdam. — Three    floating    docks    take 

small  cruiser?. 


NORWAY. 

Perbonnel. — The  personnel  numbers  about 
2,000,  of  which  1,000  are  permanent,  and  the 
remainder  yearly  conscripts.  The  executive 
officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1  rear-admiral, 
4  captains,  14  commanders,  28  lieutenant- 
commanders,  37  lieutenants,  30  sub-lieuten- 
ants. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 

built. 

Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Torpedo  vessels 7 

Torpedo  boats 26 

building. 

Coast  defence  vessel 1 

Torpedo  boats 2 

Submarine 1 

Docktardb. — The  principal  dockyards  of 
Norway  are  situated  as  follows: — 

Horten. — One  dry  dock  takes  small  battle- 
ships. 

Christiansand. — One  dry  dock  takes  small 
battleships. 


66 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PORTUGAL. 
Personnel. — The  number  of  men  in  the 
Portuguese  Navy  is  about  5,000,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, there  are  2  vice-admirals,  5  rear-admirals, 
16  captains,  25  commanders,  25  lieutenant- 
commanders,  80  lieutenants,  110  sub-lieu- 
tenants, 37  midshipmen,  and  06  cadets.  The 
age  for  retirement  of  a  vice-admiral  is  70 
years,  rear-admiral  66  years,  and  other  officers 
64  years. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleship 1 

Unprotected  cruisers 7 

Torpedo  vessels 14 

Torpedo  boats 11 

BUILDING. 

Torpedo  vessels 2 

Dockyard. — There  are  four  small  docks  at 
Lisbon. 


RUSSIA. 

PERSONNEL. 

There  are  2,900  officers  on  the  efifective  list 
of  the  Russian  Navy,  and  the  number  of  men 
is  61,516.  In  the  Reserve  there  are  about 
30,000  of  all  ranks. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  Russian  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 1  commander-in- 
chief  (admiral-general),  14  admirals,  24  vice- 
admirals,  33  rear-admirals,  92  captains,  212 
commanders,  850  lieutenants,  400  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  Russian  Navy  in  ships 
built,  building  and  projected,  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  less  losses,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 12 

2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 1 

Coast  defence  ships 13 

Armored  cruisers 6 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class — 

Unprotected  cruisers 3 

Torpedo  vessels 8 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 40 

Torpedo  boats 150 

Submarines 0 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 0 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 

2nd  class 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo-boats 7 

Submarines 2 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 3 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 


The  projected  battleships  are  the  Tchesmay 
Evstafi  and  loanh  Zlatoust,  all  of  which  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  laid  down  in  the  Black 
Sea  yards ;  and  the  Imperator  Pavd,  the  Andrei 
Pervoavannui,  to  be  built  in  the  St.  Petersburg 
yards.  Of  the  sixth  vessel  nothing  is  yet 
known,  nor  have  the  names  of  the  armored 
cruisers  transpired.  The  protected  cruisers 
are  to  be  of  the  Kagul  type. 

[The  war  with  Japan  has  modified  all  figures 
of  present  strength.] 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  principal  Russian  dockyards  are  situ- 
ated as  follows: — 

Kronstadt. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  three 

smaller. 
Libau. — Two  docks  take  any  ship. 
Sevastopol. — Two  docks  take  any  ship. 

SPAIN. 
Personnel. — There  are  16,700  of  all  ranks 
in  the  Spanish  Navy,  and  9,000  marines.  All 
these  are  conscripts.  The  officers  are  divided 
as  follows:  1  admiral,  4  vice-admirals,  11  rear- 
admirals,  22  captains,  47  commanders,  94 
lieutenant-commanders,  131  lieutenants,  340 
sub-lieutenants,  165  midshipmen,  and  100 
cadets. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was. — 

BUILT. 

Battleship 1 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 17 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 4 

Torpedo  boats 10 

BUILDING. 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers. 2 

Dockyards. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Cadiz. — Three  docks  take  cruisers. 

Cartagena. — One  floating  dock  takes  large 
cruisers. 

Bilboa. — One  dock  takes  any  Spanish  ship ; 
two  smaller. 

SWEDEN. 
Personnel. — The  personnel  of  the  Swedish 
Navy  in  1903  numbered  about  7,500  of  all 
ranks.  In  addition  there  are  about  20,000 
yearly  conscripts  available,  but  the  majority 
of  these  are  seldom  called  upon.  The  officers 
are  divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  4  rear- 
admirals,  6  commodores,  24  captains,  64  com- 
manders, 55  lieutenants,  30  sub-lieutenants. 

Materiel. — The  strength  of  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th  was: — 

BUILT. 

Coast  defence  vessels 10 

Torpedo  vessels 14 

Torpedo-boat  destroyer 1 

Torpedo  boats 28 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


67 


BUILDING. 

Battleship 1 

.  Armored  cruiser 1 

Torpedo  boats 3 

Submarine 1 

Dockyards. — The  principal  dockyards  in 
Sweden  are  situated  as  follows: — 

Karlscrona. — Three  docks  take  any  Swedish 

ship;  three  smaller. 
Stockholm. — One  dock  takes  cruisers. 


TURKEY. 

Personnel. — There  are  31,000  officers  and 
men  in  the  Turkish  Navy  and  9,000  marines. 
The  officers  are  divided  as  follows:  2  admirals, 
9  vice-admirals,  16  rear-admirals,  30  captains, 

90  commanders,  300  lieutenant-command- 
ers, 250  lieutenants,  200. sub-lieutenants. 

Materiel. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  for  the  Turkish  Navy  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships — 

Protected  cruiser 1 

Torpedo  vessels 6 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Toipedo  boats 25 

Submarines 2 

BUILDING. 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 


UNITED  STATES. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  is  ex- 
officio  CJommander-in-chief  of  the  Navy.  As 
his  executive  he  appoints  a  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  a  member  of  his  Cabinet,  on  a  four 
years'  term.  He  also  appoints  an  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  these  two  political 
officials,  who  are  usually  civilians,  exercise  a 
general  control  and  supervision  of  the  ten  de- 
partments or  bureaus  among  which  the  busi- 
ness is  distributed.  These  departments  are 
very  similar  to  those  in  the  British  Admiralty, 
and  they  are  almost  all  of  them  under  the 
direction  of  naval  officers.  There  are  also 
special  boards,  mostly  departmental,  who  ad- 
vise either  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  or  the 
chiefs  of  the  bureaus  on  technical   points. 


There  is  nothing  approximating  to  the  head- 
quarters staff  which  is  found  in  all  naval  ad- 
ministrations, based  on  the  precedent  of  the 
organization  of  land  forces.  In  this  re0p>eGt 
the  naval  administration  of  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  differ  from  almost  all  the 
rest.  With  r^ard  to  the  estimates,  the  chiefs 
of  the  various  bureaus  prepare  and  make 
annually  reports  which  are  published,  and  in 
these  reports  they  make  recommendations 
with  estimates  of  cost.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  also  makes  an  annual  report,  summariz- 
ing the  reports  of  his  subordinates,  with  his 
own  recommendations,  which  are  submitted 
to  Congress  in  the  shape  of  Bills,  which,  being 
passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate,  and  approved  by  the  President, 
become  law.  The  United  States  Navy  is 
manned  by  voluntary  enlistment. 

FINANCE. 

The  proposed  estimates  for  1904-5  total 
9102,866,449,  those  for  1903-4  having  been 
$79,039,331.  It  is  proposed  to  devote  to  new 
construction  the  sum  of  $28,826,860. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  tHe 
effective  list  of  the  United  States  Navy  is 
29,838,  inclusive  of  7,000  marines.  There  is 
a  reserve  in  course  of  formation,  but  it  is  not 
yet  in  working  order. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  United  States 
Navy  are  distributed  as  follows  ^ — 1  admiral, 
1  vice-admiral,  21  rear-admirals,  73  captains, 
114  commanders,  172  lieutenant-commanders, 
350  lieutenants,  100  second-lieutenants,  130 
ensigns,  90  naval  cadets  at  sea. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  in  ships  of  the  United  States 
Navy  built,  building  and  projected,  is  sepa- 
rately treated. 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  Government  dockyards  in  the  United 
States  are  situated  as  follows: — 

Brooklyn. — One  dock  takes  any  ship;  two 

smaller. 
Norfolk,  Va. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  one 

smaller. 
Mare  Island,  Cal. — One  dock  takes  any  ship. 
Boston,  Mass. — One  small  dock. 
League  Island,  Pa. — One  large  wooden  dock. 
Portsmouth,  N.  H. — One  small  dock. 

— HazeWa  Annual,  1904. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


On  January  1,  1904,  there  was  upon 
the  active  list  1  admiral,  27  rear  ad- 
mirals, 80  captains,  120  commanders, 
192  lieut-commanders,  331  lieuten- 
ants, 24  lieutenants  (junior  grade), 
166  ensigns,  101  midshipmen,  16  med- 
ical directors,  15  medical  inspectors,  86 
surgeons,  35  passed  assistant  surgeons, 
68  assistant  surgeons,  14  pay  directors, 
15  pay  inspectors,  76  paymasters,  30 
passed  assistant  paymasters,  18  assist- 
ant paymasters,  23  chaplains,  12  pro- 


fessors of  mathematics,  1  secretary  to 
the  admiral,  20  naval  constructors,  30 
assistant  naval  constructors,  28  civil 
engineers,  5  assistant  civil  engineers, 
12  chief  boatswains,  116  boatswains, 
12  chief  gunners,  100  gunners,  14 
chief  carpenters,  73  carpenters,  7  chief 
sailmakers,  150  warrant  machinists,  25 
pharmacists,  and  16  mates.  There 
were  also  649  midshipmen  on  proba- 
tion at  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annap- 
olis, Md. 


68 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


REGULATIONS    GOVERNING   THE   ADMISSION   OF   CANDIDATES 
INTO  THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AS  MIDSHIPMEN. 


NOMINATION. 

The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy 
are  styled  Midshipmen.  Two  Mid- 
shipmen are  allowed  for  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Con- 
gress, two  for  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  five  each  year  from  the  United 
States  at  large.  The  appointments 
from  the  District  of  Columbia  and  five 
each  year  at  large  are  made  by  the 
President.  One  Midshipman  is  al- 
lowed from  Porto  Rico,  who  must  be  a 
native  of  that  island.  The  appoint- 
ment is  made  by  the  President,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Governor  of 
Porto  Rico.  The  Congressional  ap- 
pointments are  equitably  distributed, 
so  that  in  regular  course  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Con- 
gress may  appoint  one  Midshipman 
during  each  Congress.  After  June 
30,  1913,  each  Senator,  Representa- 
tive, and  Delegate  in  Congress  will  be 
allowed  to  appoint  but  one  Midship- 
man instead  of  two.  The  course  for 
Midshipmen  is  six  years — four  years 
at  the  Academy,  when  the  succeeding 
appointment  is  made,  and  two  years  at 
sea,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time 
the  examination  for  final  graduation 
takes  place.  Midshipmen  who  pass 
the  examination  for  final  graduation 
are  appointed  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
lower  grades  of  the  Line  of  the  Navy 
and  of  the  Marine  Corps,  in  the  order 
of  merit  as  determined  by  the  Academ- 
ic Board  of  the  Naval  Academy. 

"The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  shall,  as 
soon  as  practicable  after  the  fifth  day 
of  March  in  each  year,  notify  in  writ- 
ing each  Senator,  Representative,  and 
Delegate  in  Congress  of  any  vacancy 
which  may  be  regarded  as  existing  in 
the  State,  District,  or  Territory  which 
he  represents,  and  the  nomination  of  a 
candidate  to  fill  such  vacancy  shall  be 
made  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Senator,  Representative,  or  Delegate. 
Such  recommendation  shall  be  made  by 
the  first  day  of  June  of  that  year,  and 
if  not  so  made  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  shall  fill  the  vacancy  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  actual  resident  of  the 
State,  District,  or  Territory  in  which 
the  vacancy  exists,  who  shall  have 
been  for  at  least  two  years  immedi- 
ately preceding  his  appointment  an 
actual  bona  fide  resident  of  the  State, 
District,  or  Territory  in  which  the 
vacancy    exists,    and    shall    have    the 


qualifications  otherwise  prescribed  by 
law." 

{Act  approved  March  4,  1903.) 

Candidates  allowed  for  Congression- 
al Districts,  for  Territories,  and  for 
the  District  of  Columbia  must  be  act- 
ual residents  of  the  Districts  or  Ter- 
ritories, respectively,  from  which  they 
ar(»  nominated. 

All  candidates  must,  at  the  time  of 
their  examination  for  admission,  be 
between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  twenty 
years.  A  candidate  is  eligible  for  ap- 
pointment on  the  day  he  becomes  six- 
teen, and  is  ineligible  on  the  day  he 
becomes  twenty  years  of  age. 

EXAMINATION. 

"All  candidates  for  admission  into  the 
Academy  shaU  he  examined  according 
to  such  regulations  and  at  such  stated 
times  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
may  prescribe.  Candidates  rejected  at 
such  examination  shall  not  have  the 
privilege  of  another  examination  for 
admission  to  the  same  class  unless  rec- 
ommended by  the  Board  of  Examin- 
ers:*    {Rev,  Stat.,  Sec.  1515.) 

When  any  candidate,  who  has  been 
nominated  upon  the  recommendation 
of  a  Senator,  Member,  or  Delegate  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  is  found, 
upon  examination,  to  be  physically  or 
mentally  disqualified  for  admission,  the 
Senator,  Member,  or  Delegate  shall  be 
notified  to  recommend  another  candi- 
date, who  shall  be  examined  according 
to  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  sec- 
tion. 

Beginning  with  the  year  nineteen 
hundred  and  four,  but  two  examina- 
tions for  admission  of  Midshipmen  to 
the  Academy  will  be  held  each  year,  as 
follows : 

1.  The  first  examination  to  be  held 
on  the  third  Tuesday  in  April,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission,  at  points  given  in  a  list 
furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Naviga- 
tion, Navy  Department,  Washington, 
D.  C.,  who  also  furnish  sample  exam- 
ination papers.  Candidates  are  exam- 
ined mentally  only  at  this  examination. 
All  those  qualifying  mentally  who  are 
entitled  to  appointment  in  order  of 
nomination  will  be  notified  by  the  Su- 
perintendent of  the  Naval  Academy  to 
report  at  the  Academy  for  physical  ex- 
amination on  or  about  June  10,  and  if 
physically  qualified  will  be  appointed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


69 


Candidates  nominated  for  the  April 
examination  may  be  examined  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  if  so  desired,  or  at 
any  of  the  places  in  any  State  named 
in  the  above  schedule. 

Senators  and  Representatives  are  re- 
guested,  when  designating  their  nomi- 
nees, to  give  the  place  at  which  it  is 
desired  they  should  be  examined  if 
nominated  for  the  April  examination. 

2.  The  second  and  last  examination 
will  be  held  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  only, 
on  the  third  Tuesday  in  June,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Academy.  Candidates 
are  examined  mentally  at  this  examin- 
ation, and  all  those  entitled  to  appoint- 
ment will  be  directed  to  report  for 
physical  examination,  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, at  the  Naval  Academy. 

Alternates  are  given  the  privilege  of 
reporting  for  examination  at  the  same 
time  with  the  principal. 

No  examination  will  be  held  later 
than  the  third  Tuesday  in  June. 

The  large  number  of  Midshipmen  to 
be  instructed  and  drilled  makes  this 
rule  necessary,  and  it  is  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  new  Midshipmen 
themselves.  The  summer  months  are 
utilized  in  preliminary  instruction  in 
professional  branches  and  drills,  such 
as  handling  boats  under  oars  and  sails, 
and  in  seamanship,  gunnery,  and 
infantry  drills.  These  practical  exer- 
cises form  most  excellent  groundwork 
as  a  preparation  for  the  academic 
course. 

The  examination  papers  used  in  all 
examinations  are  prepared  at  the 
Naval  Academy  and  the  examination 
marks  made  by  candidates  finally 
passed  upon  by  the  officials  of  the 
Academy. 

Under  the  law,  candidates  failing  to 
pass  the  entrance  examination  will  not 
be  allowed  another  examination  for 
admission  to  the  same  class  unless 
I'ecommended  for  re-examination  by  the 
Board  of  Examiners. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  only 
conducts  the  examination  of  candidates 
whose  names  have  been  furnished  by 
the  Navy  Department.  It  is  requested 
that  all  correspondence  relative  to  the 
nomination  and  examination  of  candi- 


dates be  addressed  to  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation,  Navy  Department. 

Nominations  for  examination  on  the 
third  Tuesday  in  April  should  be  for- 
warded to  the  Bureau  ten  days  prior 
to  the  date  of  examination,  as  that  is 
the  latest  date  on  which  arrangements 
can  be  made  for  th^  examination. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  enter 
the  Academy  immediately  after  passing 
the  prescribed  examination. 

No  leave  of  absence  will  he  granted 
to  Midshipmen  of  the  fourth  class. 

Candidates  will  be  examined  physic- 
ally at  the  Naval  Academy  by  a  board 
composed  of  three  medical  officers  of 
the  Navy. 

Attention  will  also  be  paid  to  the 
stature  of  the  candidate,  and  no  one 
manifestly  under  size  for  his  age  will 
be  received  at  the  Academy.  In  the 
case  of  doubt  about  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  candidate,  any  marked 
deviation  from  the  usual  standard  of 
height  or  weight  will  add  materially 
to  the  consideration  for  rejection.  The 
height  of  candidates  for  admission 
shall  not  be  less  than  5  feet  2  inches 
between  the  ages  of  16  and  38  years, 
and  not  less  than  5  feet  4  inches  be- 
tween the  ages  of  18  and  20  years. 

Candidates  will  be  examined  men- 
tally in  punctuation,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, geography,  English  grammar. 
United  States  history,  world's  history, 
algebra  through  quadratic  equations, 
and  plane  geometry  (five  books  of 
Chauvenet's  Geometry,  or  an  equiva- 
lent). Deficiency  in  any  one  of  these 
subjects  may  be  sufficient  to  insure  the 
rejection  of  the  candidate. 

ADMISSION. 

Candidates  who  pass  the  physical 
and  mental  examinations  will  receive 
appointments  as  Midshipmen,  and  be- 
come students  of  the  Academy.  Each 
Midshipman  will  be  required  to  sign 
articles  by  which  he  binds  himself  to 
serve  in  the  United  States  Navy  eight 
years  (including  his  time  of  probation 
at  the  Naval  Academy),  unless  sooner 
discharged. 

The  pay  of  a  Midshipman  is  $500  a 
year,  commencing  at  the  date  of  his 
admission. 


The  cruisers  are  the  light  cavalry  of 
the  navy.  As  their  name  implies,  their 
duty  is  to  cruise  the  seas,  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  enemy's  fleets  and  act- 
ing as  the  "eyes"  of  the  line-of-battle 
ships.    They  are  also  intended  for  the 


double  duty  of  attacking  an  enemy's 
commerce  and  defending  that  of  the 
country  whose  flag  they  carry.  Fleets 
of  merchant  vessels  or  of  transport 
ships  will  be  "convoyed"  by  cruisers 
from  port  to  port. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBPBRBNCB    BOOK. 


LIST  OP  SHIPS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


FIRST  RATE. 


11.S2S 
11.525 
11.526 


iBtC 

H«  bsttlesbip  . 

a-'.::.::'.'.::'. 

a'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

SECOND  RATE. 


Name. 

Db- 
plsee- 

(tons). 

Type. 

„.,. 

I.H.P, 

Prppul- 

tery) 

7:375 
6,S70 

iS 

li 
ti 

4,008 
4,084 

Protected  cru.« 
Double-turret  mon 

Cruiser  (converted) 

Barbette  turret  Ido 
free-bowTi      mon 
itor 

1 

]     JI3 

is 

'is 

ss69 
3,000 

TS 

1 

TS 

14 

tor 

Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 

Type- 

Hu 

1.      I.H-P. 

Pwpul- 

twy). 

•7:000 

•is 

•6,200 

fl.lSI 

i:8oo 

V,62a 

1 

Refrigerator  ship  ., 

B^e"^'- 

Cruiser  (converted) 

n 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


71 


THIRD    RATE— Continued. 


Name. 


Iris. 


Brutus 

Sterling , 

Caesar 

Nero 

Nanshan 

Abarenda. . . .  , 

Supply 

Marcellus 

Hannibal.  .  . . , 
Leonidas.  .  . .  . 

Solace , 

Panther 

Miantonomoh . 


Amphitrite. 
Terror.  . . . 


Albany 

New  Orleans 

Arkansas 

Wyoming 

Nevada 

Florida 

Cincinnati 

Raleigh 

Cleveland 

Reina  Mercedes 

Atlanta 

Boston 

Hartford 

Ma3rflower 

Topeka 

Katahdin 

Detroit 

Montgomery 

Marblehead 

Mohican 

Manila 

Bennington 

Concord 

Yorktown 

Dolphin 

Wilmington 

Helena 

Adams 

Essex 

Enterprise 

Nashville 

Castine 

Machias 

Chesapeake 

Don  Juan  de  Austria . 

Isla  de  Luzon 

Isla  de  Cuba 

Alert 

Ranger 

Annapolis 

VicksDurg 

Wheeling 

Marietta 

Newport 

Princeton 

Lawton 

Relief 


Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 


6.100 

♦6,000 
6,663 
5,0X6 
4,925 

*4,827 
4,670 
4,460 

*4,400 
4,291 
4,242 
4,700 
4,260 
3,990 

3,990 
3,990 

3,437 
3,437 
3,214 
3,214 
3,714 
3,214 
3,213 
3,213 
3,100 
3,090 
3,000 
3,000 
2,790 
2,690 
2,372 
2,156 
2,089 
2,089 
2,089 
1,900 
1,800 
1.710 
1,710 
1,710 
1,486 
1,392 
1.392 
1,375 
1,375 
1,375 
1,371 
1,177 
1,177 
1,176 
1,169 
1,030 
1,030 
1,020 
1,020 
.  1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1.000 
1,000 
1,000 
♦4,100 
♦3,000 


Type. 


Supply    and    repair 

ship. 
Collier 

.do 

.  do 

.  do 

.do 

.do 

Supply  ship 

Collier 

.  . . . do 

Hospital  ship 

Cruiser  (converted). 

Double-turret  mon- 
itor. 

.  . . . do 

Double-turret  mon- 
itor. . . . 

Protected  cruiser  .  , 

....do 

Monitor 

•  do 

.do 

Protected  cruiser  . . 
.  do 

•  v&v^*  •  ••••■  ••••• 

•  (mK.^*  ••  ••••  •••■■ 

.do 

.do 

Cruiser 

Cruiser  (converted) 

Gunboat 

Harbor  defence  ram 
Unprotected  cruiser 

.  . . . do 

...do 

Cruiser 

Gunboat 

. . . . do 

. . . . do 

.  .  . . do 

Dispatch  boat 

Light  draft  gunb't  . 

. ... do 

Cruiser 

.  . . . do 

,  . .  .  do 

Light-draft  gunb't  . 

Gunboat 

. . . . do 

•  •   •    •  ^.Av/*   ••••••    •••■• 

. . . .do 

•  ■    •    •  vftvl*    ■    ■    •••••••■    • 

....do 

Ouiser 

. . . . do 

Composite  gunboat 

•  ■    •    •  VAt^*    ••••••■      •■• 

•  •    •    •  vJit^*    ••••••■••■■ 

. . . . do 

. . . . do 

.  . . . do 

Transport 

Hospital  ship 


Hull. 


S. 

S. 
I. 
S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
I. 
I. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
I. 
I. 

I. 
I. 

s.w. 
s.w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 
s.w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

w. 

s. 

I. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

w. 

I. 

I. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

Comp, 

I. 
s. 
s. 
I. 
I. 

Comp. 
Comp. 
Comp. 
Comp. 
0)mp. 
Comp, 
S. 

s. 


I.H.P. 


1,300 

1,200 
♦926 
1,500 
1,000 

1,656 
1,069 
1,200 
1,100 
1,000 
3,200 

1,426 

1,600 
1,600 

7,500 
7.500 
2,400 
2,400 
2,400 
2,400 
10.000 
10,000 
4,700 
3,700 
4,000 
4,030 
2.000 
4.700 
2,000 
5.068 
5,227 
5.580 
5,451 
1,100 
750 
3.436 
3,405 
3.392 
2,253 
1,894 
1,988 
800 
800 
800 
2,536 
2,199 
2,046 


Propul- 
sion. 


Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 


1,500 

2,627 

2,627 

500 

500 

1,227 

1,118 

1,081 

1,054 

1,008 

800 

3,200 

2,666 


S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 

8. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
T.S. 

T.S. 
T.S. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
TS. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
TS. 
T.S. 

T.S. 

TS. 

S. 

s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
TS 
S. 

TS. 

TS. 

S. 

s. 
s. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

Sails. 

S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 

TS. 
TS. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 


t2 
2 


4 
2 
2 
2 
2 

• 

8 
4 

6 
4 


10 

10 

6 

6 

6 

6 

11 

11 

10 

•   • 

8 
8 
13 
2 
8 
4 
10 
10 
10 
6 
2 
6 
6 
6 
3 
8 
8 
6 
6 
1 
8 
8 
8 
6 
4 
6 
6 
3 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 


*  Estimated.         t  Secondary  battery. 


72 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOURTH  RATE. 


Name. 


Lebanon 

Justin 

Southery 

Pompey 

Zafiro 

General  Alava 

Yankton 

Vesuvius 

Petrel 

Scorpion 

Fern 

Bancroft 

Vixen 

Gloucester. . . . 

Michigan 

Wasp 

Frolic 

Dorothea 

Elcano 

Pinta 

Stranger 

Peoria 

Hist 

Eagle 

Hornet 

Quiros 

Villalobos  .  . .  . 

Hawk 

Siren 

Sylvia 

Callao 

Pampanga.  . . . 

Paragua 

Samar 

Arayat 

AUeen 

Mindanao.  . . . 

Elfrida 

Sylph 

C«lamianes. .  . 

Albay 

Leyte 

Oneida 

Panav 

Manilefio 

Mariveles 

Mindoro.  . .  . .  . 

Restless 

Shearwater. .  . 

Inca 

Alvarado 

Sandoval 

Huntress 

Basco 

Gardoqui.  ... 
Urdaneta. ... 


3,375 

*3,300 

♦3,100 

*3.085 

*2,000 

1,40 

975 

0929 

892 
850 
840 
839 
806 
786 
685 
630 
607 
594 
560 
550 

*546 
488 
472 
434 
425 
400 
400 
375 

*315 

*302 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
192 
174 

*173 
152 
150 
150 
150 
150 
142 
142 
142 
142 
137 
122 

*120 
100 
100 
82 
42 
42 
42 


Collier 

.  . . . do 

.  . . . do 

.  . ,  . do 

Transport 

.  . . . do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 
Dynamite-gun   ves- 
sel. 

Gunboat 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

Tender 

Gunboat 

Gunboat  conv't'd). . 

.  . . . do 

Cruiser 

Gunboat  (conv't'd) 

. .  do 

. .  do 

Gunboat 

. .  do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

. .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .do 

.  .  do 

Gunboat 

. .  do 

Gimboat  (conv't'd). 

. .  do 

. .  do 

Gunboat 

.  .do 

. .  do 

. .  do 

. .  do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

Gunboat 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

, . . . do 

Gunboat 

, . . . do 

. . . . do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

Gunboat 

. . . . do 

.  . . .  do. 

. . . . do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

. . . . do 

. . . . do 

Gunboat 

.  .  . . do 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

Gunboat 

. . . . do 

. . . . do 


Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

I. 

S. 

S. 

•  •  •  •  • 

S. 

I. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

•  •  •  • 

s. 

770 

s. 

s. 

750 

s. 

s. 

3,795 

T.S. 

s. 

1,095 

s. 

s. 

2,800 

T.S. 

w. 

300 

s. 

s. 

1,213 

T.S. 

s. 

1,250 

s. 

s. 

2,000 

s. 

I. 

365 

P. 

s. 

1,800 

s. 

s. 

550 

8. 

s. 

1,558 

8. 

s. 

600 

T.S. 

I. 

310 

S. 

I. 

s. 

s. 

•  ■  ■  •  • 

s. 

s. 

500 

s. 

s. 

850 

s. 

s. 

800 

s. 

Comp. 

208 

s. 

Comp. 

208 

s. 

s. 

1,000 

s. 

s. 

s. 

I. 

s. 

s. 

250 

T.S. 

I. 

250 

T.S. 

I. 

250 

T.S. 

I. 

250 

T.S. 

I. 

260 

T.S. 

s. 

500 

s. 

I. 

100 

T.S. 

s. 

200 

s. 

s. 

550 

s. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

w. 

350 

S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

125 

T.S. 

I. 

500 

S. 

s. 

S. 

w. 

400 

s. 

s. 

137 

s. 

s. 

137 

s. 

Comp. 

s. 

I. 

44 

s. 

I. 

44 

s. 

I. 

44 

s. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 


t4 
t2 
t2 
t2 

t4 
t8 
t3 

4 

t8 

t3 

4 

t4 

tio 

t4 

tio 


t2 

t5 

"■7 

6 

6 

9 

•2 

•2 

■•4 

■4 

6 

6 

•■4 

•4 

■4 

6 

5 

6 

■2 

'8 

3 

3 

3 

6 

"4 

"■4 

■•4 

•4 

■8 

3 

■2 

■2 

2 

2 

12 

+2 

t2 


*  Estimated         t  Secondary  battery. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


73 


TORPEDO.  VESSELS. 


Name. 


Decatur , 

Bainbridge.  .  . 

Barry 

Dale 

Chauncey 

Whipple , 

Stewart , 

Tnixtun 

Worden , 

Hopkins , 

Lawrence 

Hull 

Macdonough. , 

Preble 

Paul  Jones. . .  , 

Perry 

Bagley 

Barney 

Biddle 

Ericsson 

Foote 

Gwin.  . 

Mackenzie.  . . . 

Somers 

Gushing 

Thornton 

Stockton.-.  . . . 

De  Long 

Wilkes 

Rodgers , 

Tingey 

Bailey , 

Shubrick. ... 

Dupont 

Porter , 

Talbot 

Manly , 

Farragut. .  . .  , 

Davis , 

Fox 

T.A.M.Craven 
Dahlgren .  .  . .  , 

McKee 

Winslow 

Morris 

Stiletto 

Rowan 

Plunger 

Porpoise 

Shark 

Adder 

Moccasin.  . . .  . 

Grampus 

Pike 

Holland 


Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 


420 
420 
420 
420 
420 
433 
420 
433 
433 
408 
400 
408 
400 
420 
420 
420 
167 
167 
167 
120 
142 

46 

65 
145 
105 
165 
166 
165 
165 
142 
165 
235 
166 
165 
165 

46i 

30 
273 
132 
132 
146 
146 

65 
142 
105 

31 
182 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 

73 


Type. 


Torpedo  boat  des 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 


.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .do 

.  .do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

..do 

.  .  do 

..do 

Torpedo  boat. 
..do 


..do 

..do 

..do 

..do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

..do 

..do 

.  .  do 

Torpedo  b(.at. 
..do 


Hull. 


.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .do 

..do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

. .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

..do 

.  .  do 

.  .  do 

..do 

.  .  do 

.    do 

Submarine  tor.boat. 
..do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


S. 
S. 
8. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 


LH.P. 


Propul- 
sion. 


8.000 

8.000 

8,000 

8,000 

8.000 

8.300 

7,000 

8.300 

8,300 

7.200 

8,400 

7,200 

8.400 

7,000 

7.000 

7.000 

4,200 

4,200 

4.200 

1,800 

2,000 

850 

850 

1.900 

1,720 

3.000 

3,000 

3.000 

3.000 

2.000 

3.000 

5,600 

3,000 

3,400 

3,400 

850 

250 

5,600 

1,750 

1.750 

4,200 

4.200 

850 

2,000 

1,750 

359 

3.200 

160 

160 

160 

160 

160 

160 

160 

150 


T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 


T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 


S. 
S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 


T.S. 

s. 
s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 


T. 
T. 
T, 
T. 

T. 


S. 

S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 


s. 
s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

S. 
T.S. 

S. 

s. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 


Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 


*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

*2 

♦2 

♦2 

*2  . 

♦2 

*2 

*2 

♦2 

*3 

*3 

♦3 

*3 

*3 

♦2 

*2 

*3 

♦3 

*3 

♦3 

*3 

♦3 

*3 

*3 

*2 

*3 

*3 

*3 

*2 

*1 

*2 

*3 

*3 

*2 

♦2 

*2 

*3 

*3 

*2 

*3 

*1 

*1 

*1 

*1 

*1 

*1 

*1 

*I 


*  Torpedo  tubes. 


74 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


UNDER  (XDNSTRUCTION. 


Name. 


Connecticut. 

Kansas 

Louisiana. .  . 


Minnesota. 
Vermont. . 


Georgia 

Nebraska 

New  Jersey.  .  .  . 

Rhode  Island.  . 
Virginia 


Idaho 

Mississippi. 
Ohio 


Tennessee 

Washington. .  . . 

California 

Pennsylvania.  . 
West  Virginia. . 

Colorado 

Maryland 

South  Dakota.  . 

Charleston 

Milwaukee 


St.  Louis.  .  .  . 
Chattanooga . 

Denver 

Des  Moines.  . 


Galveston. 
Tacoma.  . 


Dubuque . 


Paducah 

Gunboat  No.  16 
Cumberland.  .  .  . 


Intrepid. 
Boxer.  . . 


Stringham     (No. 

19) 
Goldsborough 

(No.  20) 

Nicholson 

(No.  30) 
O'Brien  (No.  31) 
Blakely  (No.  28) 

Sotoyomo  (No. 9) 


Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 


Type. 


1st  class 
battleship 
.  .do. 


.do. 

.do. 
.do. 

.do. 
•  do. 
.do. 

.do. 
.do. 

.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Armored 

cruiser. 

.  .do. .  .  . 

.  .  do.  ... 

Armored 

cruiser. 

.  .do.  .  .  . 

.  .do.  .  .  . 

.  .do.  .  .  . 

do 


16,000 

16,000 

16,000 

16.000 
16,000 

15,000 
15,000 
15,000 

14,600 
14,600 

13,000 
13,000 
12,500 

14,500 

14,500 

14,000 

14,000 

14,000 

13,600 

..3,600 

13,600 

9,600  Protected 

cruiser. 
9,600  .  .  do. 


9,600 
3,100 
3,100 
3,100 

3,100 
3.100 

1,085 


1,085 

l",800 

1,800 
345 

340 

247i 

174 

174 
165 

225 


.do.  .  .  . 
.do.  . .  . 
.do..  .  . 
.do. .  .  . 

.do.  .  .  . 
.do.  .  .  . 

Gunboat 


.  .do.  .  .  . 
.  .do.  . .  . 
Training 

ship 
.  .  do. .  .  . 
Traininp; 
brigantine 
Torpedo 

boat 
.  .do. . .  . 

.  .  do 

.  .do 

.  .  do 

.  .do 


Hull. 


S. 
S. 

s. 

s. 
s. 

s.w. 
s.w. 

S.W. 

s. 
s. 

s. 
s. 
s. 

s. 

s. 

s.w. 
s.w. 
s.w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 
s.w. 

s.w. 
s.w. 

s.w. 
s.w. 

s.w. 

s.w. 

s. 
s. 

s. 
w. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 
s. 

s. 


I.H.-P. 


16,500 

16,500 

16,500 

16,500 
16,500 

18,000 
18.000 
18,000 

18,000 
18,000 

10.000 
10,000 
16,000 

25,000 

25,000 

23,000 

23,000 

23,000 

23,000 

23,000 

23,000 

21,000 

21,000 

21,000 
4,700 
4,700 
4,700 

4,700 
4,700 

1,050 
1,050 


7,200 

6,000 

3,500 

3,500 
3,000 

450 


Pro- 
pul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

T.S. 

24 

T.S. 

24 

T.S. 

24 

T.S. 
T.S. 

24 
24 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

24 
24 
24 

T.S. 
T.S. 

24 
24 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

22 
22 
20 

T.S. 

20 

T.S. 

20 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

22 

T.S. 

14 

T.S. 

14 

T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

14 
10 
10 
10 

T.S. 
T.S. 

10 
10 

T.S. 

6 

T.S. 
T.S. 

•   « 

6 
6 

•   • 

6 

•   • 

T.S. 

*2 

T.S. 

*2 

T.S. 

*3 

T.S. 
T.S. 

*3 
♦3 

S. 

Place  where  building. 


Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

New  York   Ship   Building  O)., 
Camden,  N.  J. 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N*p't  News,Va. 
Do. 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  C^..  Quincy. 
Mass. 

Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Me. 

Moran  Bros.  Co.,  Seattle,  Wash. 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Quincy, 
Mass. 
Do. 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,N'p't  News,Va. 

Contract  not  yet  awarded. 
Do. 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 
co, Cal. 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

New   York   Ship  Building  Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 
co, Cal. 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

Wm.  Oamp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  New8,Va. 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 
co, Cal. 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  New8,Va. 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 
co, Cal. 

Neafie  &  Levy,  Philadelphia,Pa. 

Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

Neane  &  Levy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  C^.,  Quincy, 
Mass. 

Navy  Yard,  Norfolk. 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 
co. Cal. 

Gas  Engine  and  Power.  O).,  and 
Chas.  L.  Seabury  &  Co.,  con- 
solidated, Morris  Heights,N.Y. 
Do. 

Contract  not  yet  awarded. 

Navy  Yard,  Boston,  Mass. 

Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 
Navy  Yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Navy  Yard,  League  Island. 

Navy  Yard,  Puget  Sound. 

Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

Do. 
Geo.  Lawley  &  Sons,  South  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 
Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 


♦Torpedo  tubes. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMfe 


Rence  book. 


SUMMARY  OF  VESSELS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


UnproWeWd  oniuara 

Ligfat-jraft  gunboats 

Composite  (unboati 

TiminioK  ihlp  (Naval  Aculemy),  sheathed 

Oanboats  under  SOOtoiu 

TorfMdo-boat  destroyen 

Steal  torpedo  boats 

Submarine  torpedo  boats 

Wooden  torpedo  boat 

Wooden  rising  vessde.  atrnm!  '.'.'■'.'.'.'. 

Wooden  Bftilini  vessels 

TU«8; 


SiQiply  diipa  and  ho^ital  shipi 


Gunboat  for  gnat  Lakes  (no 

1  begun)  . , . 

.„.„„,„„. 

Wooden  iruising  vessels,  sieam 

.._ir_lir 

■;, I  .a.;  sag  ssss  ||  .5  |;|  .„  . 


dl|      S|=:   fsll:   53SS        ^5      si      SS    giS  I     S  ' 


ai^sTrrs  .1 


ii: 


iiittiillipijiii 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


78 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    TORPEDO    BOAT    IN    MODERN   WARFARE. 


The  Russo-Japanese  war  has  proved 
the  wisdom  of  building  torpedo  boat 
destroyers  of  the  dimensions  and  pow- 
er that  characterize  the  latest  models. 
With  their  length  of  220  feet,  beam  of 
over  20  feet  and  draft  of  between  9 
and  10  feet,  giving  a  displacement  of 
between  300  and  400  tons,  the  mod- 
ern destroyer  is  a  very  serviceable  sea 
boat,  which  was  more  than  could  be 
said  for  the  torpedo  boat  of  an  earlier 
decade.  The  high  freeboard  and  the 
provision  of  a  raised  turtle-back  for- 
ward, render  these  boats  able  to  main- 
tain their  high  speed  in  fairly  rough 
water,  and  in  the  present  operations 
the  flotillas  of  Japanese  destroyers 
seem  to  have  been  perfectly  well  able 
to  keep  the  sea  in  all  weather.  Evi- 
dently the  lessons  taught  by  the  dis- 
asters that  happened  to  some  of  the 
high-powered  British  torpedo  boat  de- 
stroyers, when  they  were  badly 
wrenched,  and  in  one  case  actually  bro- 
ken in  two  in  a  heavy  seaway,  have 
been  laid  to  heart,  and  the  Japanese 
destroyers  which  did  such  good  work 
around  Port  Arthur  are  evidently  sea- 
worthy vessels. 

A  surprising  feature  of  torpedo  boat 
service  in  the  Far  Eastern  struggle  is 


the  wide  range  of  duties  which  were 
assigned  to  the  destroyers.  Scouting 
work  which  ordinarily  would  be  given 
to  cruisers  from  3,000  to  6,000  tons 
displacement  was  satisfactorily  car- 
ried out  by  these  little  400-ton  craft. 

By  reference  to  the  section  dia- 
gram on  page  77  the  reader  can  obtain 
a  veiy  complete  idea  of  a  torpedo  boat 
interior.  Forward  in  the  bow  is  a 
coFlision  compartment  formed  by  a 
bulfehead^located  several  feet  from  the 
bow.  Aft  of  that  is  the  chain  locker, 
and- then,  the  torpedoes,  of  which  half 
a  dozien  are  carried  on  a  vessel  of  this 
character!  Since  the  torpedo  boat  car- 
ries no  armor  whatever,  the  torpedoes, 
the  war-heads,  and  the  magazines  are 
placed  below  the  water-line,  where  they 
are  safe  from  any  except  a  plunging 
shot.  The  torpedoes  are  stowed  with 
their  war-heads  containing  the  guncot- 
ton  charge  unscrewed,  the  latter  being 
stowed*  separately,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. Aft  of  the  war-heads  is  the 
forward  jhagazi^^  and  a  compartment 
given  up  to  the  general  ship's  stores. 
On  the  deck  above  are  the  quarters 
for  the  crew,  which  will  number  be- 
tween fifty  and  sixty  men  in  the  larger 
boats. 


THE   MODERN   TORPEDO. 


Commenting  during  the  late  Spanish 
war  upon  the  eflSciency  of  the  torpedo, 
we  said :  "Although  torpedo  warfare 
has  not  yet  achieved  results  at  all  pro- 
portionate to  the  amount  of  thought 
and  skill  that  have  been  devoted  to 
it,  the  failure  has  probably  been  due 
more  to  a  lack  of  opportunity  or  of 
eflScient  handling  than  to  any  defi- 
ciency in  the  torpedo  itself."  The 
startling  events  that  marked  the  open- 
ing of  the  Russo-Japan  war  have  es- 
tablished the  truth  of  that  statement, 
for  in  the  hands  of  an  alert,  intelligent 
and  daring  people,  this  deadly  weapon, 
in  the  first  half  hour  of  hostilities,  so 
badly  crippled  two  of  the  finest  battle- 
ships and  one  of  the  best  cruisers  of 
the  Russian  navy  that  they  had  to  be 
beached,  and  a  blow  was  struck  at  the 
naval  prestige  of  Russia  from  which 
that  country  will  take  many  years  to 
recover.  At  the  same  time,  the  Port 
Arthur  torpedo  attack  must  be  judged 
at  its  true  value ;  and,  therefore,  we 
must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
information  is  finding  its  way  to  the 
public  ear  which  makes  it  pretty  evi- 
dent that  the  Russian  ships  were  not 
looking   for,   and  were  totally  unpre- 


pared to  receive,  a  torpedo  attack.  If 
this  is  the  case,  what  has  been  proved 
is  that  if  the  torpedo  boat  can  get  un- 
molested wuthin  easy  range,  the  tor- 
pedo is  fairly  sure  of  its  mark — and 
this  we  all  knew  well  enough  before 
the  war  began. 

The  Whitehead  torpedo  is  undergo- 
ing constant  development,  the  latest 
improvement  being  the  introduction  of 
the  gyroscope  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  torpedo  more  accurately  upon 
its  true  course.  The  latest  patterns 
include  this  device  and  are  generally 
of  larger  diameter  and  greater  length 
than  the  earlier  types. 

We  show  on  the  preceding  page  an 
illustration  of  a  Schwartzkopflf  tor- 
pedo, which  is  the  type  used  in  the 
Russian  navy.  It  is  merely  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  Whitehead  and  operates 
upon  the  same  principles. 

The  torpedo  here  shown  consists  of 
a  cigar-shaped  body  of  phosphor-bronze 
or  steel,  divided  into  six  separate 
compartments  as  follows:  (1)  The 
magazine,  (2)  the  secret  chamber,  (3) 
the  reservoir,  (4)  the  engine  compart- 
ment, (5)  the  buoyancy  compartment, 
(6)    the  bevel-gear  chamber. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


79 


The  magazine  contains  the  explosive 
charge,  which  consists  of  a  series  of 
disks  of  wet  guncotton  packed  snugly 
together.  The  cartridge  primer,  fc,  for 
exploding  the  charge,  consists  of  sev- 
eral cylinders  of  dry  guncotton  packed 
in  a  tube  which  passes  through  per- 
forations in  the  guncotton  disks,  t. 
The  foremost  of  the  six  cylinders  con- 
tains a  detonating  primer  consisting  of 
fulminate  of  mercury.  The  small  pro- 
peller at  the  extreme  point  of  the  tor- 
pedo is  part  of  an  ingenious  safety  de- 
vice for  preventing  premature  explo- 
sion in  handling.  When  not  in  use, 
the  firing  pin  is  held  in  check  by  a 
sleeve ;  but  as  soon  as  the  torpedo 
strikes  the  water  the  rotation  of  the 
little  propellers  releases  the  sleeve  and 
leaves  the  firing  pin  ready  to  strike  the 
detonating  primer  the  moment  the  tor- 
pedo meets  an  obstruction. 

The  "secret  chamber"  is  the  naost 
ingenious  part  of  this  most  ingenious 
piece  of  mechanism.  Its  piston,  pen- 
dulum and  springs  perform  the  impor- 
tant work  of  regulating  the  horizontal 
rudders  which  keep  the  torpedo  at  the 
proper  depth.  Immediately  in  front  of 
the  secret  chamber  is  a  narrow  com- 
partment perforated  on  its  walls  to 
allow  the  outside  water  to  enter.  The 
front  wall  of  the  secret  chamber  car- 
ries a  piston,  a,  which  can  move  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  torpedo. 
The  pressure  of  the  water  is  resisted 
by  three  coiled  springs,  as  shown  in 
the  longitudinal  section.  At  a  certain 
predetermined  depth,  according  to  the 
tension  on  the  springs,  the  springs  and 
water  pressure  will  be  in  equilibrium ; 
below  that  depth  the  piston  will  be 
driven  in  by  the  water  pressure,  and 
above  it  the  springs  will  push  forward 
the  piston.  To  prevent  too  sudden  os- 
cillation in  this  action,  the  piston  is 
connected  to  the  rod,  e,  of  a  swinging 
pendulum,  d.  The  motion  of  the  pis- 
ton is  communicated  by  rods,  which 
pass  through  the  hollow  stay  rods  of 
the  air  chamber  to  the  horizontal  or 
diving  rudders.  If  the  torpedo  goes  too 
deep  the  piston  moves  back,  the  pendu- 
lum swings  forward  and  the  rudders 
are  elevated,  the  reverse  movements 
taking  place  if  the  immersion  is  not 
sufficient.     When  a  torpedo  dives  into 


the  water,  the  first  part  of  its  run  is 
made  on  a  wave  line  which  crosses  and 
recrosses  the  desired  and  ultimate  level 
of  immersion,  the  piston  and  the  pen- 
dulum gradually  bringing  the  torpedo 
to  a  true  course.  The  reservoir  forms 
the  central  body  of  the  "fish."  It  is 
made  of  forged  cast  steel  and  is  tested 
up  to  seventy  atmospheres.  A  tuyere 
at  its  after  end  feeds  the  air  to  the 
engine.  The  torpedo  is  driven  by  a 
three-cylinder  engine,  with  cylinders 
120  deg.  apart,  acting  on  a  common 
crank.  The  engine  is  started  by  means 
of  a  valve  which  is  opened  by  a  lever 
striking  a  projecting  lug  on  the  launch- 
ing tube,  when  the  torpedo  is  fired. 

The  buoyancy  chamber  is  an  air- 
tight compartment,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  afford  the  proper  buoyancy 
to  the  torpedo ;  it  carries  a  piece  of 
lead  ballast,  by  shifting  which  the  trim 
can  be  controlled.  The  two  tubes,  f 
and  g,  carry  the  connecting  rods  for 
controlling  the  horizontal  diving  rud- 
ders. 

Next  comes  the  bevel-gear  chamber, 
where  is  located  the  gear,  I,  for  caus- 
ing the  propellers,  m,  to  rotate  in  op- 
posite directions.  The  after  propeller 
is  keyed  to  the  main  shaft ;  the  forward 
propeller  is  keyed  to  a  sleeve  which 
rotates  freely  upon  the  main  shaft,  and 
the  motion  is  reversed  by  means  of  two 
bevel-wheel  gears  which  turn  on  a 
spindle  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
shaft.  The  "tail"  consists  of  a  stock 
with  vertical  vanes,  which  act  as  the 
vertical  rudder,  and  two  frames  which 
carry  the  horizontal  rudders. 

The  torpedo  is  fired  from  a  launch- 
ing tube  by  the  explosion  of  a  small 
charge  of  gunpowder  behind  it.  This 
compresses  the  air  which  surrounds 
the  rear  half  of  the  torpedo  and  thrusts 
it  out  of  the  tube  without  any  serious 
jar. 

The  range  and  speed  of  the  torpedoes 
vary  with  the  size.  The  weapon  here 
shown  is  14  inches  in  diameter,  15  feet 
in  length,  carries  90  pounds  of  guncot- 
ton and  has  a  speed  of  28  knots  for  a 
range  of  800  yards.  The  18-inch 
Whitehead  torpedo  is  16  feet  7Mj 
inches  in  length,  carries  a  charge  of 
220  pounds  of  guncotton  and  has  a 
speed  of  31  knots  for  1,000  yards. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERIOR   OF   A   BATTLESHIP. 


The  storj  of  the  implicated  char-  I 
acter  of  the  interior  of  a  modem  bat- 
tleship JB  one  that  has  grown  Rorae-  [ 
what  etale  in  the  telling,  Bod  it  is  not 
the  fault  of  the  magazine  writer  and 
the  occasional  correspondent  of  San- 
(lay  supplements,  if  the  general  public 
is  not  satisfied  tbat  a  great  battleship 
or  cruiser  is  complicated  beyond  tbe 
power  of  words  to  ei press. 

In  saying  that  the  battleship  is  com- 
plicated we  must  be  careful  to  remem- 
ber that  complication  does  not  impl^ 
confusion ;  and  that  in  all  tbe  practi- 


vessel,  but  will  leave  it  to  tbe  diagram 
to  Cell  its  own  story. 

The  drawing  is  what  is  known  as  an 
inboard  profile;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a 
vertical,  central,  longitudinal  section 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  ahip. 
The  huge  structure  of  which  we  thus 
obtain  an  interior  view,  is  a  little  un- 
der 4r]0  feet  in  length  from  the  extreme 
tip  of  the  ram  to  the  end  of  the  rud- 
der. The  foundation  of  the  whole  is 
the  keel,  which  Is  nothing  more  nor 
less  llian  a  deep  plate  girder,  3  feet  6 
inches  in  depth,  extending  from  the  In- 


„ octionstu.™. 

».  Torpedoeg  and  Bubi 


IS.  Chart  . . 

■    17.  Office™' 

18.  CreVe  galley. 


cable  achievemenla  of  engineering,  it 
would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
find  a  structure  which,  in  spite  of  the 
many  parts  of  which  it  is  made  up 
and  tbe  enormous  elaboration  of  detail 
that  it  manifests,  is  really  so  harmo- 
niously proportioned,  or  is  better  fitted 
to  the  ends  for  which  it  was  designed. 
There  are  some  subjects  of  which  an 
illustration  will  tell  more  in  five  min- 
utes than  tongue  or  pen  can  explain  in 
an  hour;  and  in  presenting  the  accom- 
panying view  of  tbe  interior  of  one  of 
I  he  latest  battleships  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  we  shall  not  attempt  lo 
give  any  elaborate  description  of  the 


board  end  of  the  r.  _   _   ..   ._. 

rudder  post.  Bisecting  it  at  every  3 
feet  of  its  length  occurs  one  of  the 
plate  girder  frames  or  ribs,  which  ex- 
tend Bthwartship,  and  run  up  to  the 
under  edge  of  the  armor  ^elf,  where 
they  are  reduced  to  a  depth  of  say  from 
18  to  12  inches,  the  frames  extend- 
ing up  the  sides  of  tbe  ship  to  the 
level  of  the  upper  deck.  On  the  out- 
side of  these  frames  is  riveted  the 
outer  plating  of  the  ship,  and  upon  tbe 
inside  of  the  frames,  extending  as  bigb 
up  as  the  under  side  of  the  water-line 
belt,  say  4  or  5  feet  below  the  water- 
line,  is  riveted  an  inner  shell  of  plat- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ine-  The  space  between  the  outer  and 
inoer  plating  is  divided  up  by  the 
trames  into  transverse  water-tight 
chambers  3  feet  in  width,  and  ever; 
□□e  of  these  spaces  is  subdivided  by 
seven  or  ei^t  longitudinal  plate  gird- 
ers wbich  are  built  into  the  double 
bottom,  as  it  is  called,  parallel  with 
the  keel  and  extending,  most  of  them, 
the  entire  length  from  stem  to  stem. 
Consequently  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
space  between  the  outer  and  inner 
sbells  of  the  ship's  bottom  is  divided 
into  an  innumerable  number  of  sep- 
arate compartments. 'measuring  3  feet 
in  depth  by  i  feet  in  length  by  about 


_   of   the   fragments  of  heavj" 

bigh-eiplosive  shells  bursting  within 
Che  ship  above  the  water  line  a  steel 
decb,  2  to  3  indies  in  tbickness  known 
as  the  protective  dei,k  ei tends  at 
about  the  level  of  the  water  line  oier 
the  whole  of  the  vitals,  and  is  con 
tinued  in  a  gently  <iirv  ng  -ilope  to  the 
ram  forward  sad  to  the  stem  aft  In 
the  vessel  here  shown  this  steel  deck 
is  1^  im-hes  thii-k  on  the  flat  and  3 
inches  thick  on  the  slopes 

Now,  the  space  below  the  protective 
deck  is  divided  up  bv  a  large  number 
of  transverse  water  tight  bulkheads 
of  steel  plating    there  being  nineteen 


iDERN    BATTLESHIP 


31  SigDBl  lower 

32  Mnitsrymaet 

33  Crane 

34  Junior  oflicer«  sf 
Si  Blonerroom 

3e  IS-mch  haDdling 


e  feet   in   width.     The   plates  are  se- 
curely riveted  together. 

Above  the  inner  floor  or  platform  the 
central  portion  of  the  vessel  is  taken 
up  by  the  magazines,  boiler  rooms  and 
engine  rooms.  These  because  ol  their 
vast  importance,  are  known  as  the 
ship's  vitals,  and  great  care  is  taken 
to  provide  them  against  the  entrance 
of  heavy  projectiles  of  the  enemy,  and, 
as  far  as  may  be.  against  the  attack 
of  the  still  more  deadly  torpedo.  The 
engines  and  hollers  are  so  proportioned 
as  to  height  that  they  do  not  extend 
above  the  water-line;  and  to  protect 
them  from  plunging  sht^  or  from  the 


WaHroom. 
Sleerine  mac) 


of  these  bulkheads  altogether.  Thev 
extend  from  the  inner  shell  of  the 
vessel  to  the  under  aide  of  the  protec- 
tive deck.  They  are  riveted  perfectly 
water-tight,  communication  from  com- 
partment to  compartment  being  by  wa- 
ter-tight doors.  Forward  in  the  bow 
are  the  trimming  tanks,  used  to  assist 
in  bringing  the  vessel  to  an  even  keel. 
Then  abaft  of  the  collision  bulkhead 
are  bread  and  dry  provision  stores,  and 
the  construction  stores.  In  the  next 
compartment,  which  is  divided  into 
three  de<'ks.  we  have  on  the  floor  of 
the  ship  a  storeroom  for  torpedo  gear. 
submarine  mines,  etc.     Above  this  is 


82 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  under-water  torpedo  room,  and  im- 
mediately below  the  protective  deck  are 
kept  the  paymaster's  stores  and  life 
preservers.  In  the  next  compartment, 
below  on  the  platform,  are  the  anchor 
gear  and  dhain  lockers,  and  above  this 
the  navigator's  stores.  Passing  through 
the  next  bulkhead  we  come  to  the  vi- 
tals of  the  ship  proper,  with  the  6- 
inch  gun  magazines  on  the  floor,  the 
12-inc'h  magazines  and  handling  rooms 
on  the  deck  above,  and  above  this  the 
14-pounder  ammunition  and  blower 
rooms.  Above  the  magazines,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  protective  deck,  is  the  bar- 
bette of  the  forward  pair  of  12-inch 
guns,  the  armor  and  its  relative  thick- 
ness being  shown  by  heavy,  black  lines ; 
while  in  front  of  the  barbette  the  heavy 
sloping  black  line  indicates  the 
athwartship  sloping  bulkhead,  placed 
there  to  prevent  raking  projectiles 
from  passing  through  the  entire  struc- 
ture of  the  ship.  Immediately  to  the 
rear  of  the  forward  barbette  is  seen 
the  coning  tower,  with  the  heavily  ar 
mored  tube  which  protects  the  tele- 
phones, electric  wires,  fuse  tubes,  etc., 
that  pass  from  the  tower  down  below 
the  protective  deck.  In  the  next  com 
partment,  aft  of  the  magazines,  are 
the  dynamo  rooms ;  and  then  between 
the  next  two  bulkheads  is  placed  an 
athwartship  coal  bunker.  A  similar 
athwartship  coal  bunker  extends 
athwartship  on  the  other  side  of  the 
boiler  rooms ;  and  it  must  be  under- 
stood that  at  the  side  of  the  boiler 
rooms  are  the  wing  bunkers  which  run 
aft  for  the  whole  length  of  the  boiler 
rooms  and  engine  rooms.  The  boiler 
installation  on  this  particular  ship  is 
entirely  of  the  water-tube  type,  and 
it  consists  of  twenty-four  units  ar- 
ranged in  six  separate  water-tight  com- 
partments, three  on  each  side  of  the 
center  line  of  the  vessel.  Aft  of  the 
boiler  rooms  comes  the  athwartship 
coal  bunker  above  referred  to,  and 
then  in  two  separate  water-tight  com- 
partments are  the  twin-screw  engines. 
Aft  of  the  engines  in  another  com- 
partment is  contained  a  complete  set 
of  magazines  similar  to  that  beneath 
the  forward  barbette,  and  above  them, 
resting  on  the  protective  deck  is  the 
after  barbette  and  turret,  with  its  pair 
of  12-inch  guns.  Aft  of  the  maga- 
zines come  more  compartments,  de- 
voted to  stores.  In  the  next  com- 
partment, down  on  the  platform,  are 
the  fresh-water  tanks  and  two  trim- 
ming  tanks,  and  on  the  deck  above,  be- 
low the  protective  deck  are,  first,  the 
steering-machinery  room,  and  then  the 


steering-gear  room,  each  being  in  a 
separate  water-tight  compartment. 
This  completes  the  description  of  the 
space  below  the  protective  deck. 

The  protective  deck  is  known  more 
generally  among  seamen  as  the  berth 
deck.  Above  that,  at  a  distance  of 
about  SVz  feet,  comes  the  main  deck, 
and  8%  feet  above  that  the  upper 
deck,  while  amidships,  between  the  two 
main  turrets,  is  the  superstructure,  the 
deck  of  which  is  known  as  the  super- 
structure or  boat  deck.  The  berth 
deck  and  main  deck  are  devoted  to  the 
living  accommodations  of  the  officers 
and  crew,  the  crew  being  amidships 
and  forward,  and  the  officers  aft.  The 
berth  deck,  as  its  name  would  indicate, 
is  largely  devoted  to  the  berthing  and 
general  living  accommodation  of  the 
crew.  Here  are  also  to  be  found,  in 
the  wake  of  the  forward  gun  turrets, 
on  one  side  the  sick  bay,  and  on  the 
other  side  the  refrigerating  room  and 
ice  machine.  Aft  of  that,  on  the  port 
side,  are  the  sick  bay,  lavatory,  dis- 
pensary, machinists'  quarters,  ord- 
nance workshop  and  blowers ;  while  on 
the  starboard  side  are  the  petty  offi- 
cers' quarters,  the  laundry,  and  the 
drying-room.  Then,  in  the  wake  of 
the  boiler-rooms,  on  each  side  of  the 
ship,  are  coal  bunkers  which  add  their 
protection  to  that  of  the  side  armor 
of  the  vessel.  In  the  center  of  the 
ship  are  washrooms  for  the  crew  and 
firemen.  Aft  of  the  coal  bunkers  on 
this  deck  come  the  officers'  quarters. 
On  both  sides  of  the  ship  are  the 
staterooms  of  the  junior  officers,  and 
the  wardroom  staterooms,  while  be- 
tween them  is  a  large  wardroom  and 
dining-room  with  its  pantry.  The  ex- 
treme aft  portion  of  the  berth  deck 
is  taken  up  by  officers'  lavatories,  etc. 

On  the  main  deck  above,  forward,  is 
more  berthing  accommodation  for  the 
crew,  also  shower  baths  and  lavatories, 
while  amidships  are  found  the  various 
galleys  for  the  crew  and  the  officers, 
arranged  between  the  basco  of  the 
smokestacks,  while  amidships  in  the 
wings  of  the  vessel  is  more  berthing 
space  for  the  crew.  Aft  on  the  main 
deck  the  space  is  given  up  largely  to 
accommodations  for  the  senior  officers 
and  for  the  admiral,  which,  by  the 
way,  give  one  an  impression  more  of 
commodiousness  than  of  rich  or  ex- 
travagant, furnishing.  Forward,  above 
the  conning  tower,  are  the  pilothouse, 
chartropm  and  the  room  of  the  com- 
manding officer.  In  the  particular 
ship  shown,  the  heavier  guns  are 
mounted  on  the  upper  deck,   two  12- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    EBPBRENCE    BOOK. 


LONGITUDINAL     SECTION     THROUGH     A     UNITED    STATES     BATTLESHIP 

SHOWING     12-lNCH     GUN    TURRET,    BARBETTE,  HANDLING 

ROOM,    AND     MAGAZINES. 


84 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


inch  guns  in  a  turret  fprward  and  two 
aft,  and  eight  8-inch  guns  in  two  ar- 
mored turrets,  two  on  each  broadside 
amidships.  The  intermediate  battery 
of  twelve  6-inch  guns  is  mounted  on 
the  main  deck,  the  guns  firing  through 
casemates.  On  this  deck  are  also 
eight  3-inch  guns,  four  forward  and 
four  aft ;  there  are  also  four  3-inch 
guns,    mounted    in    broadside   on    the 


upper  deck,  within  the  superstructure. 
ITie  new  method  of  emplacing  guns  on 
our  warships,  by  which  it  is  possible 
to  swing  the  guns  around  until  their 
muzzles  are  flush  with  the  side  of  the 
ship,  has  the  good  effect  of  leaving  the 
side  of  the  ship  free  from  projecting 
objects  when  the  vessel  is  in  harbor, 
and  of  leaving  the  living  spaces  of  the 
crew  but  very  slightly  obstructed. 


SECTION  THROUGH  THE  TURRET  AND  BARBETTE  OF  A 

MODERN  BATTLESHIP. 


In  the  foregoing  illustration,  show- 
ing the  interior  of  a  turret  and  bar- 
bette on  a  modern  American  battle 
ship,  the  section  has  been  carried 
down  through  the  structure  of  the  ship 
to  the  keel.  It  is  taken  on  a  vertical 
plane  in  the  line  of  the  keel  and  in- 
cludes enough  of  the  ship  in  the  fore 
and  aft  direction  to  take  in  the  am- 
munition and  handling  rooms,  and 
show  the  methods  of  storing  the  shot 
and  shell  and  powder  and  the  means 
for  bringing  it  up  to  the  breech  of  the 
gun.  Commencing  at  the  bottom  of 
the  section  we  have,  first,  the  outside 
plating  of  the  ship ;  then  about  four 
feet  above  that  is  the  inside  plating, 
or  inner  bottom,  as  it  is  called.  This 
Bpace  is  divided  laterally  by  the  frames 
of  the  ship,  which  run  across  the  bot- 
tom and  up  the  sides  to  the  shelf,  upon 
which  the  side  armor  rests.  Upon  the 
double  bottom,  and  between  that  and 
the  first  deck  above,  is  a  magazine 
where  the  ammunition  is  stored  in 
racks  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  this 
particular  ammunition  being  for  the 
rapid-fire  guns  of  six-inch  calibre.  On 
the  deck  above  and  centrally  below  the 
turret,*  is  located  the  handling  room 
into  which  open  by  water-tight  doors 
the  magazines,  where  are  stored  the 
powder  charges  and  the  shells  for  the 
12-inch  guns  above.  Two  decks  above 
we  come  to  the  steel  protective  deck, 
2^    to  3  inches  in   thickness.     Upon 


this  deck  is  erected  a  great  circular 
structure  known  as  the  barbette, 
whose  walls  will  be  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  in  thickness.  The  bar- 
bette is  actually  a  circular  steel  fort, 
and  it  is  thick  enough  and  its  steel 
protection  hard  enough,  to  break  up 
and  keep  out  the  heaviest  projectiles 
of  the  enemy,  except  when  they  are 
fired  at  close  ranges.  At  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  height  of  the  barbette  is 
a  heavy  circular  track  upon  which  runs 
a  massive  turntable.  The  framing  of 
this  turntable  extends  to  a  point 
slightly  above  the  top  edge  of  the  bar- 
bette, and  upon  it  is  imposed  the  mas- 
sive structure  of  the  turret,  which  is 
formed,  like  the  barbette,  of  heavy 
steel  armor  carried  upon  framing,  the 
form  of  the  turret  in  plan  being  ellip- 
tical. Its  front  face,  which  slopes 
at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees,  is 
pierced  with  two  ports,  through  which 
project  the  two  heavy.  12-inch  guns. 
The  mounting  of  these  guns  is  car- 
ried also  upon  the  turntable  and  re- 
volves with  the  turret.  From  the 
handling  room  below  a  steel  elevator 
track  extends  up  through  the  barbette 
and  curves  back  to  the  rear  of  the  gun ; 
and  upon  this  there  travel  two  ammu- 
nition cages  which  are  loaded  below 
upon  the  handling  room  floor  and  carry 
the  projectiles  and  powder  up  to  the 
breech  of  the  guns,  where  it  is  thrust 
into  the  gun  by  mechanical  rammers. 


THE    SUBMARINE    MINE. 


Broadly  speaking,  there  are  three 
different  kinds  of  submarine  mines. 
First,  observation  mines,  which  are 
fired  from  the  shore  when  a  ship  is 
known  to  be  in  range ;  second,  auto- 
matic mines,  which  are  exploded  on 
being  struck  by  a  ship,  which  is  the 
kind  with  which  the  Russians  claim 


that  the  "Petropavlovsk"  was  sunk; 
third,  electric-contact  mines,  which 
on  being  struck  by  a  passing  vessel 
give  notification  to  an  operator  on 
shore,  who  fires  the  mine  by  the  throw 
of  a  switch. 

The       accompanying       illustrations 
show    a    system     of    electric-contact 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ground  mines  laid  across  a  channel 
with  a  batterj  of  rapid  fire  guiiB  on 
shore  so  placed  that  they  commaDd  the 
whole  of  the  m  ne  fipld  and  render  it 
jmpoBsible  for  the  small  boats  of  the 
enemv  to  attempt  to  explode  the  mines 
before  the  bis  battletibipB  and  armored 
cruisers  pass  over  them  The  batterj 
IS  placed  rather  Ion  down  near  the 
water  and  abtfve  it  is  a  batter;  of 
heavy  S  and  10-ineh  hreeih  loading 
rifles  mounted  either  en  barbette 
or  on  disappearinK  mounts  white 
aiMve  these  carefully  masked  bv 
abrubbery  is  a  firing  station 
which  IS  connected  by  cables  with 
the  mines  in  the  channel  Some- 
times by  preference  the  firing 
station  is  placed  in  a  massive  conciete 
casemate  which  is  built  into  the  strue 
ture  of  the  lortifitation  The  sub 
marine  mine?  would  be  laid  out  in  a 
series  of  parallel  lines,  and  so  spaced 
that  the  mines  in  each  line  would  coier 
the  spaces  left  in  the  adjacent  lines 
with  the  result  that  on  » hatever 
course  a  ship  might  be  steering  she 
would  be  certain  to  strike  one  or  more 
of  the  mines  before  she  passes  o\er  the 
Geld  The  ground  mine  nhich  as  wp 
have  said  is  usually  a  hemispherical 
metat  case  contains  seveial  nundred 
pounds  of  high  explosive  and  is  held 
in  place  on  the  bed  of  the  river  or 
channel  by  its  own  weight  sometimes 
assisted  by  heavy  hooks  cast  upon  the 
outer  shell  Anchored  to  Ihe  mine 
and  floating  above  it  at  a  depth  below 
water  that  is  less  than  the  draft  of  the 
enem>  s  vessels  is  a  hollow  buoyant 
sphere  in  which  is  placed  the  electric 
(in  uit-(loser  The  second  engraving 
of  the  two  herewith  shown  represent? 
a  section  through  the  floating  sphere 
and  shows  the  details  of  a  t\pe  of 
circuit  closer  which  has  been  veiv 
widelv  used  It  consists  of  a  horse 
shoe  magnet  St  M  within  which  is 
hung  by  a  cotled  wire  a  ball  B  A 
silken  cord  is  hung  fiom  the  top  of 
the  magnet  passes  d(  wn  through  th- 
ball  and  is  nttaihed  to  an  armature 
A  TV  hen  the  vessel  strikes  the  buoy 
the  ball  is  thrown  to  one  side  draws 
aside  the  silken  cord  and  lifts  the 
armature  A  To  the  poles  \  S  of 
the  magnet  are  secuied  (wo  small  mng 
nets  C  C  one  end  of  the  (O  1  wire  be 
ing  connected  to  line  and  the  other  to 
a  contact  point  6  The  armature  A 
\g  secuied  bv  a  spring  to  an  insulate  I 
point  F  from  which  a  wire  passes 
through  the  firing  fuse  in  the  ground 
mine  to  earth  The  other  end  of  the 
armature     carries     a     contact     point 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFBHENCE    BOOK. 


which,  when  the  buoy  is  struck,  en- 
gages with  a  contact  point,  6,  which  is 
connected  to  earth  through  the  inter- 
jiosed  resistance  of  a  l,00O-ohm  resist- 

Our  second  engraving  shows  the  au- 
tomatic indicator  or  shutter,  which  is 
placed  in  the  firing  station  on  shore. 

Now  let  us  follow  more  cloself  the 
operation   of   blowing   up   the    hostile 


magnets,  i,  b,  and  releases  the  pivoted 
shutter,  4,  ringing  the  bell  and  throw- 
ing the  signal  battery  line  L  into  cir- 
cuit with  the  line  to  the  firing  battery, 
F.  B.  The  operator  now  places  the 
plug,  P.  in  place,  and  sends  the  whole 
force  of  the  main  current  into  thejine, 
and  as  this  bas  sufficient  force  to  pass 
the  resistance  and  ignite  the  fuse,  the 
ground  mine  is  instanlty  exploded.   In 


sbip.  The  instant  the  vessel  strikes 
the  buo.v.  the  suspended  ball,  B, 
swings  to  one  side,  draws  aside  the 
cord,  pulls  up  armature  A,  into  con- 
tact with  b,  and  causes  the  signal-bat- 
tery current  to  pass  by  way  of  the 
1.000-ohm  resistance-coil  down  through 
the  ground  fuse  to  earth.  This  cur- 
rent is  too  weak  to  ignite  the  fuse. 
At  the  same  time  the  armature  a  (in 
the  firing  station),  is  attracted  to  the 


the  case  of  an  automatic  mine  of  the 
kind  that  is  claimed  to  have  sunk  the 
"Petropavlovsk,"  the  instant  the  float- 
ing sphere  or  case  is  struck  by  the 
ship,  there  is  an  explosion  of  the 
charge,  which  is  carried  in  the  float- 
ing ease,  if  the  water  is  very  deep,  or 
in  the  ground  mine  at  the  bottom  if 
the  water  is  sufficiently  shallow  to 
bring  the  mine  within  striking  distance 
of  the  ship's  bottom. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE   BOOK. 


The  projectilea  in  use  by  our  navy 
may  be  classed  as  solid  shot:,  shell  aod 
GhrapDel.  Although  some  excellent 
solid  shot  is  still  manufactured,  such 
as  the  Johnson  fluid  compressed  shot, 
Bolid  shot  have  siveu  place  to  shell  as 
the  standard  projectiles  of  the  navy. 


A  GROUP   OF  NAVY  PROJECTILES. 

in  use  by  our  navv  instflnt  of  striking:  the  latter  is  set 
to  erplode  the  shell  a  certain  length 
of  time  after  the  shell  has  left  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun. 

Shrapnel  is  the  modem  form  of  the 
old  case  shot,  which  conuisted  of  a  large 
number  of  balls  put  up  in  a  case  or 


GROUP  OF  COMMON  SHLLL  AT  THE  WASHINGTON  NA\  Y  iARD 


Shell  is  formed  with  an  interior  cav 
Ity  of  considerable  dimensions  in 
which  is  placed  a  charge  of  ponder 
or  high  explosive.  It  is  provided  with 
a  fuse  for  the  ignition  of  the  iharge 
which  is  of  the  percussion  or  time 
fuse   type.      The   former   acts   at   the 


envelope,  which  merely  served  to  hold 
them  together  until  they  left  the  muz 
/le  of  the  gun  In  the  case  of  shrap 
nei  thi*  envelope  is  made  sufficiently 
strong  to  bear  the  sho(k  of  discharge, 
and  a  time  fuse  is  prutided 

The   bMt  armor  piercing  orojectiles 


88 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


are  now  made  of  chrome  steel,  the 
small  admixture  of  chromium  serving 
to  impart  to  the  steel  a  remarkable 
amount  of  toughness.  The  projectiles 
are  cast,  forged,  and  carefully  an- 
nealed and  tempered,  the  hardening 
being  confined  to  the  point  or  nose. 
The  latter  is  ogival  in  form,  the  point 
being  struck  with  a  radius  which  is 
two  or  three  times  the  diameter  of  the 
shell.  The  point  has  to  be  sharply 
pointed  to  insure  its  penetration  of 
the  hard  face  of  the  armor,  but  if  it 
is  made  too  fine,  it  will  lack  the  neces- 
sary resisting  power  and  will  be  frac- 
tured before  it  can  get  through.  The 
best  proportion  of  radius  is  found  to 
lie  between  two  and  three  times  the 
diameter. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  armor-pierc- 
ing projectiles.  The  first  is  made  solid, 
or  practically  so,  a  small  core  being 
formed  to  give  the  best  results  in  the 
forging  process ;  the  other  type  is 
known  as  semi-armor-piercing.  It  is 
formed  hollow,  with  a  core  of  moder- 
ate dimensions,  large  enough  to  hold 
an  explosive  charge  that  will  insure 
the  bursting  of  the  thick  walls  of  the 
projectile.  It  is  made  of  chrome  steel, 
and  requires  in  its  manufacture  to  be 
treated  with  great  care  to  secure  the 
combined  hardness  and  toughness  to 
enable  it  to  pierce  solid  armor  without 
fracturing  and  carry  its  explosive 
charge  intact  into  the  interior  of  the 
ship.  When  such  shell  is  filled  with 
common  powder  the  heat  engendered 
by  passing  through  the  armor  is  de- 
pended on  to  explode  the  shell  just 
within  the  ship ;  no  fuse  is  used. 

The  object  at  which  projectile  mak- 
ers are  aiming  just  now  is  to  make  a 
shell  which  can  carry  a  charge  through 
the  best  armor  and  burst  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  armor.  It  is  already  pos- 
sible to  put  solid  shot  through  plate 
that  is  as  much  as  one  and  one-half 
the  diameter  of  the  shot  in  thickness, 
and  the  success  of  the  projectile  mak- 
ers is  such  as  to  make  it  likely  that 
before  long  a  bursting  shell  can  be 
made  to  perform  the  same  feat. 

It  will  be  evident  that  penetration 
of  the  armor  belt  by  a  shell  will  be 
vastly  more  destructive  to  tlie  ship 
than  penetration  by  solid  shot.  The 
damage  wrought  by  the  latter  will  be 
confined  to  its  direct  path,  where  the 
zone  of  destruction  of  a  shell  will  be 
almost  as  extensive,  if  it  is  of  the 
larger  calibres,  as  the  whole  area  of  the 
deck  on  which  it  strikes.  The  effects, 
moreover,  will  be  greatly  augmented 
if  a  high-explosive,  bursting  charge  be 


substituted  for  common  powder,  al- 
though the  sensitiveness  of  such 
charges  renders  it  very  difficult  to 
carry  them  through  armor  plate  and 
burst  them  on  the  inside.  Excellent 
results,  however,  have  been  achieved 
in  this  direction  against  armor  of  mod- 
erate thickness. 

The  group  of  shells  shown  in  our 
engraving  includes  one  of  each  of  the 
si2es  used  on  our  warships,  from  the 
4-inch  33-pound  shell  up  to  the  13- 
inch  1,100-pound  shell  of  our  largest 
guns.  They  are  all  of  the  class  known 
as  "common  shell,"  and  are  used 
against  fortifications  and  earthworks 
and  against  the  unarmored  or  lightly 
armored  portions  of  warships.  Thay  are 
usually  formed  of  cast-iron,  though 
sometimes  of  cast-steel,  and  the  in- 
terior cavity  is  large,  enabling  a  big 
bursting  charge  to  be  carried.  Unlike 
the  forged  chrome  steel  shell,  they  are 
unfit  for  armor-piercing,  not  having 
the  necessary  strength  to  carry  them 
through  the  plates. 

The  particulars  of  these  shells  are 
given  in  the  following  table : 


Diameter. 

Length. 

Bursting 
Charge. 

4-inch 

1  foot  4  inches. 

2  pounds. 

5     "     

1    *•     3 

3        •• 

6     "     

1    "     9 

4 

8     "     

2    "     6 

JO 

10     ••    

3    ••     0 

22 

12     "     

3    "     8 

42 

13     "     

4    "     0 

70 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  point  of 
the  shell  is  cut  off.  It  is  here  that 
the  percussion  fuse  is  inserted.  The 
fuse  consists  of  a  hollow  threaded  brass 
case,  which  is  screwed  into  a  hole 
bored  through  into  the  interior  of  the 
shell.  Inside  the  case  is  a  cylindrical 
lead  plunger,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  a  fulminate  and  a  priming  charge. 
When  the  gun  is  fired,  the  plunger 
moves  to  the  rear  of  the  fuse,  and  at 
the  moment  when  the  shell  strikes  an 
obstruction  it  flies  forward,  the  ful- 
minate striking  a  small  anvil  on  the 
fuse  cap.  This  ignites  the  primer,  the 
flame  of  which  enters  the  shell  and 
explodes  it. 


Turkestan  is  a  general  government  of 
Central  Asia.  It  comprises  the  khan- 
ates and  deserts  annexed  by  Grenerals 
Tchernaieff  and  Kaufmann  between 
18G0  and  1875,  and  now  known  as  the 
provinces  of  Samarcand,  Ferghana, 
and  Syr  Daria.  Area  about  257,134 
square  miles,  with  3,900,000  inhabi- 
tants. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


OUR  NAVY   GUNS   IN  THE   CIVIL  WAR   AND   TO-DAY. 

Naval  ordnance  has  made  greater  ' 
strides  in  the  fort;  years  that  have 
intervened  since  tlie  Civil  War  than 
in  several  centuries  preceding.  Aa 
proof  of  this  it  is  enough  to  look  at 
the  Btrikiug  comparison  sbowu  in  the 
accompanyiog  cut.  Tbe  smaller  illUH- 
tration  represents  a  Parcott  100 
pounder  of  18G2,  superimposed  upon  a 
modern  100-pounder,  or  to  be  correct, 
a  C-lnch  50-calibre  rapid-fire  rifle  ot 
tiie  year  1900 ;  the  lower  diagram 
represents  a  15-inch  smootli-boi'e  of  the 
Civil  War,  superimposed  upon  a  12- 
inch  breech -loading  45-calibre  riSe  of 
to-day.  The  comparison  might  be  car- 
ried out  to  greater  length  throughout 
all  the  various  calibres  that  constitute 
tbe  batteries  of  naval  ships;  but  ne 
have  choseu  to  compare  tbe  main  bat- 
tery of  tbe  monitor  witb  tbe  main  bat- 
tery of  the  modern  battleship,  and  what 
might  be  called  the  secondary  battery 
of  tbe  frigates  ot  18C2  with  the  stand- 
ard secondary  battery  gun  of  the  bat- 
tleship of  to-day. 

The  heaviest  piece  carried  in  the 
Civil  War  was  the  15-inch  smooth- 
bore. This  gun  weighed  42,000 
pounds ;  its  length  over  all  was 
ID  feet  1  inch;  its  maximum  diam- 
eter at  the  breech  was  4  feet,  and  with 
an  oi'diuary  charge  of  .'{5  pounds  of 
black  cannon  powder,  it  fired  a  spberi- 
cat  shell  weighing  350  pounds.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ordnance  regulations, 
under  extraordinary  conditions,  these 
guns  might  be  lired  20  rounds  "at 
ironclads  at  close  quarters,"  using  100 
pounds  of  hexagonal  or  cubical  powder 
and  a  solid  shot  weighing  450  pounds, 
tinder  these  conditions  the  most  re- 
spectable muzzle  velocity  of  l.tKK)  foot- 
seconds  was  obtained,  with  a  corre- 
sponding muzzle  energy  of  T.OOT  foot- 
tons.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know 
what  the  powder  pressure  was  under 
these  conditions,  for  the  velocity  and 
energy  are  something  truly  remark- 
able for  a  cast-iron  gun.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  only  20  rounds  were  al- 
lowed under  the  severe  stresses  im- 
posed by  these  ballistics. 

Now.  compare  these  results  with  the 
most  powerful  gun  in  our  navy  to-day, 
namely,  the  12-inch  45-calibre  rifle, 
which  weighs  53.4  tons,  has  a  total 
length  of  45  feet,  and  with  a  charge 
of  360  pounds  of  smokeless  powder 
fires  an  S50-pound  shell  with  a  muz- 
zle velocity  of  2,SOO-foot  seconds  and 
a  muzzle  energy  of  46.246  foot-tons. 
The  true  basis  of  comparison   of  the 


lit 
ca  ^ 

VI 
ji: 


90 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


relative  efficiency  of  the  two  guns  is 
the  amount  of  energy  developed  per 
ton  of  the  weight  of  the  gun,  and  on 
this  basis  we  find  that  the  old  15-inch 
smooth-bore  gun  when  fired  with  100 
pounds  of  powder  developed  427  foot- 
tons  of  energy  per  ton  of  gun,  as 
against  872  foot-tons  of  energy  de- 
veloped by  the  modern  12-inch  rifle. 

'  If  we  take  account  of  the  durability 
of  a  gun  the  advantage  will  be  stronger 
on  the  side  of  the  modem  piece,  for 
whereas  the  15-inch  smooth-bore  was 
limited  to  twenty  rounds  under  the 
given  conditions,  the  modern  12-inch 
rifles,  judging  from  the  small  amount 
of  erosion  developed  with  nitro-cellu- 
lose  powders,  should  have  a  useful  life 
of  at  least  half  a  thousand  rounds. 
Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  modern  elongated  shell  will  hold  its 
velocity  much  longer  than  the  old 
spherical  shell  of  the  smooth-bore,  and, 
consequently,  the  respective  muzzle  ve- 
locities and  energies  are  no  criterion 
of  the  respective  efficiencies  of  the 
guns. 


The  gun  of  1862  that  answers  to  the 
modern  secondary  battery,  6-inch  rifle, 
is  the  Parrott  muzzle-loading  rifle,  a 
cast-iron  gun  which  was  strengthened 
at  the  breech  over  the  powder  cham- 
ber by  shrinking  thereon  an  iron  hoop. 
The  bore  of  the  gun  was  6.4  inches. 
It  weighed  4.35  tons,  was  12  feet  4 
inches  in  length  and  with  a  charge  of 
ten  pounds  of  powder  it  fired  a  100- 
pound  shell  with  an  initial  velocity  of 
1,080  foot-seconds  and  a  muzzle  energy 
of  810  foot-tons.  Compare  this  with 
the  modern  6-inch  rifle,  which  weighs 
8.5  tons,  is  25  feet  in  length,  and  with 
a  charge  of  40  pounds  of  smokeless 
powder  fires  a  100-pound  shell  with  an 
initial  velocity  of  2,900  feet  per  sec- 
ond and  an  initial  energy  of  5,838  foot- 
tons. 

Compared  on  the  basis  of  energy  per 
ton  of  gun,  we  find  that  the  100-pound- 
er  Parrott  muzzle  loader  developed  186 
foot-tons  of  energy  per  ton  of  gun, 
whereas  the  modern  6-inch  breech- 
loading  rifle  develops  784^  foot-tons 
of  energy  per  ton  of  gun. 


THE   PAY   OF   NAVAL   AND   MARINE   CORPS. 


An  Admiral  receives  $13,500  wheth- 
er on  sea  duty  or  on  shore  duty.  The 
first  nine  Rear-Admirals  receive  $7,- 
500  while  on  sea  duty,  and  $6,375  on 
shore  duty.  The  second  nine  receives 
$5,500  on  sea  duty  and  $4,675  on  shore 
duty.  A  Brigadier-Greneral  Command- 
ant of  Marine  Corps,  receives  $5,500. 
The  Chiefs  of  the  various  Naval  Bu- 
reaus receive  $5,500.  Captains  of  the 
Navy  receive  $3,500  while  on  sea  duty 
and  $2,975  while  on  shore  duty.  The 
Judge  Advocate  General  and  Colonels, 
Marine  Corps,  line  and  staff,  receive 
$3,500.  Commanders  of  the  Navy  re- 
ceive $3,000  while  on  sea  duty,  and 
$2,550  while  on  shore  duty.  Lieut.- 
Colonels,  Marine  Corps,  line  and  staff, 
receive  $3,000.  Lieut.-Commanders  of 
the  Navy  while  on  sea  duty  receive 
$2,500,  and  while  on  shore  duty  $2,125. 
Majors  of  the  Marine  Corps,  line  and 
staff,  receive  $2,500.  Lieutenants  of 
the  Navy  receive  $1,800  while  on  sea 
duty  and  $1,530  while  on  shore  duty. 
Captains  of  the  Marine  Corps,  if  they 
are  of  the  line,  receive  $1,800,  and  if 
they  are  of  the  staff,  $2,000.  Lieu- 
tenants of  the  junior  grade  receive 
$1,500  while  on  sea  duty  and  $1,275 
w'hile  on  shore  duty.  First  Lieutenant 
and  leader  of  the  band  of  the  Marine 
Corps  receive  $1,500.  Ensigns  of  the 
Navy  receive  $1,400  on  sea  duty  and 
$1,190  on  shore  duty.     Second  Lieu-. 


tenants  of  the  Marine  Corps,  Chief 
Boatswains,  Chief  Gunners,  Chief  Car- 
penters and  Chief  Sailmakers  receive 
$1,400.  Midshipmen  in  other  than 
practice  ships  receives  $950.  At  the 
Naval  Academy  and  elsewhere  $500. 
Chaplains  receive  $2,500  on  sea  duty, 
$2,000  on  shore,  and  $1,900  on  leave  or 
waiting  orders.  Professors  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Civil  Engineers  receive 
$2,400  and  $1,500  when  on  leave  of 
absence  or  waiting  orders.  Naval  Con- 
structors receive  $3,200,  and  while  on 
leave  of  absence  or  waiting  orders, 
$2,200.  Assistant  Naval  Constructors 
receive  $2,000,  and  $1,500  while  on 
leave  or  waiting  orders.  The  warrant 
officers,  boatswains,  gunners,  carpen- 
ters, sailmakers,  pharmacists  and  war- 
rant machinists  receive  $1,200  while  on 
sea  duty  and  $900  while  on  shore,  $700 
on  leave  of  absence  or  waiting  orders. 
Mates  who  were  in  service  August  1, 
1904,  receive  $1,200  for  sea  duty,  $900 
for  shore  duty,  $7(X)  on  leave.  Those 
appointed  since  receive  $900,  $700  and 
$500  respectively.  The  monthly  pay 
of  petty  officers  and  enlisted  men  is : 
Chief  petty  officers,  $50  to  $70 ;  petty 
officers,  first-class,  $36  to  $65;  petty 
officers,  second-class,  $35  to  $40 ;  third- 
class  petty  officers,  $30 ;  first-class  sea- 
men, $21  to  $35 ;  second-class  seamen, 
$15  to  $30;  third-class  seamen,  $9  to 
$22. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


THE    ARMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Twice  in  the  history  of  the  world 
we  have  had  an  example  of  large  bod- 
ies of  men  who  were  not  producers  who 
disturbed  economic  conditions  by  liv- 
ing at  the  public,  expense.  We  refer 
to  the  enormous  monasteries  in  the 
middle  ages  and  to  the  standing  armies 
in  Europe  to-day.  It  seems  to  be  es- 
sential to  the  maintenance  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  a  number  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  to  keep  a  large  standing 
army — an  army  which  takes  some 
of  the  best  years  of  the  life  of  its  citi- 
zens, as  service  is  obligatory  to  all. 
These  armies  are  supported  at  an 
enormous  expense  by  systems  of  tax- 
ation which  affect  the  poorest  as  well 
as  the  richest. 

The  question  of  the  standing  ar- 
mies of  Europe  is  a  problem  which  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  seriousness,  and 
there  does  not  appear  as  yet  to  be  any 
solution  of  the  diflHculty. 

For  our  protection  we  have  to  re- 
ly upon : 

1.  The  Regular  Army,  which  rep- 
resents and  is  under  the  pay  of  the 
federal  government,  and  which  is  offi- 
cered ;  1.  By  graduates  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  who  at  pres- 
ent are  largely  in  the  minority.  2.  By 
the  promotion  of  meritorious  enlisted 
men  of  the  Army.  3.  By  the  appoint- 
ment of  civilians,  six  of  whom  are  an- 
nually selected  from  the  best  cadet- 
schools  of  the  country.  The  last  class 
is  at  present  most  largely  represented. 

The  officers  receive  commissions  at 
the  hands  of  the  President, 

2.  The  organized  militia  or  Na- 
tional Guard,  which  is  composed  ex- 
clusively of  State  troops,  and,  except 
when  called  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  is  under  the  command 
of  the  Governors  of  the  respective 
States.  The  officers  of  higher  grade 
are  appointed  by  the  Governors,  but 
the  other  officers,  from  Colonel  down, 
are-  generally  selected  by  ballot  by  the 
troops  themselves.  The  National 
Guard  is  intended  primarily  for  home 
defense. 


3.  The  Volunteers,  which  form  a 
branch  of  the  service  only  to  be  found 
in  time  of  war.  They  are  such  as 
offer  their  services  upon  the  call  of 
the  President,  and  are  officered  either 
by  West  Point  graduates,  by  officers  of 
the  National  Guard,  or  civilian  ap- 
pointees. 

Under  the  conditions  existing  in  the 
late  war  with  Spain,  members  of  the 
National  Guard  were  not  called  upon 
to  serve  in  their  capacity  as  State 
troops,  but  were  invited  to  enlist  in 
the  volunteer  service. 

The  term  of  enlistment  in  the  regu- 
lar service  is  for  a  period  of  three 
years,  which  term  is  fixed  and  not 
terminable  by  the  ending  of  the  war. 
In  the  volunteer  service  the  period  of 
enlistment  is  two  years,  but  this  term 
may  be  shortened  by  the  ending  of  hos- 
tilities. 

A  certain  proportion  of  the  officers 
of  the  regular  army  are  graduates  of 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point,  New  York. 

By  Acts  of  Congress  approved  June 
6,  1900,  June  28,  1902,  and  March  3, 
1903,  the  Coi*ps  of  Cadets  as  now  con- 
stituted consists  of  one  from  each  Con- 
gressional district,  one  from  each  Ter- 
ritory, one  from  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia, one  from  Porto  Rico,  two  from 
each  State  at  large,  and  forty  from  the 
United  States,  at  large,  all  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  forty  appointed  from 
the  United  States  at  large,  to  be  actual 
residents  of  the  Congressional  or  Ter- 
ritorial districts,  or  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  or  of  the  States,  respective- 
ly, from  which  they  are  appointed.  Un- 
der these  Acts,  and  under  the  appor- 
tionment of  Members  of  Congress  ac- 
cording to  the  12th  Census,  the  maxi- 
mum number  of  cadets  is  522. 

The  total  number  of  graduates  from 
1802  to  1903,  inclusive,  is  4,214 ;  124 
members  graduated  June  15,  1904. 

Foreign  governments  can  have  ca- 
dets educated  at  the  academy  by  au- 
thorization of  Congress. 


-    91 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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93 


group  of  officers  and  men  showing  uniforms  worn  in 

unitf:d  states  army. 


1.  Major  of  Engineers  in  olive-drab  uniform. 

2.  Captain  of  Ordnance  in  olive-drab  uniform . 

3.  Private  of  Cavalry  in  olive-drab  uniform. 

4.  First  Sergeant  of  Artillery  in  olive-drab 

uniform. 

5.  Private  of  Infantry  in  olive-drab  uniform 

and  clothing  roll. 

6.  First  Sergeant  of  Cavalry  in  olive-drab 

uniform. 

7.  Corporal  of  Post  Artillery  in  olive-drab 

uniform  and  overcoat. 

8.  Post    Quartermaster-Sergeant    in    olive- 

drab  uniform. 

9.  Trumpeter  of  Cavalry,  mounted,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

10.  Colonel  of  Infantry,  mounted,  in  full-dress 

imiform. 

11.  Major-General,    mounted,'  in    full-dress 

imiform. 

12.  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Artillery,  Aide-de- 

Camp,  mounted,  in  full-dress  uniform. 


13.  First  Sergeant  of  Infantry,  in  full-dress 

uniform. 

14.  Captain  of  Cavalry,  dismounted,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

15.  Brigadier-General,   dismounted,   in   dre8.<i 

uniform. 

16.  Major,  Medical  Department,  dismounted, 

dress  uniform  and  cape. 

17.  Corporal  of  Engineers,  full-dress  uniform. 

18.  Private  of  Cavalry,  full-dress  uniform. 

19.  Sergeant  of  Artillery  in  full-dress  uniform. 

20.  Post  Commissary-Sergeant,  dress  uniform. 

21.  Lieutenant  of  Cadets,  U.  S.  Military  Acad- 

emy, full-dress  imiform. 

22.  Major,   Quartermaster's   Department,   in 

full-dress  uniform. 

23.  First-class  Sergeant,  Signal  Corps,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

24.  Captain  Coast  Artillery,  in  dress  uniform 

and  overcoat. 


The  commander-in-chief  is,  ex-officio, 
of  course,  the  President  of  tlie  United 
States. 

Like  the  grades  of  Admiral  and 
Vice- Admiral,  the  army  also  has  two 
grades — General  and  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral.  We  have  had  only  four  Gen- 
erals, Washington,  Grant,  Sherman 
and  Sheridan.  A  general  is  supposed 
to  command  an  army.  An  army  is  a 
large  and  organized  body  of  soldiers 
generally  composed  of  infantry,  artil- 
lery and  cavalry,  completely  armed  and 
provided  with  necessary  stores,  etc., 
and  the  entire  force  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  one  general,  who  is  called  the 
"general-in-chief."  The  army  is  sub- 
divided as  follows ;  the  grades  of  rank 
and  commands  appropriate  to  each 
grade  are  given. 

An  "army"  is  divided  into  two  or 
more  corps  commanded  by  a  Major- 
General.  A  "corps"  is  "the  largest 
tactical  unit  of  a  large  army.  A  corps 
is  usually  organized  with  separate 
staff,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery 
regiments,  as  well  as  auxiliary  servi- 
ces, so  that  it  is  really  a  small  army 
complete  in  itself.  A  corps  is  usually 
composed  of  three  divisions,  each  com- 
manded by  a  Major-General  or  a  Brig- 
adier-General. A  "corps"  is  also  any 
body  or  department  of  an  army  which 
is  not  detached,  but  has  its  own  or- 
ganization and  head,  as  the  "Corps  of 
Engineers."  Each  "division"  is  com- 
posed of  three  brigades,  and  there  may 
be  an  independent  brigade  of  cavalry 


or  artillery  called  the  divisional  cav- 
alry or  artillery. 

A  "brigade"  consists  of  three  regi- 
ments, though  there  may  be  more,  and 
it  is  commanded  by  a  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral, and  sometimes  by  a  Colonel.  A 
"regiment,"  which  is  the  administra- 
tive unit,  is  commanded  by  a  Colonel, 
and  it  is  divided  into  twelve  compa- 
nies, each  composed,  under  the  pres- 
ent law,  of  a  maximum  of  150  men  for 
the  infantry,  100  men  for  the  cavalry, 
a  total  of  18,920  for  the  artillery 
corps,  and  150  men  for  the  engineers. 
A  "company"  is  commanded  by  a  Cap- 
tain. Two  or  more  companies  form 
a  "battalion,"  and  the  battalion  is 
commanded  by  a  Major. 

The  relative  rank  between  the  offi- 
cers of  the  army  and  navy  is  as  fol- 
lows :  General  with  Admiral ;  Lieu- 
tenant-General  with  Vice-Admiral ; 
Major-General  with  Rear-Admiral ; 
Brigadier-General  with  Commodore ; 
Colonel  with  Captain ;  Lieutenant-Col- 
onel with  Commander ;  Major  with 
Lieutenant-Commander ;  Captain  with 
Lieutenant ;  First  Lieutenant  with 
Lieutenant  (junior  grade)  ;  Second 
Lieutenant  with  Ensign. 

The  pay  of  the  officers  in  active  ser- 
vice is  as  follows  :  Lieutenant-Genera  I, 
$11,000;  Major-General,  $7,500;  Brig- 
adier-General, $5,500 ;  Colonel,  $3,500 ; 
Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,000 ;  Major, 
$2,500;  Mounted  Captain,  $2,000; 
Captain  on  foot,  $1,8(X);  regimental 
Adjutant,    $1,800 ;    regimental    Quar- 


94 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


termaster,  $1,800;  First  Lieutenant, 
mounted,  $1,600;  First  Lieutenant  on 
foot,  $1,500 ;  Second  Lieutenant, 
mounted,  $1,500;  Second  Lieutenant 
on  foot,  $1,400.  All  of  the  officers 
from  the  Colonel  down  receive  addi- 
tional amounts  after  five,  ten,  fifteen 
and  twenty  years*  service,  but  there  is 
a  limit  to  this  amount ;  thus  the  maxi- 
mum pay  of  a  Colonel  is  $4,500  per 
annum.  The  pay  of  a  private,  wheth- 
er artillery,  cavalry  or  infantry,  is  $13 
per  month  for  the  first  and  second 
years,  $14  for  the  third  year,  $15  for 
the  fourth  year,  $16  for  the  fifth  year. 
After  five  years*  continuous  service 
they  receive  $2  per  month  extra.  For 
service  in  the  insular  possessions  20 
per  cent,  is  added  to  the  pay  of  officers 
and  enlisted  men. 

The  present  strength  of  the  regular 
army  is  about  3,800  officers  and  60,000 
enlisted  men ;  13,000  of  them  are  in 
the  Philippines.  This  does  not  include 
4,800  scouts,  who  are  paid  from  the 
Philippine  treasury  proper. 

The  policy  of  the  United  States  in 
having  a  small  military  establishment 
has  led  to  the  organization  of  a  large 
body  of  reserves,  which  are  known  as 
the  organized  militia  or  "National 
Guard.'*  According  to  the  latest  ac- 
counts received  at  the  office  of  the  Ad- 
jutant-General in  1903  there  were  in 
the  National  Guard  of  the  various 
States  and  Territories  9,184  commis- 
sioned officers  and  107,422  non-com- 
missioned officers,  privates,  musicians, 
etc.,  making  a  total  of  116,606. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
January  31,  1903,  the  militia  consists 
of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  is  more  than  eight- 
een and  less  than  forty-five  years  of 
age,  and  is  divided  into  two  classes — 
the  organized  militia  or  National 
Guard,  and  the  remainder  to  be  knowa 
as  the  reserve  militia.  It  is  entirely 
optional  whether  eligible  citizens 
join  the  National  Guard  or  not, 
and  they  elect  their  own  officers,  but  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  this  body  of  reserves 
is  recruited  from  the  best  and  most 
patriotic  element  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States.  Congress  makes 
an  appropriation  each  year  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  militia  in  the  various 
States,  and  the  States  also  contribute, 
help  and  build  armories,  as  the  regi- 
ments are  really  intended  to  defend 
their  own  States  primarily,  although 
in  time  of  war  they  furnish  an  excel- 
lently drilled  body  of  volunteers.  In 
nearly  every  city    of  any    great    size 


there  is  one  or  more  armories,  and  in 
the  smaller  cities  and  towns  there  are 
separate  companies  which  have  armo- 
ries or  drill  halls.  The  militia  in  each 
State  is  divided  into  brigades,  regi- 
ments and  companies.  Under  the  act 
of  Congress  above  named  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  has  the  pow- 
er to  cal.l  upon  any  of  the  military  or- 
ganizations of  the  States  for  national 
defense,  but  the  troops  are  usually 
utilized  by  the  Governor  of  the  State 
for  enforcing  the  State  laws. 

The  experience  of  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican war  demonstrated  the  need  of 
what  is  known  in  foreign  armies  as  a 
General  Staff  Corps.  Accordingly, 
under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
February  14,  1903,  a  Chief  of  Staff 
was  authorized,  to  take  the  place  of 
the  commanding  general  of  the  army, 
and  a  General  Staff  Corps  whose  du- 
ties are  defined  as  follows :  To  prepare 
plans  for  the  national  defense  and  for 
the  mobilization  of  the  military  forces 
in  time  of  war ;  to  investigate  and  re- 
port upon  all  questions  affecting  the 
efficiency  of  the  army  and  its  state  of 
preparation  for  military  operations ; 
to  render  professional  aid  and  assist- 
ance to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  to 
general  officers  and  other  superior 
commanders,  and  to  act  as  their  agents 
in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the  ac- 
tion of  the  different  officers  who,  un- 
der the  terms  of  the  act,  are  subject 
to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of 
Staff ;  and  to  perform  such  other  mili- 
tary duties  not  otherwise  assigned  by 
law,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  President. 

Under  this  act  a  number  of  officers 
were  detailed  in  the  General  Staff  for  , 
a  period  of  four  years,  and  the  corps 
was  organized  into  three  divisions, 
each  under  a  superior  officer,  with  the 
following  duties :  The  first  division  has 
charge  of  army  administration,  disci- 
pline, dril^  and  equipment ;  the  sec- 
ond division  is  the  division  of  military 
information,  and  in  addition  has 
charge  of  military  maps,  military  at- 
taches and  the  War  Department  li- 
brary :  the  third  division-  is  termed  the 
technical  division,  and  includes  the 
devising  of  plans  for  defense  and  of- 
fense, the  matter  of  sites  for  fortifica- 
tions, the  question  of  military  edu- 
cation, and  the  Army  War  College. 

This  article  has  been  revised  by 
Captain  C.  D.  Rhodes,  U.  S.  A.,  of 
the  General  Staff  Corps,  under  the  di- 
rection of  Major  W.  D.  Beach,  U.  S.  A., 
Chief  of  Staff,  Second  Division. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


95 


INFORMATION  RELATIVE  TO  THE  APPOINTMENT  AND  ADMISSION 

OF  CADETS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES 
MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


APPOINTMENTS. 

How  Made. — Each  Congressional 
District  and  Territory — the  District  of 
Columbia  and  also  Porto  Rico — is  en- 
titled to  have  one  Cadet  at  the  Acade- 
my. Each  State  is  also  entitled  to 
have  two  Cadets  from  the  State  at 
large,  and  forty  are  allowed  from  the 
United  States  at  large.  The  ap- 
pointment from  a  Congressional  Dis- 
trict is  made  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Congressman 
from  that  district,  and  those  from  a 
State. at  large  upon  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Senators  of  the  State. 
Similarly  the  appointment  from  a  Ter- 
ritory is  made  upon  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Delegate  in  Congress.  Each 
person  appointed  must  be  an  actual 
resident  of  the  State,  District  or  Ter- 
ritory from  which  the  appointment  is 
made. 

The  appointments  from  the  United 
States  at  large,  from  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  from  Porto  Rico  are 
made  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  upon  his  own  selection.  The 
appointment  of  the  Cadet  from  Porto 
Rico  is  made  by  the  President  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Resident  Com- 
missioner. 

Manner  of  Making  Applications. — 
Applications  may  be  made  at  any 
time,  by  letter  to  the  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral, U.  S.  Army,  Washington,  D.  C, 
to  have  the  name  of  the  applicant 
placed  upon  the  register  that  it  may 
be  furnished  to  the  proper  Senator, 
Representative,  or  Delegate,  when  a 
vacancy  occurs.  The  application  must 
exhibit  the  full  name,  date  of  birth, 
and  permanent  abode  of  the  applicant, 
with  the  number  of  the  Congressional 
District  in  which  his  residence  is  sit- 
uated. 

Date  of  Appointments. — Appoint- 
ments are  required  by  law  to  be  made 
one  year  in  advance  of  the  date  of  ad- 
mission, except  in  cases  where,  by  rea- 
son of  death  or  other  cause,  a  vacancy 
occurs  which  cannot  be  provided  for 
by  such  appointment  in  advance. 
The§e  vacancies  are  filled  in  time  for 
the  next  examination. 

Alternates. — For  each  candidate  ap- 
pointed there  may  be  nominated  ttvo 
alternates.  The  principal  and  each  al- 
ternate will  receive  from  the  War  De- 
partment a  letter  of  appointment,  and 


must  appear  for  examination  at  the 
time  and  place  therein  designated ; 
those  previously  accepted  by  Academic 
Board  on  certificate  or  mentally  quali- 
fied, appearing  for  physical  examina- 
tion only. 

The  fitness  for  admission  to  the 
Academy  of  the  principal  and  the  al- 
ternates will  be  determined  as  pre- 
scribed in  paragraphs  19,  20  and  21, 
Regulations  U.  S.  Military  Academy. 

Should  the  principal  and  alternates 
not  qualify  for  admission  under 
the  provisions  of  paragraph  21,  they 
will  still  be  entitled  to  appear  for 
the  examination  prescribed  in  para- 
graph 19;  but  if  the  principal  fails 
to  appear  for  that  examination 
or,  appearing,  fails  to  qualify, 
then  the  qualifications  of  the  al- 
ternates will  be  considered  and  if  only 
one  has  met  the  requirements  he  will 
be  admitted ;  if  both  alternates  have 
met  the  requirements  the  better  quali- 
fied will  be  admitted. 

The  alternates,  like  the  principal, 
should  be  designated  as  nearly  one 
year  in  advance  of  the  date  of  admis- 
sion as  possible. 

ADMISSION  OF   CANDIDATES. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the 
regulations  of  the .  Military  Academy 
relating  to  the  examination  of  candi- 
dates for  admission  and  will  be  strict- 
ly adher^;d  to : 

19.  Candidates  selected  for  appoint- 
ment, unless  accepted  under  the  pro- 
visions of  paragraph  21,  shall  appear 
for  mental  and  physical  examination 
before  boards  of  army  officers  to  be 
convened  at  such  places  as  the  War 
Department  may  select,  on  the  first  of 
May,  annually,  except  when  that  day 
comes  on  Sunday,  in  which  case  the 
examination  shall  commence  on  the 
following  Tuesday.  Candidates  who 
pass  successfully  will  be  admitted  to 
the  Academy  without  further  examina- 
tion upon  reporting  in  person  to  the 
Superintendent  at  West  Point  before 
12  o'clock  noon  on  the  15th  day  of 
June  of  the  same  year. 

20.  Each  candidate  before  he  shall 
be  admitted  to  the  Academy  as  a  Ca- 
det must  show,  by  the  examination 
provided  for  in  paragraph  19  or  by  the 
methods   prescribed   in   paragraph    21, 


96 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


that  he  is  well  versed  in  the  following 
prescribed  subjects,  viz. :  Reading, 
writing,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
English  composition,  English  litera- 
ture, arithmetic,  algebra  through 
quadratic  equations,  plane  geometry, 
descriptive  geography,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  physical  geography,  espec- 
ially tho  geography  of  the  United 
States,  United  States  history,  the  out- 
lines of  general  history,  and  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  physiology  and 
hygiene. 

21.  The  Academic  Board  will  con- 
sider and  may  accept  in  lieu  of  the 
regular  mental  entrance  examination : 

1st.  The  properly  attested  exami- 
nation papers  of  a  candidate  who  re- 
ceives his  appointment  through  a  pub- 
lic competitive  written  examination 
covering  the  range  of  subjects  pre- 
scribed in  paragraph  20. 

2d.  The  properly  attested  certificate 
of  graduation  from  a  public  high 
school  or  a  State  normal  school  in 
which  the  .course  of  study,  together 
with  the  requirements  for  entrance, 
shall  cover  the  range  of  subjects  pre- 
scribed in  paragraph  20. 

3d.  A  properly  attested  certificate 
that  the  candidate  is  a  regular  student 
of  any  incorporated  college  or  uni- 
versity, without  condition  as  to  any 
subject  mentioned  in  paragraph  20. 

Application  for  consideration  of  pa- 
pers or  certificates  shall  be  made  by 
each  candidate  and  alternate  immedi- 
ately after  he  receives  his  appoint- 
ment. No  application  will  be  re- 
ceived after  March  15  preceding  the 
regular  examination  prescribed  in 
paragraph  19. 

Candidates  accepted  as  qualified 
mentally  under  the  provisions  of  this 
paragraph  shall  appear  for  physical  ex- 
amination at  the  time  and  place  desig- 
nated in  their  letters  of  appointment. 

Immediately  after  reporting  to  the 
Superintendent  for  admission,  and  be- 
fore receiving  his  warrant  of  appoint- 
ment, the  candidate  is  required  to  sign 
an  engagement  for  service  in  the  fol- 
lowing form,  and  in  the  presence  of  the 
Superintendent,  or  of  some  officer 
deputed  by  him : 


"I, 


,  of  the  State  (or  Ter- 
— .  aged  — —  yeai*s 


ritory )      of 

months,  do  hereby  engage   (with 

the  consent  of  my  parent  or  guardian) 
that,  from  the  date  of  my  admission 
as  a  Cadet  of  the  United  States  Mill- 


I 

tary  Academy,  I  will  serve  in  the 
Army  of  the  United  States  for  eight 
years,  unless  sooner  discharged  by  com- 
petent authority. 

"In  the  presence  of ." 

The  candidate  is  then  required  to 
take  and  subscribe  an  oath  or  affirma- 
tion in  the  following  form : 

"I, ,    do    solemnly    swear 

that  I  will  support  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  and  bear  true  alle- 
giance to  the  National  Government ; 
that  I  will  maintain  and  defend  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States,  para- 
mount to  any  and  all  allegiance,  sov- 
ereignty, or  fealty  I  may  owe  to  any 
State  or  country  whatsoever;  and  that 
I  will  at  all  times  obey  the  legal  or- 
ders of  my  superior  officers,  and  the 
rules  and  articles  governing  the  Ar- 
mies of  the  United  States. 

"Sworn  and  subscribed,  at ,  this 

day    of   nineteen    hundred 


nnd 


before  me. 


Qualifications. — No  candidate  shall 
be  admitted  who  is  under  seventeen, 
or  over  twenty-two  years  of  age,  or 
who  is  deformed,  or  afflicted  with  any 
disease  or  infirmity  which  would  ren- 
der him  unfit  for  the  military  service, 
or  who  has,  at  the  time  of  presenting 
himself,  any  disorder  of  an  infectious 
or  immoral  character.  Accepted  can- 
didates if  between  seventeen  and 
eighteen  years  of  age  should  not  fall 
below  five  feet  three  inches  in  height 
and  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight ;  if 
between  eighteen  and  nineteen  years, 
five  feet  three  and  one-half  inches  in 
height  and  one  hundred  and  five 
pounds  in  weight ;  if  over  nineteen, 
five  feet  four  inches  in  height  and  one 
hundred  and  ten  pounds  in  weight. 
Candidates  must  be  unmarried. 

Each  candidate  must  on  reporting 
at  West  Point  present  a  certificate 
showing  successful  vaccination  with- 
in one  year ;  or  a  certificate  of  two 
vaccinations,  made  at  least  a  month 
apart,  within  three  months. 

A  circular  of  information  as  to  the 
])hysical  and  mental  examination  can 
he  had  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of 
War,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ACADEMIC   DUTIES. 

The  academic  duties  and  exercises 
commence  on  the  first  of  September 
and  continue  until  the  first  of  June. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


97 


Examinatioiis  of  the  several  classes 
are  held  in  December  and  June,  and, 
at  the  former,  such  of  the  new  Cadets 
as  are  found  proficient  in  studies  and 
have  been  correct  in  conduct  are  given 
the  particular  standing  in  their  class 
to  which  their  merits  entitle  them.  Af- 
Jter  each  examination,  Cadets  found  de- 
ficient in  conduct  or  studies  are  dis- 
charged from  the  Academy,  unless  the 
Academic  Board  for  special  reasons  in 
each  case  should  otherwise  recommend. 
Similar  examinations  are  held  every 
December  and  June  during  the  four 
years  comprising  the  course  of  study. 

Military  Instruction. — From  the  ter- 
mination of  the  examination  in  June 
to  the  end  of  August  the  Cadets  live  in 
camp,  engaged  only  in  military  duties 
and  exercises  and  receiving  practical 
military   instruction. 

Except  in  extreme  cases,  Cadets  are 
allowed  but  one  leave  of  absence  dur- 
ing the  four  years'  course;  as  a  rule 
the  leave  is  granted  at  the  end  of  the 
first  two  years*  course  of  study. 


PAY  OF  CADETS. 

The  pay  of  a  Cadet  is  $500  per 
year  and  one  ration  per  day,  or  com- 
mutation therefor  at  thirty  cents  per 
day.  The  total  is  $009.50,  to  com- 
mence with  his  admi^ion  to  the 
Academy.  The  actual  and  necessary 
traveling  expenses  of  candidates  from 
their  homes  to  the  Military  Academy 
are  credited  to  their  accounts  after 
their  admission  as  Cadets.  There  is 
no  provision  for  paying  the  expenses  of 
candidates  who  fail  to  enter  and  they 
must  be  prepared  to  defray  all  their 
own  expenses. 

No  Cadet  is  permitted  to  receive 
money,  or  any  other  supplies,  from  his 
parents,  or  from  any  person  whomso- 
ever, without  the  sanction  of  the 
Superintendent.  A  mogt  rigid  observ- 
ance of  this  regulation  is  urged  upon 
all  parents  and  guardians,  as  its  vio- 
lations would  make  distinctions  be- 
tween Cadets  which  it  is  the  especial 
desire  to  avoid ;  the  pay  of  a  Cadet  is 
sufficient,  with  proper  economy,  for  his 
support. 

Each  Cadet  must  keep  himself  sup- 
plied with  the  following  mentioned  ar- 
ticles, viz. : 

Two  pairs  of  uniform  shoes :  six 
pairs  of  uniform  white  gloves ;  two 
sets  of  white  belts;  ♦eight  white 
shirts ;  ♦four  night  shirts :  twelve 
white  linen  collars ;  twelve  pairs  of 
white   linen   cuflfs ;     *eight    pairs    of 


socks:  ♦eight  pairs  of  summer  draw- 
ers ;  *six  pairs  of  winter  drawers ; 
♦twelve  pocket  handkerchiefs ;  ♦twelve 
towels ;  two  clothes  bags,  made  of  tick- 
ing ;  ♦one  clothes  brush ;  ♦one  hair- 
brush :  ♦one  tooth  brush ;  ♦one  comb ; 
one  mattress ;  one  pillow  ;  four  pillow- 
cases; eight  sheets,  two  blankets,  and 
one  quilted  bed  cover;  one  chair;  one 
tumbler :  ♦one  trunk ;  one  account 
book ;  one  wash  basin. 

Candidates  are  authorized  to  bring 
with  them  the  articles  marked  ♦. 

Cadetd  are  required  to  wear  the  pre- 
scribed uniform.  All  articles  of  their 
uniform  are  of  a  designated  pattern, 
and  are  sold  to  Cadets  at  West  Point 
at  regulated  prices. 


DEPOSIT    PBIOB   TO    ADMISSION. 

Immediately  after  being  admitted  to 
the  Institution,  Cadets  must  be  provid- 
ed with  an  outfit  of  uniform,  the  cost 
of  which  will  be  about  $100,  which 
sum  must  he  deposited  with  the  Treas- 
urer of  the  Academy  before  the  candi- 
date is  admitted.  It  is  best  for  a  can- 
didate to  take  with  him  no  more 
money  than  will  defray  his  traveling 
expenses,  and  for  the  parent  or  guar- 
dian to  send  to  *^The  Treasurer  of  the 
U,  S.  Military  Academy,*'  the  re- 
quired deposit  of  $100.  This  amount 
is  sufficient  to  equip  a  new  Cadet  with 
uniform  and  to  supply  him  with  all 
articles  and  books. 


PROMOTION    AFTER   GRADUATION. 

The  attention  of  applicants  and  can- 
didates is  called  to  the  following  pro- 
visions of  an  Act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved May  17,  1886,  to  regulate  the 
promotion  of  graduates  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  : — 

"That  when  any  Cadet  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  has  gone 
through  all  its  classes  and  received  a 
regular  diploma  from  the  Academic 
Staif,  he  may  be  promoted  and  com- 
missioned as  a  second  lieutenant  in  any 
arm  or  corps  of  the  army  in  which 
there  may  be  a  vacancy  and  the  duties 
of  which  he  may  have  been  judged 
competent  to  perform ;  and  in  case 
there  shall  not  at  the  time  be  a  va- 
cancy in  such  arm  or  corps,  he  may, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  President,  be 
promotdd  and  commissioned  in  it  as  an 
additional  second  lieutenant,  with  the 
usual  pay  and  allowances  of  a  second 
lieutenant,  until  a  vacancy  shall  hap- 
pen." 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  NEW  SPRINGFIELD  MAGAZINE  RIFLE. 

The  new  Springfield  magazine  rifle, 
which  has  undergone  its  preliminary 
tests  with  very  gratifyius  results,  will 
lake  the  plat's  of  the  Krag-Jorgeusen, 
which  now.  for  severa]  years,  has  been 
doing  eKcellent  service  in  the  United. 
States  Army.  We  present  a  photij- 
graph  of  the  gun.  which  will  be  known 
as  Springaeld  Magazine  RiQe  Model 
1002,  and  also  a  line-drawing  which 
shows  several  sectional  views  of  the 
gun.  By  meaiiB  of  the  carefully  let- 
tered parts  a  good  idea  is  obtained  of 
the  details  of  the  gun.  The  weapon  is 
BUpplied  with  a  cleaning  rod,  which 
can  be  partially  pulled  from  its  place 
below  the  barrel,  and  held  with  a  catch 
so  as  to  form  a  bayonet.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  rod  bayonet  is  that 
it  lightens  the  weight  made  up  of  the 
gan,  bayonet  and  bayonet's  scabbard, 
ad,  by  dispensing  with  the  latter  two 
9  separate  articles  to  carry,  permits 
_.ie  soldier  to  carry  with  him  an  en- 
trenching tool  of  sufficient  size  and 
weight  to  be  serviceable.  While  there 
is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
^alue  of  the  rod  bayonet,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  be  less  effective  than  the 
type  now  in  use.  it  still  is  of  value 
as  converting  the  musket  into  a  pike. 
Moreover,  in  view  of  the  growing  value 
of  the  entrenching  tool  and  the  ever- 
decreasing  opportunities  for  the  use  of 
the  bayonet,  the  substitution  of  an  en- 
trenehing  tool  for  the  latter  Is  certain- 
ty in  line  with  the  recent  development 
of  lield  operations.  The  piece  is  cen- 
trally fed  by  means  of  clips,  each  of 
which  holds  five  cartridges ;  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  bolt  has  two  lugs 
instead  of  one  as  in  the  old  gun.  In 
I  recent  report  of  the  Chief  of  Ord- 
lance  the  trials  of  the  piece  are  spoken 
>f  as  having  given  "very  satisfactory 
results."  The  chief  points  of  difference 
from  the  Krag-Jorgensen  are  this  use 
of  two  lugs  in  place  of  one  for  holding 
the  bolt  against  the  rearward  pressure 
of  the  powdei' — the  increased  strength 
so  obtained  being  sufficient  to  allow 
an  increase  of  velocity  with  the 
le  weight  of  bullet,  from  2,000  feet 
,.-.  second  in  the  Krag-Jorgensen  to 
2.300  feet  per  second  in  Che  new  piece, 
the  resulting  increase  in  muzzle  enet^y 
being  from  I,9.'>2  foot-pounds  to  2,I>& 
foot-pounds.  The  Krag-.Torgensen  is 
callable  of  penetrating  45.8  inches  of 
white  pine  at  a  distance  of  53  feet, 
whereas  the  new  weapon  penetrates 
M.7  inches  at  the  same  distance.  The 
striking  energy  at  1,000  yards  has  been 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


100 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


raised  from  396  foot-pounds  to  448. 
Other  data  regarding  the  new  piece  are 
as  follows :  The  caliber  is  0.30 ;  the 
rifling  is  made  up  of  four  grooves  of  a 
depth  of  0.004  inch,  the  twist  being 
one  turn  in  10  inches.  The  bullet 
weighs  220  grains,  which  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Krag-Jorgensen,  but  the 
powder  charge  has  been  raised  from 
37.6  to  43.3  grains.  In  spite  of  the 
considerable  increase  in  its  power  the 
weapon  has  been  greatly  reduced  in 
weight ;  for  while  the  present  service 
magazine  rifle  weighs  10.64  pounds, 
and  the  Mauser  10.5  pounds,  and  the 
German  military  rifle  11.54  pounds,  the 
new  weapon  weighs  only  9.47  pounds. 
It  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that, 
with,  such  high  velocity  and  fairly 
heavy  bullet,  the  trajectory  is  corre- 


spondingly flat,  the  maximum  ordinate 
of  the  1,000  yard  trajectory  being  only 
20.67  feet  as  against  25.8  feet  for  the 
Krag-Jorgensen,  24.47  for  the  Mauser 
and  23.73  for  the  German  military 
rifle. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned  above 
there  are  other  improvements,  such  as 
housing  of  the  magazine  in  the  stock 
directly  below  the  chamber,  instead  of 
having  it  project  at  the  side  of  the 
gun,  and  there  are  many  changes  of 
detail  which  both  improve  the  rifle 
and  cheapen  and  accelerate  its  pro- 
duction. 

In  closing  it  should  be  mentioned 
that  the  new  gun  is  considerably  short- 
er than  any  existing  rifle,  and  is  only 
slightly  longer  than  the  military  car- 
bine. 


NEW    SPRINGFIELD    MAGAZINE    RIFLE    COMPARED    WITH    THE 

KRAG-JORGENSEN,     THE    MAUSER    AND    THE 

GERMAN     MILITARY     RIFLE. 


Data. 


Caliber inch. . 

Rifling: 

Number  of  grooves 

D^pth  of  grooves inch . . 

Twist,  one  turn  in inches .  . 

Weight  of  bullet grains .  . 

Weight  of  charge grains . . 

Weight  of  complete  cartridge grains . . 

Initial  velocity,  feet  per  second 

Remaining  velocity  at  1,000  yards 

Muzzle  energy foot-pounds . . 

Striking  energy  at  1,000  yards,  .foot-pounds.  . 

Penetration  in  white  pine  at  53  feet,  .inches. . 

Weight  of  rifle,  including  bayonet  and  scab- 
bard  , , pounds .  . 

Weight  of  rifle,  including  bayonet,  scabbard, 
and  100  cartridges pounds .  . 

Capacity  of  magazine .-  •  •  •  rounds .  . 

Maximum  ordinate  of  1000  yd.  trajectory,  feet. . 


Springfield 

Magazine 

Rifle. 


0.30 

4 

0.004 
10 
220 
43.3 
451 . 15 
2300 
958 

2581.6 

447.9 

54.7 

9.47 

15.91 
5 
20.67 


Service 

Magazine 

mfle. 


0.30 

4 

0.004 
10 
220 
37.6 
438.85 
2000 
901 
1952 
396.2 
45.8 

10.64 

16.91 
5 
25.8 


Mauser 
7  Mm. 
Rifle. 


0.275 

4 

0.0049 
8.66 
173 
38.58 
385.63 
2200 
895 
1857.4 
307.4 
50.8 

10.5 

16.18 
5 
24.47 


German 

Military 

Rifle. 


0.311 

4 

0.004 
9.45 
226.82 
41.2 
430.24 
2145 
906 
2135 
413 


11.54 

17.68 
5 
23.73 


THE  SIXTEEN-INCH  GUN. 


The  great  16-inch  126-ton  gun.  built 
for  the  Ignited  States  at  the  Water- 
vliet  arsenal,  is  49^  feet  long,  over  6 
feet  in  diameter  at  the  breech,  and  it 
has  an  extreme  range  of  over  twenty 
miles.  Its  projectile  weighs  2,370 
pounds,  and  costs  $865  to  fire  the  gun 
once.  The  map  on  page  102  will 
give  graphic  illustration  of  the  range 
of  this  gun.  If  fired  at  its  maximum 
elevation  from  the  battery  at  the  south 
end  of  New  York  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, its  projectile  would  pass  over  the 
city  of  New  York,  over  Grant's  Tomb, 
Spuyten  Duyvil,  Riverdale,  Mount  St. 


Vincent,  Ludlow,  Yonkers,  and  would 
land  near  Hastings-on-the-Hudson, 
nearly  twenty  miles  away,  as  shown  in 
our  map.  The  extreme  height  of  its 
trajectory  would  be  30,516  feet,  or 
nearly  six  miles.  This  means  that  if 
Pike's  Peak,  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, had  piled  on  top  of  it  Mont 
Blanc,  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  this 
gun  would  hurl  its  enormous  projectile 
so  high  above  them  both  as  to  still 
leave  space  below  its  curve  to  build 
Washington's  Monument  on  top  of 
Mont  Blanc,  as  shown.  The  model, 
page  101,  was  exhibited  at  St.  Louis. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


1^ 

1 

1 

^1 

102 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Mti6MT  Of  P4tlAM0lA,s\»intS 

¥¥iiSMrorPM^iCTne  z.hq  poi. 

POWOm  CMAWi  570  P09. 


20.978  M/US- 


RANGE   OF   8IXTEEN-INCH   GUN. 
Height  of  parabola,  5f  miles.     Weight  of  projectile,  2,370  pounds. 

Powder  charge,  576  pounds. 


>;   "^^ 


RADIUS  OF  ACTION  OF  SIXTEEN-INCH  GUN. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN  REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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104 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

The  latest  particulars  relating  to  the  military  power  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  Abyssinia, 
China,  Egypt,  Japan,  Mexico,  etc.,  from  Hasell's  Annual  for  1004,  will  be  found  below. 


ABYSSINIA. 

The  organization  is  feudal  in  character,  and 
the  constitution  is  by  provinces,  each  governor 
or  Has  having  a  standing  force  as  garrison 
and  at  call  in  case  of  war,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  retainers  not  embodied.  The  garri- 
son forces  united  constitute  the  new  army  of 
Menelik,  and  are  estimated  at  70,000  men. 
The  central  control  is  weak,  and  there  are  no 
organized  divisions  into  the  three  arms,  as  in 
Europe;  but  the  forces  are  readily  grouped,  the 
mounted  men  forming  an  irregular  cavalry, 
and  have  great  mobility.  Practically  every 
man  has  a  sword  and  a  rifle,  hut  the  firearms 
are  extraordinarily  varied,  and  the  mounted 
troops  also  carry  a  javelin  or  spear.  They  do 
not  exceed  5,000  altogether.  The  guns  are 
mostly  adapted  for  mountain  work,  there  being 
about  50  modern  and  30  old  ones.  The  un- 
embodied  retainers,  who  may  be  likened  to  a 
militia,  number  about  140,000  men. 

ARGENTINA. 

The  army  is  sanctioned  by  an  annual  vote, 
as  in  Great  Britain.  The  standing  foi*ce  and 
reserve  consist  of  120,000  men  (18  battalions 
of  Infantry,  12  regiments  of  cavalry,  8  of 
artillery,  and  4  battalions  of  engineers).  Out- 
side these  are  the  National  and  Territorial 
Guard,  which  have  little  training.  Compul- 
sory military  service  (25  years  in  all)  was 
adopted  in  1001 ,  and  it  is  believed  that  500,000 
men  could  be  mobilized  in  case  of  war. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  active  army  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  is  an 
organization  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and 
has  its  Ersatz,  or  supplementary  Reserve, 
with  local  forces  for  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
attached.  There  are  fifteen  army  corps,  and 
certain  troops  in  the  military  districts  of  Zara 
in  Dalmatia.  In  addition  are  the  Austrian 
Landwehr  and  Landi^turm  and  the  Hungarian 
(or  Transleithan)  Landwehr  and  Landsturm, 
known  as  the  Honved. 

During  1003  the  army  question  rose  to  great 
prominence  between  the  national  parties  in 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and  certain  concessions 
were  made  to  the  latter  in  regard  to  the 
language  of  command,  regimental  colors,  and 
other  matters,  but  these  do  not  affect  the 
unity  of  the  army. 

The  fifteen  army  corps  comprise  5  cavalry 
divisions  and  31  infantry  divisions  of  the  act- 
ive army,  and  on  mobilization  a  Landwehr 
division  would  be  attached  to  each.  There  are 
466  battalions  of  infantry  (102  regiments  of 
the  line,  4  of  Tyrolese  rifles  and  4  Bosnian,  and 
26  battalions  regulai*  rifles.  The  cavalry  on  a 
peace  footing  comprises  252  squadrons  (15 
regiments  of  Dragoons,.  11  of  Uhlans,  and  16 
of  Hussars),   and  the  artillery  251  batteries. 


exclusive  of  18  battalions  of  fortress  artillery 
and  15  of  pioneers.  The  field  artillery  is 
formed  in  14  brigades,  and  a  group  of  3 
mountain  batteries  in  the  .Tyrol.  On  a  peace 
footing  there  are  224  field  batteries,  16  horse 
batteries,  11  mountain  batteries,  56  ammu- 
nition columns  (in  skeleton),  and  56  depots. 
The  war  strength  would  give  a  total  of  328 
batteries  (exclusive  of  fortress  units),  with  a 
total  of  2,464  guns.  The  Austrian  and  Hun- 
garian cavalry  have  won  the  admiration  of 
European  soldiers,  and  the  Empire  unquestion- 
ably possesses  a  thoroughly  practical  mounted 
arm  fit  for  service  at  a  moment's  notice. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  strength 
of  the  forces  in  1003;  but  it  is  believed  that  by 
embodying  all  classes  of  the  Landsturm  the 
dual  monarchy  could  put  3,000,000  men  in  the 
field. 


Forces. 

Peace. 

War. 

Field  Army 

266,000 

51,000 

6,000 

7,000 

16,000 

687.000 

Landwehr  and  Honved . 

Reserve  troops 

Fortre.ss  troops 

Transport  Staff,  etc  .  . . 
Landsturm 

237,000 

102,000 

31,000 

303.666 

346,000 

1,540,000 

The  Honved  (national  Hungarian  army)  is 
subject  in  war  time  only  to  the  commander- 
in-chief,  and  in  peace  time  only  to  the  Royal 
Hungarian  jurisdiction. 

BELGIUM. 

The  Belgian  army  was  recently  reorganized 
as  the  outcome  of  a  popular  agitation,  leading 
to  the  appointment  of  a  mixed  commission 
which  prepared  a  scheme.  The  main  feature 
was  the  adoption  of  volunteer  enlistment,  with 
the  purpose  of  bringing  about  a  progressive 
decrease  in  the  annular  levy  by  subscription. 
Special  advantages  were  offered,  but  the  re- 
sult has  been  very  disappointing. 

The  establishment  on  Oct.  1st,  1003,  when 
the  recruits  were  embodied,  was  42,(X)0  men, 
but  there  was  a  deficiency  of  7,000,  owing  to 
substitutes  not  having  been  found  for  men  who 
had  been  absolved  from  service.  The  regi- 
ments were  in  some  places  so  weak  that  train- 
ing  was  impossible.  The  nominal  liability 
is  eight  years  with  the  colors  and  five  in  the 
reserve,  and  the  recruit  contingent  is  13,300, 
the  volunteers  being  in  addition. 

The  composition  is  as  follows:  Cavalry — 
2  regiments  of  chasseurs,  2  of  guides,  and  4 
of  lancers.  Each  regiment  consists  of  4 
squadrons  active  and  1  reserve.  To  the  above 
have  to  be  added  the  gendarmerie  (over  1,700 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


105 


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106 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


men).  Artillery — 4  field  and  4  fortress 
regiments  (in  all  204  gun8).  Engineers — 1 
regiment  of  3  battalions,  a  reserve  battalion, 
and  5  special  technical  companies.  I  nf antry — 
14  regiments  of  the  line,  of  4  battalions  of  4 
companies  each,  3  active  and  1  reserve  bat- 
talion; 1  regiment  of  grenadiers,  similarly 
organized;  1  regiment  of  carbineers  of  6  bat- 
talions (4  active  and  2  reserve),  and  3  regi- 
ments of  cha»8eura-d-pted. 

The  Civic  or-  National  Guard  is  under  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior  in  peace  time,  and 
numbers  approximately  45,000  men  reckoned 
as  "active,"  and  100,000  "non-active."  The 
effect  of  the  new  law  cannot  yet  be  estimated 
fully. 

BRAZIL. 

Gradual  progress  is  being  made  in  the  re- 
organization of  the  army,  but  much  remains 
yet  to  be  done.  The  strength  and  organiza- 
tion, given  in  the  official  Revista  MilUar,  is  as 
follows:  staff,  28;  engineer  corps,  66;  general 
.staff  corps,  124;  medical  staff,  163;  artillery 
staff,  62;  6  regiments  of  artillery,  2,562;  6 
battalions  of  artillery,  2,100;  2  battalions  of 
engineers,  862;  14  cavalry  regiments,  6,020; 
1  transport  corps,  202;  40  infantry  battalions, 
17,840;  total,  30,119.  The  troops  are  divided 
into  seven  military  districts,  the  most  import- 
ant being  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (11,226  men). 

BULGARIA. 

Military  service  is  popular,  and  the  peasantry 
have  a  great  deal  of  excellent  military  spirit. 
The  officer  is  also  efficient,  and  the  Govern- 
ment has  taken  very  great  care  in  selection 
and  training,  the  Russian  army  being  the 
pattern. 

The  forces  are  divided  into  three  categories: 
the  regular  army,  the  reserve  and  the  militia, 
and  all  Bulgarians  are  liable  for  personal 
service,  with  few  exceptions,  from  the  age  of 
20  to  45,  substitution  not  being  permitted. 
The  country  is  divided  into  six  divisional 
districts,  and  the  annual  contingent  is  about 
18,000  men. 

The  peace  strength  is:  infantry,  1,300  officers 
and  28,550  men;  cavalry,  200  officers  and  3,850 
men;  field  artillery,  280  officers  and  5,020  men ; 
mountain  artillery,  45  officers  and  900  men; 
fortress  artillery,  65  officers  and  950  men; 
engineers,  18  officers  and  1,900  men;  transport, 
20  officers  and  160  men:  total,  1900  officers  and 
41,330  men. 

The  total  war  strength  is  3,810  officers,  202,- 
500  men,  and  29,200  horses.  In  addition 
Bulgaria  can  count  upon  at  least  20, OCX)  Komi- 
taj'is,  a  force  of  semi-trained  and  experienced 
guerillas.  The  infantry  arm  is  the  8  mm. 
Mannlicher  rifle. 

CHILE. 

The  army  does  not  exceed  6,000  men,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  Feb.  2d,  1892, 
and  the  formations  are:  7  regiments  of  in- 


fantry, 4  of  cavalry,  3  of  artillery,  and  a  corps 
of  engineers.  The  National  Guard  numbers 
over  50,(X)0  men. 

CHINA. 

The  Chinese  army  came  under  close  ob- 
servation during  the  Boxer  Rebellion,  and, 
although  in  many  ways  it  gave  proof  of  want 
of  organization,  it  was  recognized  that  in  ar- 
mament, training,  and  the  things  that  go  to 
make  up  the  efficiency  of  the  army,  remark- 
able progress  had  been  made.  General  Frey 
who  commanded  the  French  forees  in  China, 
says  it  is  a  mistake  to  hold  that  the  Chinese 
Government  has  any  repugnance  to  the  crea- 
tion of  military  forces.  The  Emperor  is  said 
to  have  issued  an  order  extolling  military 
discipline  and  disavowing  any  purpose  of  dis- 
armament, and  training  is  going  on  under 
Japanese  officers.  The  Black  Flags  are  now 
a  force  of  real  value. 

It  was  never  easy  to  ascertain  facts  concern- 
ing the  Chinese  forces.  They  may  be  divided 
into  the  old  armies,  comprising  the  Imperial 
or  Banner  troops;  the  new  armies,  composed 
of  troops  of  comparatively  recent  fornuition 
(since  the  war  with  Japan) ;  and  the  Mongolian 
and  Thibetan  Militias,  which  in  peace  time 
only  exist  on  paper. 

The  elite  of  the  old  armies  is  composed  of 
the  Shen-Che-Ying  or  Black  Flag  troops,  and 
the  Pa-Ki  or  Eight-Banner  men.  The  former 
are  said  to  number  50,000  men  with  the  colors. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  Black  Flags  come  the 
Banner  men  of  the  army  of  Manchuria,  com- 
posed of  soldier-like  troops,  but  some  of  them 
still  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  or  with  the 
old  jingal.  The  Banner  men  have  been 
estimated  at  something  like  300,000.  Service 
with  the  Manchus  is  hereditary,  and  the  Banner 
men  are  still  the  chief  support  of  the  Ta-tsing 
dynasty.  The  army  of  Manchuria  must  be 
profoundly  affected  by  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  the  country.  The  Luh-Ying  or  Green 
Flags,  with  a  paper  strength  of  500,000  men, 
scattered  through  the  empire,  possess  little 
military  value,  and  as  now  organized  can  be 
of  no  real  service. 

The  new  armies  consist  of  enrolled  or  con- 
script armies  (irregulars),  strength  about 
100,000  men,  raised  at  the  initiative  of  the 
viceroys  and  governors  of  provinces  in  the 
event  of  revolution  or  of  war  with  Europeans; 
and  the  active  armies,  dressed  like  Europeans, 
and  formed  of  the  best  men  drawn  from  the 
Green  Flag  Army — strength  210,000  men. 
These  troops  occupy  important  strategic 
points,  and  are  under  the  orders  of  the  pro- 
vincial authorities.  The  best  of  them  are  in 
the  province  of  Chi-Li,  where  the  army  was 
reorganized  by  Yun-Hu  and  Lu-Chang. 

Before  the  Boxer  troubles.  Major  A.  E.  J. 
Marshall,  of  the  British  Army,  one  of  the  best 
authorities,  summed  up  the  number  and  dis- 
position of  the  whole  available  force  of  China 
thus: 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


107 


FIGHTING   TROOPS. 

Manchurian  Field  Force 50,000 

Manchurian  Irregulars 50,000 

Fighting  Braves 125,000 

Chien-daun,  or  Disciplined  Troops.  .  .    10,000 

205,000 

RESERVES    UNDER   ARMS. 

Peking  Field  Force. '. . .    13.000 

Banner  Troops  in  Peking 75,000 

Banner  Troops  in  Provinces 95,000 

p.uh-Ying,  or  Green  Flags 506,000 

689.000 


DENMARK. 

Service  is  obligatory  on  all  able-bodied  men 
who  have  reached  the  age  of  22.  Terms  of 
service,  eight  years  with  the  colors  and  eight 
in  the  extra  reserve..  A  reorganization  of  the 
Danish  army  was  introduced  in  1894,  and  the 
late  War  Minister,  General  Bahnson,  calculated 
that  the  contingent  brought  under  training 
7,947  men  yearly.  The  service  in  the  various 
branches  of  the  ^urmy  is  16  yeails;  but,  reckon- 
ing 14  years  only,  and  allowing  for  waste,  the 
General  concludes  that  by  the  year  1910  Den- 
mark will  be  able  to  mobilize  83,000  men,  of 
whom  58,500  will  be  infantry,  5,000  cavalry, 
6,800  field  artillery,  and  8,600  fortress  artillery. 
The  really  effective  force  would  be  about  70,- 
000.  At  present  the  peace  strength  (31  bat- 
talions, 16  squadrons,  and  12  field  batteries, 
with  fortress  artillery  and  engineers)  is  13,750, 
increased  on  mobilization  to  50,000. 

EGYPT. 

The  Egyptian  army,  under  strong  leader- 
ship and  the  command  of  British  officers,  has 
shown  excellent  quality.  All  the  inhabitants 
are  liable  for  service — six  years  in  the  army, 
five  in  the  police,  and  four  in  the  reserve,  and 
there  are  always  about  150,000  young  men  on 
the  rolls  for  conscription;  but  the  burden  is 
very  light,  and  the  men  are  all  selected.  The 
cavalry  are  recruited  from  the  fellaheen  of 
the  Delta.  The  infantry  battalions  are  drawn 
mostly  from  the  fellaheen,  but  several  are 
Soudanese  blacks.  The  first  are  filled  by 
conscription,  and  have  about  800  men  each, 
mostly  fellaheen,  in  6  companies.  The  in- 
terior economy  and  drill  of  the  recruits  is  ex- 
cellent, and  the  musketry  good.  The  arm  is 
the  Martini-Henry.  In  the  Soudanese  bat- 
talions the  service  is  voluntary.  This  force 
was  raised  largely  from  the  Khalifa's  black 
riflemen,  but  men  from  Lower  Egypt  have  been 
enlisted. 

The  artillery  is  the  force  that  shows  most 
markedly  the  impress  of  the  European  train- 
ing. The  horse  battery  has  Syrian  horses  and 
light  Krupp  guns.  The  field  batteries  have 
Krupp  mountain  guns  carried  by  mules,  with 
a  second  line  of  camels.  There  is  also  a  bat- 
talion of  garrison  artillery,  organized  as  in  our 
service. 


The  Egyptian  Army  has  been  reduced  re- 
cently, owing  to  the  smaller  demand  for  its 
services,  and  some  of  the  Soudanese  have  been 
disbanded.  About  8,000  men  have  left  the 
colors.  The  command  is  vested  in  Major- 
Gen.  Sir  Reginald  Wingate,  with  the  title  of 
Sirdar. 

The  British  forces  in  Egypt  are  4  regiments 
of  infantry,  1  of  cavalry,  2  field  batteries,  and 
detachments  of  fortress  artillery  and  engineers, 
with  a  strength  of  5,482  in  1903-4. 

FRANCE. 

The  French  army  is  administered  by  the 
War  Departments,  or  Ministry  of  War,  with 
General  Andre  at  its  head,  assisted  by  a  mili- 
tary cabinet  and  the  chiefs  of  various  bureaux. 
The  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  army  is 
responsible  to  the  Minister,  and  controls  the 
directorates  of  infantry,  cavalry,  engineers, 
artillery,  finance,  etc. 

In  1904  the  effectives  with  the  colors  are 
estimated  as  follows:  29,000  officers,  520,831 
men,  and  142,474  horses,  being  a  diminution  of 
76  officers  and  6,228  men  as  compared  with 
1903.  The  establishment  will  be  515,600 
men.  The  smaller  number  embodied  results 
from  the  contingent  being  less  than  in  previous 
years. 

The  Active  Army  is  constituted  as  follows: 
652  battalions  of  infantry,  30  battalions  of 
chasseurs,  10  foreign,  20  zouaves,  24  Algerian 
tirailleurs,  1  Saharan  tirailleurs,  and  5 
African  light  infantry:  total,  742  battalions, 
13,370  officers,  24,432  non-commissioned 
officers,  342,068  men:  total,  379,890.  The 
cavalry  form  31  regiments  of  dragoons,  21  of 
chasseurs,    14  of    hussars,    13  of  cuirassiers, 

6  of  chasseurs  d'Afrique  (all  of  5  squadrons), 
and  4  of  Spahis,  variously  constituted,  num- 
bering in  all  448  squadrons,  3,891  officers, 
4,552  non-commissioned  officers,  64,756  men: 
total,  73,199,  and  61,028  horses.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  artillery  is  as  follows:  field  bat- 
teries, 434;  horse  batteries,  52;  mountain  bat- 
teries, 22;  foot  (or  fortress)  batteries,  112: 
in  all,  620;  officers  and  men,  77,213.  The 
engineers  (including  railway  troops)  number 

7  regiments,  20  battalions  and  3  railway  com- 
panies) with  telegraphists,  ballooning  troops, 
etc.,  officers  and  men,  13,426;  and  the  military 
train  has  20  squadrons  (comprising  72  com- 
panies), officers  and  men,  8,167. 

In  relation  to  the  organization  given  above, 
it  must  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  class  em- 
bodied in  November,  1903,  consisting  only  of 
196,000  men,  as  compared  with  238,000  en- 
rolled in  the  previous  year,  it  has  been  decided 
to  abolish  68  companies  of  the  fourth  battal- 
ions of  regiments  which  had  not  been  com- 
pletely formed.  These  fourth  battalions 
were  raised  in  1897,  and  could  only  be  proper- 
ly organized  in  93  out  of  145  subdivisional 
regiments.  In  consequence  of  the  latest 
abolition  there  remain  only  65  fourth  battal- 


108 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ions,  not  including  the  18  belonging  to  dis- 
trict regiments,  which  are  all  up  to  strength. 

The  forces  are  organized'  in  20  army  corps, 
exclusive  of  the  Paris  garrison;  their 
headquarters  being  at  Lille,  Amiens,  Rouen, 
Le  Mans,  Orleans,  Chalons-sur-Mame,  Besan- 
con,  Bourges,  Tours,  Rennes,  Nantes,  Limoges 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Mont- 
pelier,  Toulouse,  Bordeaux,  Algiers,  Nancy. 

A  proposal  is  before  the  French  parliament 
for  reducing  the  period  of  service  with  the 
colors  to  two  years,  and  it  is  the  general  opin- 
ion that  the  measure  will  become  law.  It  is 
proposed  to  embody  a  considerable  number  of 
re-enlisted  men  in  order  to  make  good  the 
deficiency  that  will  arise. 

Under  the  existing  rules  every  Frenchman 
should  serve  three  years  in  the  active  army, 
ten  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  active  army,  six 
years  in  the  territorial  army  and  six  years  in 
the  reserve  of  the  territorial  army.  For 
administration,  training  and  mobilization,  the 
units  of  the  territorial  army,  as  well  as  the 
active  reserve,  are  attached  to  the  correspond- 
ing units  of  the  active  army.  The  reserve 
troops  are:  145  infantry  regiments,  30 
chasseur  battalions,  38  cavalry  regiments 
formed  with  the  line  and  light  cavalry  regi- 
ments of  the  corps  cavalry  brigades,  41  other 
squadrons  formed  with  the  divisional  cavalry 
regiments,  and  216  batteries  of  field  artillery. 
12  to  each  artillery  brigade.  The  territorial 
forces  are  145  battalions  of  infantry,  7  of  rifles, 
10  of  zouaves,  40  battery  groups  of  field 
artillery  and  16  of  foot  artillery,  21  battalions 
of  engineers,  and  19  squadrons  of  train.  There 
are  special  dispositions  in  regard  to  some  army 
corps,  and  a  large  number  of  battalions  and 
independent  companies  are  employed  in  the 
customs  and  forest  service.  In  regard  to  the 
localization  of  the  troops,  it  should  be  noted 
that  a  large  force  is  quartered  on  the  German 
frontier,  where  the  6th  corps  has  been  divided 
into  two,  and  a  new  corps  thus  created.  The 
reserve  of  the  active  army  includes  about 
1,320,000  men,  and  the  Territorial  Army  and 
its  reserve  about  2,270,000. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  French  army, 
with  its  various  reserve  and  territorial  forces, 
includes  3,500,000  tramed  men  on  a  war  foot- 
ing, and  that  4,000,000  untrained  men  might 
be  embodied. 

The  French  colonial  army  has  been  brought 
under  the  authority  of  the  Ministry  of  War, 
and  comprises  6  brigades  of  infantry,  12  bat- 
talions of  field  artillery,  6  mountain  batteries, 
and  12  garrison  batteries. 

In  Madagascar  and  Indo-China  are  10  bat- 
talions of  French  and  18  battalions  of  native 
infantry,  and  4  field,  6  mountain,  and  5  garri- 
son batteries;  in  West  Africa,  2  French  and  8 
native  battalions,  2  mountain  and  3  garrison 
batteries;  in  Martinique,  7  French  and  10 
native  battalions,  and  2  field.  3  mountain  and 
3  garrison  batteries;  and  in  various  other  sta- 


tions some  6  French  and  3  native  battalions, 
with  1  mountain  and  5  garrison  batteries. 
For  some  time  past  France  has  been  strength- 
ening her  military  forces  in  French  Indo- 
China,  where  there  are  now  at  disposal  3 
brigades  of  troops  in  actual  existence,  with  a 
reserve  brigade.  The  approximate  strength 
of  the  native  forces  in  the  colony  is  as  follows: 

French  infantry,  3  regiments.  . . .     3,000  men 
Foreign  Legion,  4  battalions  .  . . .  '   3,000    " 
Native  infantry,  6  regiments  ....    18,000    " 
"Milice    indigene"    (native    con- 
stabulary)     10,000    " 

Total  of  infantry 34,000    " 


GERMANY. 

The  administration  and  command  of  the 
army  is  exercised  through  the  great  general 
staff,  a  most  powerful  and  efficient  organiza- 
tion, by  which  the  work  of  t^e  army  is  pre- 
pared for  in  peace  and  molded  in  war.  It  is 
at  once  a  close  and  yet  flexible  organization, 
which  permeates  the  whole  structure  of  the 
army,  consisting  for  Prussia  of  about  200  offi- 
cers. Nearly  100  of  these  are  detached  on 
service  with  the  staffs  of  corps  or  divisions, 
while  the  remainder  constitute  the  great  gen- 
eral staff  in  Berlin.  There  is  constant  inter- 
change between  regimental  work  and  staff 
work,  and  between  the  latter  locally  and  with 
the  headquarters  staff  in  Berlin.  Scarcely 
any  regimental  officer  rises  high  in  his  corps 
without  having  been  called  to  staff  service; 
so  that  the  ideas  of  the  staff  are  based  upon 
practical  experience,  and  react  upon  the  whole 
army,  to  which  they  come  as  a  kind  of  tradition 
of  duty  and  policy,  sharpening  and  directing 
the  life  and  work  of  the  army.  Recently  the 
inspection  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  has 
been  improved. 

The  forces  are  organized  in  22  army  corps, 
and  comprise  625  battalions  of  infantry,  482 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  754  batteries  of  artil- 
lery, 38  battalions  of  foot  artillery,  25  bat- 
talions of  pioneers,  11  battalions  of  Army 
Service  troops,  and  23  battalions  of  train, 
with  a  peace  strength  of  495,500  rank  and  file, 
exclusive  of  one-year  volunteers.  The  estab- 
lishment is  given  as  620,918.  The  contingent 
annually  embodied  approaches  275,000  men. 
The  service  in  the  standing  army  is  of  six 
years,  two  of  these  with  the  colors  in  the  in- 
fantry and  three  in  the  cavalry  and  horse  ar- 
tillery, and  the  rest  in  the  reserve.  After 
quitting  the  reserve  of  the  Active  Army  the 
soldier  passes  five  years  in  the  Landwehr  and 
seven  in  its  reserve.  The  recruiting  service  of 
the  Guard,  conisting  of  the  tallest  and  finest- 
looking  men,  is  carried  out  by  a  committee, 
consisting  of  officers  specially  nominated  for 
the  purpose.  Under  the  system  of  recruiting 
there  are  always  more  men  than  are  necessary 
to  keep  up  the  army  strength,  the  surplus 
constituting  the  Ersatz  Reserve. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


109 


The  strength  upon  mobilization  is  estimated 
at  2,310,000  infantry.  151,000  cavalry,  329,000 
artillery,  78,000  technical  troops,  168,000  oth- 
er formations,  making  a  total  of  3,036,000 
trained  men, 

GREAT   BRITAIN. 

Under  the  new  system,  the  British  Army 
has  been  organized  in  Army  Corps.  It  was 
designed  to  form  six  of  these,  but  up  to  the 
present  time  only  four  have  been  constituted. 

The  organization  of  a  British  Army  Corps  is 
as  follows: — Infantry,  25  battalions ;  artillery, 
160  guns — viz.,  18  batteries  of  field  artillery, 
two  batteries  horse  artillery,  three  batteries  of 
howitzers,  and  three  batteries  of  4.7-in.  guns. 
These  last  batteries  have  only  four  guns  each, 
all  the  others  six.  The  cavalry  of  an  Army 
Corps  includes  two  regiments,  one  immediate- 
ly attached  to  the  Divisions,  the  other  to  the 
Special  Corps  troops,  and,  in  addition,  for 
purposes  of  peace  organization,  there  is  a 
cavalry  brigade  of  three  regiments  in  each 
Army  Corps  command. 

The  local  organization  of  the  Army  Corps 
districts  does  not  supersede  that  of  the  older 
regimental  districts,  of  which  there  are  67, 
each  under  the  command  of  a  colonel.  The 
regimental  district  is  the  recruiting  ground  of 
a  territorial  regiment,  with  which  are  linked, 
as  junior  battalions,  the  militia  and  volunteer 
corps  within  the  area;  and  the  reserve  men  are 
pensioners  of  their  respective  territorial  regi- 
ments. The  Royal  Artillery,  through  9  re- 
cruiting areas,  and  the  Royal  Engineers, 
through  the  commanding  Royal  Engineer  in 
each  district,  have  also  a  territorial  organiza- 
tion; but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Cavalry, 
which  has  special  recruiters  or  staff  officers 
located  in  various  districts.  In  theory,  one 
battalion  of  each  Infantry  regiment  is  at 
home,  as  a  feeder  for  the  other  abroad;  but 
in  practice  this  system  has  never  been  uni- 
formly maintained,  and  was  completely  dis- 
located by  the  war  in  South  Africa.  The 
Army  Service  and  several  departmental  corps 
are  part  of  the  organization. 

The  following  is  the  organization  of  the 
Regular  Army  according  to  the  units  of  each 
arm  of  the  service.  The  strength  is  given 
below: 

Household  Cavalry  ....  Regiments  3 

Cavalry  of  the  Line.  ...       do  28 

Horse  Artillery Batteries  30 

Field  Artillery do  158 

Mountain  Artillery  ....       do  11 

Garrison  Artillery Companies  111 

Royal  Engineers do  100^ 

Foot  Guards Battalions  10 

Infantry  of  the  Line. ...       do  161 

Army  Service  Corps.  .  . .  Companies  72 

R.  A.  Medical  Corps  ...       do  56 

Army  Ordnance  Corps  .       do  24 

In  addition  to  these  are  Colonial  Corps  and 
Indian  Infantry  in  Egypt.  Barbados,  Jamaica, 
Bermuda,  Malta,  West  Africa,  Mauritius, 
Ceylon,  China,  and  Hong  Kong,  the  Straits 
Settlements,  etc. 


The  Army  Reserve  is  a  vital  element  in  the 
Army  organization,  the  Reserve  men  being 
liable  by  the  terms  of  their  agreement  to  gen- 
eral service  with  the  arms  in  which  they  were 
enrolled  v/ith  the  colors.  The  Reserve  was 
profoundly  affected  by  the  war  in  South  Africa, 
and  the  general  mobilization  of  the  force 
showed  that  the  force  could  be  relied  upon. 
Reservists,  who  have  served  their  period  with 
the  colors,  and  who  are  of  the  best  soldiering 
age,  and  available  for  service  if  required,  are  an 
excellent  set  of  men.  The  reserve  men  are 
pensioners  of  the  respective  territorial  regi- 
ments, and  look  to  the  officer  commanding  the 
district  as  their  commanding  officer. 

The  establishment  as  at  present  authorized 
is  80,000.  Subsequently  to  the  war  men  have 
been  drafted  in  large  numbers  to  the  Reserve, 
and  the  numbers  increased  by  18,288  between 
Jan.  1st  and  April  Ist,  1903.  The  Reserve 
comprises  Sections  A,  B,  C  and  D,  the  B  sec- 
tion being  the  most  important,  comprising 
all  who  have  enlisted  for  short  service  and  have 
discharged  their  active  duties.  The  following 
was  the  strength  of  the  several  sections  on 
Jan.  Ist,  1903:  A,  328;  B,  28,759;  C,  697;  D, 
3081:  total,  32,865. 

A  new  scheme  for  the  enlistment  of  railway 
employ^  into  the  Reserve,  through  the  agency 
of  the  Engineer  and  Railway  Volunteer  Staff 
Corps,  and  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
commandant  of  that  corps,  has  borne  fruit, 
and  bids  fair  to  be  a  success. 

A  further  reserve  force  connected  with  each 
regimental  district  is  the  Militia  Reserve,  to  be 
embodied  with  the  Militia  upon  mobilization. 

■   MILITIA. 

During  the  Boer  War  the  Militia,  though  it 
was  kept  in  the  background,  accomplished 
what  no  other  branch  of  the  army  could  do. 
Without  external  aid  it  provided  a  large  num- 
ber of  organized  and  completed  battalions  for 
home,  foreign,  and  active  service,  thus  main- 
taining its  old  traditions,  and  demonstrating 
its  high  value  among  the  military  forces  of  the 
Crown.  The  service  upon  the  lines  of  com- 
munication was  most  arduous.  The  Militia 
is  a  force  of  very  old  standing,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  provide  a  body  of  trained  men, 
available  in  case  of  need  or  of  imminent  nation- 
al danger,  to  supplement,  support,  or  relieve 
the  regular  army  at  home  and  on  the  Medi- 
terranean .stations.  There  are  in  all  124  In- 
fantry battalions  attached  to  the  Line  regi- 
ments, 32  corps  of  Garrison  Artillery,  3  Field 
Batteries,  2  fortress  corps  of  Engineers,  10 
divisions  of  Submarine  Miners,  and  2  com- 
panies of  the  Medical  Staff  Corps.  The  Malta 
regiment,  some  colonial  corpp,  and  8  Channel 
Island  regiments  are  in  addition.  It  has  often 
acted  as  a  feeder  to  the  Regular  Army,  and, 
under  the  territorial  system,  this  has  come  to 
be  regarded  as  its  chief  function.  A  very  large 
number  of  militia  recruits  are  every  year 
transferred  to  the  line — as  many,  indeed,  as 


110 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


one- third  of  the  whole  number  enlisted — and 
the  force  ii^  a  channel  through  which  many 
commissions  are  annually  gained  in  the  regu- 
lar Army.  This  system  is  to  be  continued. 
Great  dissatisfaction  was  felt  owing  to  the  re> 
tention  of  Militia  battalions  for  so  long  a  period 
in  South  Africa,  whereby  a  real  hardship  was 
inflicted  upon  officers  and  men,  and  the  feeling 
is  general  in  the  force  that  it  is  neglected. 

The  Militia  recruit  is  enlisted  for  six  years, 
and  may  re-engage  if  under  45  years  of  age 
for  a  further  period  of  four  years.  Recruits 
are  liable,  at  any  time  after  enlistment,  to  be 
assembled  for  preliminary  drill  for  such  period, 
not  exceeding  six  months,  as  may  be  directed, 
from  time  to  time  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  War.  Brigades  and 'regiments  are  called 
out  annually  for  27  days'  training,  which  may 
be  extended  to  56  days  if  deemed  expedient. 

The  Lord-Lieutenant  of  a  county  recom- 
mends to  the  consideration  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War,  for  submission  to  His  Majesty, 
the  names  of  candidates  for  first  appointment 
to  Commissions,  commanding  officers  being 
directed  to  assist  him  in  the  selection  if  called 
upon.  For  subaltern  officers  in  the  Militia, 
candidates  must  be  seventeen  years  of  age  or 
upwards.  The  appointment  of  officers  as 
captains  and  field  officers  is  recommended  by 
the  Militia  commanding  officer  direct. 

The  New  Militia  Reserve,  to  be  formed  as  a 
•'Reserve  Division  of  the  Militia,"  was  author- 
ized by  a  Royal  Warrant  (Feb.  4th,  1903), 
under  the  Militia  and  Yeomanry  act,  1892,  and 
has  an  establishment  of  50,000.  It  is  intend- 
ed to  raise  the  force  in  round  numbers  from 
100,000  to  150,000,  and,  in  order  to  stimulate 
recruiting,  men  joining  from  the  garrison 
Regiment  receive  $30  annually,  and  other  men 
$22.50,  with  quarters  and  rations  during  train- 
ing. The  arrangements  for  musketry  training 
are  to  be  increased.  Men  of  the  Reserve  Divi- 
sion are  liable  to  serve  with  the  Militia  when- 
ever that  force  is  embodied  by  proclamation. 

The  services  of  the  Imperial  Yeomanry  in 
South  Africa,  in  the  organizations  of  which  the 
old  Yeomanry  Cavalry  played  a  very  large 
part  (although  in  the  actual  composition  of  the 
force  the  r^ular  yeomen  formed  only  about 
one-fifth  of  the  total  strength),  caused  the 
military  authorities  to  reorganize  the  force. 
An  Army  Order  of  April  17th,  1901,  provided 
that  it  should,  in  future,  be  entitled  the  "Im- 
perial Yeomanry,"  and  that  the  brigade  organ- 
ization should  be  abolished,  and  the  force  be 
organized  in  regiments  of  four  squadrons,  with 
a  regimental  staff  and  a  machine-gun  section. 
The  order  included  rules  as  to  efficiency,  drills, 
and  pay.  During  the  period  of  training,  and 
under  conditions  laid  down,  the  daily  pay, 
including  ration  allowance,  varies  from  $1.35 
in  the  case  of  a  private  to  $2.38  in  the  case  of  a 
reg^imental  sergeant-major,  with  Is.  additional 
when  a  non-commissioned  officer  acts  as 
quartermaster.  It  was  also  announced  that 
after  Oct.  Slst,  1901,  all  corps  of  Volunteer 


light  horse  and  Volunteer  companies  of 
mounted  infantry  would  be  disbanded-  or 
merged  into  squadrons  of  the  Imperial 
Yeomanry.  The  number  of  regiments  so  far 
constituted  is  52.  A  Committee  on  the  or- 
ganization of  arms  and  equipment  of  the  Yeo- 
manry Force  reported  upon  the  subject  in 
January,  1901,  and  it  was  decided,  under  the 
new  Army  scheme,  to  provide  the  Yeomanry 
with  rifles,  to  give  them  extra  pay  as  indicated 
above,  with  horse  allowance  of  $25  and  to 
raise  the  force  to  35,(X)0  as  Imperial  Yeomanry 
intended  to  furnish  mounted  troops  for  home 
defense,  while  Colonial  Yeomanry  are  to  be 
affiliated  for  Imperial  services.  There  is  a 
school  for  instruction  for  officers  of  Imperial 
Yeomanry,  with  a  lieutenant-colonel  as  com- 
mandant and  a  staff  of  66. 

THE    VOLUNTEEB8. 

Volunteer  corps  are  raised  under  the  Volun- 
teer Act  1863  (26  &  27  Vict.,  c.  65).  They  are 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  that  Act  and  any 
Acts  amending  it,  and  likewise  to  all  regula- 
tions made  with  regard  to  Volunteer  corps. 
The  Volunteer  (Military  Service)  Act  of  '96 
provides  that  whenever  an  order  for  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  Militia  is  in  force,  any  member 
of  a  Volunteer  corps  may  offer  himself  for 
actual  military  service,  and  if  the  services  of 
such  members  of  any  corps  are  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  be  separately  organized  are 
accepted,  then  those  members  may  be  called 
out  either  as  a  corps  or  as  part  -of  a  corps. 
Under  the  Volunteers  Act  1900  new  regulations 
were  made  as  follows: — I.  A  member  of  a 
Volunteer  corps  may  contract  to  come  out  for 
actual  military  service  in  Great  Britain  when- 
ever summoned,  and  to  serve  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  one  month  in  the  absence  of  a  Royal 
Proclamation  calling  out  the  Volunteers  gen- 
erally. II.  A  member  of  a  Volunteer  corps 
may  contract  to  proceed  upon  active  service 
to  any  part  of  the  world  in  a  unit  or  company 
formed  of  Volunteers,  on  special  conditions  as 
defined  by  the  terms  of  his  contract. 

The  Volunteers,  like  the  Militia,  form  junior 
battalions  attached  to  the  line  regiments  in 
their  respective  districts.  Their  own  organ- 
ization as  a  cohesive  and  independent  fighting 
force  is  still  imperfect,  and  the  new  Army 
scheme  proposes  a  much  higher  level  of  effi- 
ciency and  an  improved  organization. 

Like  the  Militia,  the  Volunteers  hold  a  con- 
siderable place  in  the  new  Army  scheme  of 
1901-2,  and  now  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  fourth  Army  Corps.  The  force  numbers 
223  battalions,  and  of  these  27  are  included  in 
the  Army  Corps  scheme.  The  Volunteers  are 
to  be  specially  trained  for  its  work  with  the 
Army  Corps  and  for  positions  round  London, 
while  increased  drill  and  rifle  shooting  are  to 
contribute  to  efficiency.  The  Government 
programme  for  reorganizing  the  Army,present- 
ed  in  February,  1900,  included  the  providing 
for  extended  training  in  camp   during  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Ill 


summer  and  for  the  supply  of  regimental 
transport  and  caused  very  considerable  diffi- 
culty and  dissatisfaction.  The  view  of  the 
War  Office  is  that  if  Volunteers  cannot  con- 
form to  the  new  regulations,  they  must  face 
some  reduction  of  numbers,  since  it  would  be 
more  to  the  pmpose  of  the  Government  to  get 
a  smaller  body  of  efficient  men  upon  which  it 
could  rely.  A  controversy  has  raged  round 
this  point,  and  it  was  contended  by  many 
Volunteers  that  the  most  zealous  among  them 
could  not  conform  to  the  requirements.  The 
returns  of  Nov.  Ist,  1902,  showed  a  con- 
siderable decline  in  numbers  as  compared  with 
the  previous  year  (268,550  as  compared  with 
288,476),  and  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of 
efficients  to  the  enrolled  strength  (95.49  as 
compared  with  97.43),  and  in  numbers  present 
at  inspections  (77.48  as  compared  with  83.93). 
The  decline  has  been  continued.  Particulars 
are  given  below. 

SFFECnVES   AND   DISTRIBUTION. 

Establishment  and  Strength  of  Army,  Army 
Beserve,  Militia,  Imperial  Yeomanry,  and 
Volunteers  on  Jan.  1st,  1903  (all  ranks). 


Forces. 

Normal 
Estab- 
lishment 

Actual 
Strength 

Want- 
ing to 
com- 
plete 

Army,  Regular: 
Forces*     Regi- 
mental  Estab- 
lishments  

General       and 
Departmental 
Sta£f  and  Mis- 
cellaneous   Es- 
tablishments. . 

Army     Reserves, 

aassi 

MiUtia ....... 

Militia     Reserve 
(New; 

CSiannel     Islands 
and    Golonial 
Militia 

Imperial  Yeom'n- 
ry  at  Home. . . . 

Volunteers 

Bermuda       Rifle 
Volunteers 

284,378 

2,400 

80,000 
131,737 

50.000 

6,002 

35.164 
346,450 

319 

♦324,653 

2,400 

32,865 
108.568 

t 

5,068 

22,942 
250,990 

233 

47,135 
23,169 

50,000 

934 

12,222 
95,460 

86 

General  total. . 

936.450 

747,719 

188,731 

ACTUAL  STRENOTH  OF  THE  REGULAR  ARMY  BT 

ARMS. 


Household   Cavalry 

Cavalry  of  the  Line 

Imperial   Yeomaniy 

Royal  Horse  Artillery  and  Royal 
Field  Artillery 

Royal  Garrison  Artillery 

Royal  Engineers 

Foot  Guards 

Infantrv  of  the  Line 

Colonial  Corps  and  Indian  Infantry 
borrowed  for  garrison  and  expedi- 
tionary purposes 


1,490 

29,297 

1,610 

34,959 

23J74 

13,757 

9,966 

176,580 


15,503 


♦Parliament  in  1902  sanctioned  200,300  ex- 
cess numbers. 
tNot  formed  on  Jan.  1st,  1903. 


Army  Service  Corps 8,443 

Royal  Army  Medical  Corps 6,020 

Army  Ordnance  Corps 2,638 

Army  Pay  Corps 853 

Army  Post  Office  (>)rps 362 

It  appears  from  the  General  Annual  Return 
of  the  Army  that  in  the  srear  ending  Dec.  31st, 
1902,  51,677  recruits  joined  (2,317  for  long 
service,  49,360  for  short  service),  as  compared 
with  47,039  in  1901. 

THE  8TRENOTH  OF  THE  ARMT  RESERVE 

from  1898  to  1903  has  been  as  follows:— 1898, 
82,063;  1899,  78,839;  1900,  24,388;  1901. 
5.434 ;  1 902.  2,573 ;  1903,  32,865.  The  reduced 
numbers  since  1901  have  been  due  to  Reserv- 
ists being  embodied  with  the  Regulars  for  the 
war.  The  establishment  is  80,000,  and  on 
April  1st,  1903,  the  strength  had  increased  to 
51,153,  leaving  28,847  wanting  to  complete 
the  establishment.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
satisfactory  details,  there  being  a  large  number 
of  men  on  gratuity  furlough,  eventually  to  be 
transferred  to  the  Reserve. 

CHANGES   IN    ESTABLISHMENT   AND    EFFECTIVE 
OF  THE   MILITIA 

during  the  last  seven  years,  exclusive  of  the 
permanent  staff: 


Date. 


1st  Jan.,  1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 


•  4 
tt 
4« 


Effective 

Estab- 

strength 

lishment 

108,350 

126,723 

107,878 

126,609 

105,531 

125,435 

103,647 

124.481 

98.130 

123,137 

92,741 

124,252 

102,845 

123,993 

131,737 

108,568 

Wanting 
to  com- 
plete 

18,373 
18,731 
19.904 
20,834 
26,007 
31.511 
21,148 
23,160 


The  figures  from  1900  onwards  do  not  in- 
clude Militia  Reservists  called  out  on  perma- 
nent service  with  the  Line.  Recruiting  in 
1902  showed  a  material  increase — 41,486,  as 
compared  with  37,644  in  the  previous  year. 
Returns  are  not  available  for  1903. 

The  new  Militia  Reserve  has  an  established 
strength  of  50,000.  Its  formation  began  in 
1903,  but  particulars  are  not  available  of  the 
effective  attained. 

ENROLLED       STRENGTH       OF       THE       IMPERIAL 
YEOMANRY 

in  1902,  21,840,  and  the  number  present  at  the 
inspection  19,570.  The  establishment  being 
35,164,  the  number  wanting  to  complete  was 
13,324.  On  Jan.  lst,1903,the  enrolled  strength 
had  increased  to  22,945,  the  recruits  number- 
ing 8,845,  and  the  net  increase  during  the  year 
1902  having  been  5,546.  These  figures  are 
exclusive  of  Imperial  Yeomanry  in  South 
Africa  (2,449  raised  in  1902),  who  are  included 
in  the  strength  of  the  Regular  Army,  and  cer- 
tain regiments  not  yet  formed  are  included  in 
the  establishment.  On  Jan.  1st,  1903,  the 
establishment  of  the  recruits  formed  was  30,- 
992,  and  the  strength  22,942. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


affecting  unCavorably  the 
Btiength  of  the  Volunt«eTH  h»vo  been  given 

actual  strength  by  the  latest  retum  (Jan.  1. 
1903)  250,990,  leaving  BS,460  wanting  to  com- 
plete. The  enrolled  strength  has  been  as 
fallows  since  the  eatablisbment  of  the  force: 
118,1*6:    '61.    161.230:    '62,     157, Ms: 


'63. 


.2.035; 


-._.  .„..-_.,  '67.  187,864;  '68, 

'60.  105,287;  70,  193,SB3;  '71, 

■72.  178,279:  7,1,  171,937;  '74, 

'75.  181,080:  76,  185.501:  77. 

'7&  203.213:  70,  206,265;  '80, 

'81,  208.308;  '82,  207.336;  '83, 

■84,  218,015;  ■85.  224,012;  '86, 

'87.  228,038:  '88,  22e,«9;  '80, 

■90  221,048;  '81      


■96     236,0i9;    ■B?,    231,706; 


'95.    : 


1001,  288,476;  1002.  S 


Guard  and  t( 
ever,  ipeDdi 
Cuanl  and  eight  in 


■99.     229,854;  1900, 


with  the  colors  and 


fantry  regiments,  eight  battalions  of  light  in- 
fantry and  rifles,  three  cavalry  regiments,  and 
three  regimenta  of  field  artillery.    The  Qen~ 


stieogth  i) 
eluding  th. 

able,  but  1 


mente  of 

bersaglier 

(36  batt 

linr 

Alpine     raiments 

:22     batt 

l,on, 

strength 

i>lerably. 

■.he 

the  loria 

J. a 

tery  haa  only  4  guns.     The  army  also  eom- 

1  of  mountain  artillery  (12  batteries).  1  bri- 
gade of  mountain  artillery,  with  3  batteries  in 

artillery  and  5  of  engineers,  comprising  00 

The  total  strength  of  the  fureea  is  given  aa 

Officers 
and  Men. 

Withthccolon 248.111 

On  unlimited  leave 486,200 

Mobile  Militia 320,170 

Territorial  Militia 2,276,631 

Total 3,330,203 

There  are  about  1.250  guns  with  the  Regular 
Forces  and  378  with  the  Mobile  Militia. 


miUtary  forces  of  Japan  ai 


Militia  and  the  miUtia  of  certain  of  the  islai 
The  Permanent  Army  is  available  for  fon 
service,  the  Territorial  Army  for  he 
defense,  and  the  mUitia  for  auxiliary  up 


irritorial  Arm; 
'a  from  the  m 
the  men.  aft> 


r  Mmister  and  the  Chief  of  the  General 
ff  by  the  Superior  War  Council.     In  order 

aches  of  the  navy,  there  is  a  council  con- 
ing of  the  War  Minister,  the  Naval  Min- 
r.  the  chiefs  of  the  General  SUff  and  the 
>al  SUff  and  the  Director-General  of  Mili- 


of  th 

e  army 

2,000  n: 

nfantry. 

156  batColio: 

ment»  of 

ihn 

artillery, 
battalion 

JO  b 
and 

1  railwa 
otal,  2a 

rons.  684  gUDs 

or7,50t 

and  estnblishmente. 
in;  Permanent  Army, 
s;  cavalry,  55  squad- 
field  artillery,  10  regi- 
th  C84  guns:  fortress 

:  battalions,  5S  squad- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


113 


61,390  horses.  Depot  troops:  52  battalions, 
17  squadrons,  26  companies,  19  batteries;  or 
1,000  officers,  34,600  men,  9,000  horses,  114 
guns.  Territorial  Army:  130  battalions,  26 
squadrons,  312  guns,  3,200  officers,  118,530 
men,  11,860  horses.  Militia:  35  officers,  1,180 
men,  210  horses.  Grand  total,  386  battalions, 
26  companies,  99  squadrons,  1,116  guns, 
11,735  officers,  348,100  men  and  84,460 
horses.  The  total  fully  trained  force,  accord- 
ing to  the  St.  Peteraburg  GazeUe,  is  509,960. 
The  Military  College  and  Academy  train  ac- 
complished officers  of  great  intelligence.  They 
were  pronounced  by  General  Grant  to  be 
among  the  foremost  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
The  barracks  and  gymnasia  are  of  the  best 
type,  and  every  care  is  paid  to  the  physical 
development  of  the  men. 

MEXICO. 

The  Mexican  army  consists  in  peace  time  of 
3,500  officers,  31,000  men,  and  11,000  horses 
or  mules.  It  was  proposed  to  introduce  per- 
sonal or  obligatory  service,  but  the  plan  has 
been  postponed,  and  the  army  is  recruited  by 
voluntary  engagement  of  3, 4  and  5  years,  with 
special  levies  drawn  by  lot.  The  passage  of 
the  forces  to  a  war  footing  has  been  defined  by 
law,  and  provision  is  made  for  mobilizing  the 
first  and  second  reserve,  including  the  rural 
and  urban  police,  the  national  guard  and  other 
forces. 

The  following  is  the  strength :  Regular  army, 
2,700  officers,  61,000  men;  reserves,  1,000  offi- 
cers, 155,000  men;  total,  3,700  officers,  186,000 
men,  with  32,000  horses  and  12,000  mules. 

MOROCCO. 

The  Sultan's  forces  comprise  about  30,000 
excellent  men  of  all  arms,  under  command  for 
training  of  Kaid  Sir  Harry  Maclean.  The 
infantry  arm  is  the  Martini. 

THE    NETHERL.ANDS. 

Holland  has  at  present  no  standing  army, 
but  a  cadre  of  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers  (establishment  about  2,200)  for  train- 
ing the  forces  embodied. 

The  Landwehr,  which  has  replaced  the  old 
Schutterij.  received  its  first  contingent  re- 
cently, and  the  country  has  been  divided  into 
48  Lsmdwehr  districts.  The  corresponding 
battalions  cannot,  however,  be  formed  before 
1909.  The  Landwehr  and  Landsturm  to 
which  men  are  to  be  transferred  will  have  a 
peacestrengthof  about  20,000,  and  a  volunteer 
establishment  in  time  of  war,  the  militia  to  be 
increased  to  12,300,  to  be  permanently  em- 
bodied, with  5,200  more  to  be  called  up  for 
short  periods;  and  the  reorganization  is  being 
proce€Kied  with.  The  total  armed  strength  is 
estimated  at  69,000. 

The  army  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  numbers 
about  35,000  officers  and  men,  recruited  vol- 
untarily, one-half  of  the  men  natives,  and  a 


plan  of  mobilization  for  war  has  recently  been 
adopted. 

PORTUGAL 

The  army  was  reorganized  on  October  1, 
1899.  The  peace  footing  is  62,427,  including 
33,420  militia.  The  infantry  of  the  line  are 
18,000,  the  cavalry  3,032.  the  dragoons  1,804. 
the  light  troops  1,012,  the  field  artillery 
3,375  and  the  horse  artillery  479.  The  total 
number  of  guns  is  448.  The  war  footing  is 
100,204  including  52.675  militia. 

A  new  law  was  introduced  in  September, 
1895,  by  which  the  service  is  three  years  with 
the  colors,  five  with  the  first  reserve  and  four 
with  the  second.  There  is  in  addition  a  colo- 
nial army  of  9,000.  The  rules  of  exemption 
are  most  liberal,  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  the 
Government  being  accepted  as  an  equivalent. 

ROUMANIA. 

The  armed  forces  of  Roumania  consist  of 
the  Regular  Army,  the  Militia,  and  the  Opol- 
tch^nie.  In  peace  time  there  only  exist  cadres 
for  the  regular  army,  which  is  divided  into  per- 
manent and  territorial  troops.  The  period  of 
service  for  the  permanent  troops  is  three 
years,  and  for  the  territorial  troops  five  years 
for  the  infantry  and  four  for  the  calvary;  but 
in  this  latter  force  the  soldier  at  first  only  puts 
in  three  months  of  continuous  service;  he  is 
then  sent  to  his  home  and  called  up,  in  his 
turn,  for  one  week  each  month. 

The  effective  of  the  army  in  war  is  as  fol- 
lows: Infantry:  8  rifle  battalions;  34  infantry 
regiments  (102  battalions;  altogether  2.250 
officers,  126,000  men,  and  4,700  horses). 
Cavalry:  6  Roshiori  regiments  (24  squadrons, 
forming  an  independent  division);  11  Caal- 
raahi  regiments  (44  squadrons);  total,  530 
officers,  13,200  men,  12,100  horses.  Artillery: 
12  regim^snts  (75  batteries,  450  guns;  40  am- 
munition columns;  2  fortress  artillery  regi- 
ments) ;  total,  930  officers,  26,900  men,  22,800 
horses.  Engineers:  12  sapper  companies,  4 
telegraph,  4  pontoon,  and  4  railway  com- 
panies: total,  140  officers,  6,200  men,  1,500 
horses.  Grand  total,  2,850  officers,  169,800 
men,  and  41,400  horses.  If  to  these  are  added 
the  transport,  auxiliary  troops,  32  militia  regi- 
ments, etc.,  the  numbers  will  amount  to  7,500 
officers,   314,000  men,   and   65,000  horses. 


RUSSIA. 

The  huge  Russian  army  makes  continual 
progress,  and  its  varied  composition  and  little- 
known  development  make  it  very  difficult  to 
describe.  It  may  be  said  to  consist  of  s^everal 
armies:  the  European,  the  Caucasian,  the  Tur- 
kestan, and  the  Amur  force;  the  first  of  these 
organized  like  other  European  armies,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  others  varying  in  confor- 
mity with  local  requirements.  Moreover,  the 
strength  of  each  varies  according  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  situation,  the  troops  being  on  the 


114 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ordinary  peace  footing,  on  the  higher  peace 
establishment  as  in  the  frontier  districts,  or  on 
the  war  footing  as  in  Asiatic  Russia.  There 
are  13  greater  military  districts,  the  Trans- 
caspian  district,  and  the  territorial  region  of 
the  Don  Cossacks.  -There  are  25  army  corps  in 
Europe  and  the  Caucasus,  2  in  Turkestan,  and 
2  in  the  Amur  district. 

The  peace  strength  has  been  given  as  follows : 

Europe  and  the         Asiatic 
Caucasus.  Russia. 

Infantry 627,000  men.  83,000  men. 

Cavalry 116,000    "  14,000    " 

Artillery 138,000    "  16,000    " 

Engineers 34,000    "  8,000    " 

Army  services  .  .    34,000    "  5,000    " 

Total 949,000    "         124,000    " 

Of  these  forces  the  active  army  numbers 
731,000  in  Europe  and  the  Caucasus,  and 
87,000  in  Asiatic  Russia.  Baron  von  Tettau, 
in  a  volume  on  the  Russian  Army  (1902),  gives 
the  peace  strength,  including  Cossacks  and 
Frontier  Guards,  as  1,100,000. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  r^^rd  to  the 
preceding  estimate  and  in  what  follows  con- 
cerning the  distribution  of  the  Russian  forces, 
considerable  doubt  exists.  The  troops  were 
moved  secretly  in  view  of  the  war  with 
Japan,  and  very  various  statements  have 
been  made  as  to  the  force  actually  available 
in  the  Far  East. 

An  Imperial  order  of  November  12,  1903, 
gave  instructions  for  the  formation  of  2  new 
brigades. 

The  Cossack  forces  have  a  special  constitu- 
tion. Every  Cossack  becomes  liable  to  serve 
as  soon  as  he  has  completed  his  eighteenth 
year.  For  the  first  three  years,  which  are 
looked  on  as  "preparatory,"  his  service  is, 
however,  purely  local ;  but  for  the  next  twelve 
years  he  is  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
"front"  category.  This  category  consists  of 
three  bans,  the  first  of  which  is  formed  of  men 
actually  serving,  and  the  two  others  of  men 
who  have  been  granted  unlimited  leave.  The 
last  five  years  are  spent  in  the  Reserve  cate- 
gory. There  is,  however,  a  still  further  cate- 
gory, for  which  no  limit  of  age  is  fixed:  this 
comprises  all  able-bodied  Cossacks  not  other- 
wise classified.  These  have  to  supply  and 
maintain  their  own  horses,  besides  providing 
their  own  clothing  and  equipment.  The 
p>eace  effective  of  the  Cossacks  is  stated  to  be 
65,930,  with  52,400  horses,  but  it  is  probable 
that  not  more  than  54,000  are  permanently 
with  the  colors.  The  war  strength  is  given  as 
182,065,  including  4,276  officers,  and  there  are 
173,150  horses.  This  gives  a  percentage  of 
13.2  to  the  male  population  liable  to  Cossack 

service. 

In  the  Russian  Empire  considerably  over  a 
million  men  annually  attain  the  age  for  joining 
the  army.  In  1902  the  number  liable  to 
serve  was  1,122,000,  and  315,832  were  em- 
bodied in  the  standing  army.     Seventy  per 


cent,  of  the  men  so  entered  are  illiterates. 
About  5,000  enlist  annually  as  volunteers,  and 
16,000  join  the  Cossacks.  The  period  of 
liability  to  personal  service  lasts  from  the 
twenty-first  to  the  forty-third  year  of  age. 
Those  who  join  the  standing  army  spend  five 
years  with  the  colors  (four  in  the  infantry), 
thirteen  in  the  reserve,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  Opoltch^nie,  or  militia.  In  some  in- 
stances, however,  the  War  Minister  has 
power  to  retain  men  for  a  longer  period  with 
the  colors;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  this 
period  is  shortened  by  one,  two,  three,  or  four 
years  for  those  possessing  a  superior  educa- 
tion. The  Opoltchdnie,  which  has  been  de- 
veloped from  a  simple  militia  into  a  first  re- 
serve formation,  now  embraces  two  different 
classes:  (1)  Men  between  21  and  43  years  of 
age,  who  have  never  served;  (2)  men  who 
have  completed  5  years'  service  with  the 
colors  and  13  years  in  the  reserve.  The  ages 
of  the   men  vary  between  39  and  43  years. 

The  Finnish  Military  Service  Law,  whereby 
the  Finnish  army  has  lost  the  independence 
guaranteed  by  treaty,  was  promulgated  on 
August  1,  1901.  The  offices  of  Finnish  com- 
mander-in-chief and  staff  have  been  abolished. 

The  war  strength  of  the  Russian  forces  con- 
sists of  about  56,500  officers  and  2,855,000 
men,  including  1,792,000  infantry  and  196,000 
cavalry.  These  form  the  active  army  of  all 
classes.  To  these  figures  must  be  added  the 
available  reserves,  estimated  at  1,064,000; 
frontier  battalions,  41,000;  Cossacks,  142,000. 
There  are  besides  these  the  Territorial  Re- 
serves, some  2,000,000  men,  and  the  Opol- 
tchdnie, 1,300,000,  which  could  be  employed 
in  case  of  emergency.  Gen.  Redigers,  a  well- 
known  authority,  estimates  the  trained  re- 
serve to  be  2,700,000.  It  is  expected  that 
under  new  organization  the  Opoltchdnie,  or 
militia,  in  time  of  war  will  form  40  infantry 
divisions,  640  battalions;  20  regiments  of 
cavalry,  80  squadrons;  80  batteries  of  artil- 
lery, and  20  battalions  of  sappers;  but  owing 
to  the  vast  distances  to  be  covered,  and  the 
want  of  railway  accommodations,  the  mobili- 
zation of  this  great  force  would  be  neither 
easy  nor  rapid.  In  regard  to  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  reserve  force  in  the  event  of  war, 
great  advances  have  been  made  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  brigade  commands  and  the  organi- 
zation  of  reserve  brigades. 

SERVIA. 

The  military  forces  consist  of  the  national 
army  and  the  militia  (Opoltchdnie). 

The  national  army  is  divided  into  three 
levies:  1st,  men  from  20  to  30  years  of  age, 
and  containing  permanent  cadres  and  a  re- 
serve; 2nd,  men  from  31  to  37  years;  and 
3rd,  men  from  38  to  45  years,  with  no  con- 
stituted cadres  in  peace  time. 

The  militia  consists  of  men  from  17  to  50 
years  of  age  not  in  the  national  army.     No 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


116 


substitution  or  buying  off  is  allowed.  The 
annual  contingent  is  usually  about  20,500 
conscripts,  of  whom  6,000  are  generally  unfit 
for  service. 

The  p>eace  effective  is  difficult  to  calculate, 
because,  for  economic  reasons,  it  is  usual  to 
send  down  men  before  their  proper  date  for 
release.  The  units  are  strongest  in  the  spring, 
and  from  then  gradually  dwindle  away  until  a 
company  barely  consists  of  more  than  10  or  15 
men.     The  army  is  a  species  of  semi-militia. 

The  war  effective,  according  to  official  tables, 
the  accuracy  of  which  must  be  accepted  with 
caution,  amounts  to  8,110  officers,  331,900 
men,  420  guns,  and  39,070  horses.  The  num- 
ber of  actual  combatants  would  be  about 
228,000,  but  a  very  large  proportion  are  of 
the  2d  and  3d  levies,  with  little  or  no  training. 

SPAIN. 

Under  the  terms  of  an  order  of  January  29, 
1903,  the  army  has  been  reorganized  on  the 
basis  of  an  effective  of  80,000  men ;  the  second 
battalions  of  the  infantry  raiments  and  the 
fourth  squadrons  of  the  cavalry  being  reduced 
to  skeleton  formations.  There  are  in  all  about 
23,000  officers  provided  for  the  old  establish- 
ment, but  the  supernumeraries  are  on  half-pay, 
and  their  places  are  not  being  filled.  There 
are  eight  captain-generalcies,  but  the  eight 
^rmy  corps  are  replaced  by  •  divisions,  and 
further  reductions  are  being  introduced.  The 
headquarters  are  respectively:  1st,  Madrid; 
2nd,  Seville;  3rd,  Valentia;  4th,  Barcelona; 
5th,  Saragossa;  6th,  Burgos;  7th,  Valladolid; 
8th,  Corunna. 

The  following  is  the  constitution,  by  units, 
of  the  army:  Infantry,  56  regiments,  20  bat- 
talions of  Chasseurs,  4  African  regiments,  2 
regiments  in  the  Balearic  Islands,  2  regiments 
in  the  Canaries,  recruiting  cadres,  etc.  The  cav- 
alry, 28  regiments,  and  3  squadrons  for  foreign 
possessions.     Artillery,  13  field,  1  siege  and 

3  mountain  regiments  (all  with  four  6-gun  bat- 
teries), 14  fortress  battalions,  1  central  gun- 
nery schopl,  1  central  remount  committee,  and 

4  companies  of  artificers.  The  engineer  corps 
consists  of  4  raiments  of  sappers  and  miners, 
1  pontoon  regiment,  1  telegraph  battalion,  1 
railway  battalion,  1  topographical  brigade,  1 
company  of  artificers,  and  8  reserve  depots, 
with  5  separate  companies  of  sappers  and 
miners  for  the  Balearic  Islands,  etc.  For 
recruiting  purposes  the  Peninsula  has  116  dis- 
tricts, the  Canaries  and  Balearics  have  2,  and 
Ceuta  and  Melilla  have  2.  The  total  armed 
strength  is  estimated  to  be  500,000. 

SWEDEN    AND    NORWAY. 

SwEDBN. — The  Swedish  army  underwent  a 
reorganization  in  1901,  which  is  progressive 
and  will  have  its  full  effect  in  1914.  General 
personal  service  has  been  adopted,  with  short 
periods  with  the  colors:  one  year  for  service  in 
the  cavalry  and  artillery,  and  eight  months  for 


the  infantry.  The  army  will  be  substantially 
increased  in  strength.  The  24  existing  infantry 
regiments  are  to  have  a  third  battalion  eachi 
and  3  fortress  regiments  of  similar  strength 
are  to  be  raised.  Some  of  the  new  formations 
have  already  been  brought  into  existence. 

On  a  peace  footing  there  are  2,606  officers, 
1,797  non-commissioned  officers.  6,947  cor- 
porals and  others,  557  cadets,  7,792  volunteers, 
and  22,332  men,  being  a  total  of  40,031.  The 
artillery  are  to  receive  Krupp  quick-firing 
guns,  of  which  the  pattern  is  still  under  trial 
in  an  experimental  battery.  There  are  4 
corps  of  engineers.  Steps  are  also  to  be  taken 
to  increase  the  body  of  reserve  officers.  One 
great  object  in  the  recent  change  is  to  give 
a  more  homogeneous  character  to  the  forces. 
The  plans  for  mobilization  of  the  reserves  have 
been  improved,  and  a  Landsturm  is  being 
organized. 

Norway. — The  force  now  availabe  for  ser- 
vice beyond  the  frontier  numbers,  with  officers 
and  men,  25,109;  but  the  total  armed  strength 
is  estimated  to  be  38,000,  There  is,  however, 
the  defect  that  there  is  no  reserve  of  the  line  to 
fill  up  the  gaps  whicli  might  arise  during  a  war, 
without  taking  men  from  the  militia  (Land- 
vaem).  Besides  the  troops  of  the  line  there 
exists  the  militia  or  Landvaern  for  the  defense 
of  Norway,  in  case  the  troops  of  the  line  should 
be  taken  over  to  Sweden. 

SWITZERLAND. 

The  federal  forces  do  not  constitute  a 
standing  army,  the  principle  being  that  of  a 
militia,  and  the  liability  to  serve  twelve  years 
in  the  Elite,  twelve  in  the  Landwehr,  and  six 
in  the  Landsturm.  During  the  twelve  years  in 
the  Elite  (ten  for  the  cavalry)  the  aggregate 
service  is  141  days  in  the  infantry,  146  in  the 
engineers,  160  in  the  cavalry,  and  163  in  the 
artillery. 

The  total  military  strength  consists  of:  Elite 
(20  to  32  years  of  age):  96  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, 8  battalions  of  rifles,  24  squadrons  of 
dragoons,  48  field  batteries  of  6  guns,  2  moun- 
tain batteries,  10  position  batteries,  and  12 
companies  of  light  horse.  Landwehr  (32  to  44 
years  of  age) :  96  battalions  of  infantry,  8  bat- 
talions of  rifles,  24  squadrons  of  dragoons,  8 
field  batteries,  and  15  position  batteries.  An 
aggregate  total,  in  round  numbers,  of  200,000 
men,  of  whom  130,000  are  in  the  first  12  classes 
of  the  Elite,  formed  into  4  army  corps.  In 
addition,  the  Landsturm  can  furnish  fully 
300,000,  giving  an  armed  strength  of  500,000. 
maintained  at  a  cost  of  about  $5,000,000  a 
year  for  a  total  population  of  3,500,000. 

TURKEY. 

The  Turkish  military  forces  are  organized  on 
the  territorial  system,  the  whole  empire  being 
divided  into  seven  territorial  districts.  By  the 
recruiting  law  all  Mussulmans  are  liable  to  mili-> 
tary  service.    Christians  and  certain  sects  pay 


116 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


an  exemption  tax.  The  nomad  Arabs,  although 
liable  to  service  by  law,  furnish  no  recruits, 
and  many  Kurds  evade  service.  The  conscrip- 
tion therefore  falls  somewhat  heavily  on  the 
Osmanlis,  or  Turks  proper. 

The  men  liable  to  service  are  divided  into — 

(1)  Nizam,  or  regular  army,  and  its  reserve; 

(2)  Redif,  corresponding  to  Landwehr;  and 

(3)  Mustahfiz,  or  Landsturm.  There  are  also 
660  Ilaveh  battalions,  mostly  skeleton  forma- 
tions, in  which  men  supplementary  to  the 
establishments  are  enrolled.  Liability  to  ser- 
vice until  recently  commenced  at  twenty  years 
of  age,  and  lasted  for  twenty  years — i.e.,  with 
colors  of  the  Nizam,  four  years;  in  the  reserve 
of  the  Nizam,  two  years;  in  the  Redif,  four 
years  in  first  class  and  four  years  in  second 
class;  and  in  the  Mustahfiz,  six  years.  An 
Irad^  issued  in  November,  1903,  increases  the 


total  Nizam  service  to  nine  years  and  the  Redif 
service  to  nine  years,  it  being  estimated  that 
this  will  add  250,000  men  to  the  army.  The 
cavalry  are  set  down  at  55,300;  the  artillery 
(174  field  and  22  mountain  batteries)  at  54,720 
— 1,356  guns;  the  engineers  at  7,400;  infantry, 
583,200;  total,  700,620.  The  Nizam  has  320 
battalions,  203  squadrons,  and  248  batteries, 
and  the  Redif  374  battalions,  666  supplemen- 
tary battalions  (incomplete),  and  48  squad- 
rons. An  irregular  "Hamidieh"  cavalry  has 
been  raised  among  the  Kurds,  and  has  266 
squadrons.     • 

The  total  war  strength  is  estimated  to  be: 
46,400  officers,  1,531,600  men,  1,530  guns,  and 
109,900  horses.  The  Ottoman  army  has  been 
trained  and  reorganized  largely  by  German 
officers,  and  is  composed  of  the  best  fighting 
material,  as  the  war  with  Greece  proved. 


CHAPTER    V. 


THE    RAIIiROADS    OF    THE    WORIiD. 


In  the  Railroad  Gazette  (New 
York)  for  May  30,  1902,  there  ap- 
peared exhaustive  tables,  compiled 
from  the  Archiv  f(ir  Eisenbahnwesen 
of  Prussia,  of  the  railroads  of  the 
world  in  tne  year  1900  and  in  previ- 
ous years.  With  the  help  of  these 
tables  the  Railroad  Gazette,  in  its  is- 
sue for  June  G,  makes  the  following 
comparative  statements : 

The  mileage  built  in  each  decade  has 
been  for  the  world :  Ten  yeare  to 
1840,  4,772;  1850,  19,198;  1860,  43,- 
160;  1870^  63,255;  1880,  101,081; 
1890,  152,179 ;  1900,  107,421. 

The  mileage  built  before  1830,  in- 
significant in  amount,  is  included  with 
the  4,772  miles  credited  above  to  the 
following  decade. 

Of  the  total  of  491,066  miles  com- 
pleted at  the  end  of  the  century  more 
than  one-half  had  been  built  since 
1880  and  nearly  three-fourths  since 
1870.  The  total  built  in  the  forty 
years  down  to  1870  (130.385  miles) 
was  one-seventh  less  than  the  construc- 
tion in  the  single  decade  ending  with 
1890.  It  is  notable,  however,  that  in 
the  last  decade  of  the  century  44,758 
miles  less  were  built  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding ten  years.  This  is  one  of  the 
indications  that  the  civilized  and  pro- 
ductive industrial  countries  of  the 
world  are  now  generally  well  equipped 
with  these  instruments  of  transporta- 
tion. Europe  (except  Russia)  and 
North  America  have  immediate  need 
of  no  large  additions  to  their  mileage. 
There  is  still  abundant  room  for  rail- 
roads in  Asia,  Africa  and  South 
America,  but  the  slow  growth  of  indus- 
tries of  these  continents,  two  of  which 
are  over  rather  than  under  populated, 
but  whose  population  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent a  bar  to  progress  such  as  Europe 
and  North  America  have  had  in  the 
past  century,  gives  no  promise  of  rapid 
railroad  extension. 

Nevertheless,  the  most  notable  de- 
velopment of  the  last  decade  has  been 
the  greater  activity  in  Asia  and  Afri- 
ca.    In  Asia,  until  after  1890,   there 


was  scarcely  any  railroad  except  \n 
British  India,  a  very  little  in  Asia 
Minor,  a  beginning  in  Russia  and  Ja- 
pan. But  the  20,960  miles  in  Asia  in 
1890  had  become  37,477  miles  in  1900, 
and  the  6,113  miles  in  Africa,  12,501. 
The  additions,  considering  the  size  of 
the  continents,  are  small ;  but  they  are 
only  beginnings,  and  considerable  new 
additions  have  been  made  since  1900, 
chiefly  the  Siberian  Railroad  in  Asia 
and  the  Uganda  in  Africa.  It  is  prob- 
ably not  generally  known  that  even  in 
this  last  decade  it  is  India  and  not 
Russia  which  leads  in  railroad  con- 
struction in  Asia ;  India  had  added 
(s982  miles  (42  per  cent)  to  the  16,- 
781  it  had  in  1890,  \vhile  the  additions 
in  Asiatic  Russia  were  but  4,622 
miles. 

In  Europe  more  railroad  was  built 
from  1890  to  1900  than  in  the  previ- 
ous decade,  but  less  than  from  1870  to 
1880.  The  increase  in  the  last  decade 
was  wholly  due  to  Russia,  where  it 
was  10,659  miles,  against  4,413  miles 
ii»  the  previous  decade.  In  the  rest  of 
Europe  29,700  miles  were  built  from 
1880  to  1890,  and  only  26,418  in  the 
following  decade. 

The  most  notable  change  in  the  last 
decade,  however,  is  the  decrease  in 
construction  in  North  America,  which 
was  so  long  the  great  field  for  railroad 
construction.  With  2,834  miles  built 
in  1840,  the  increase  in  mileage  for 
successive  decades  has  been :  1840- 
1850,  9,099;  1850-1860,  23,644;  1860- 
1870,  22,887  ;  1870-1880,  45,629 ;  1880- 
1890,  85,766;  1890-1900,  33,856. 

Thus  the  new  construction  on  this 
continent  in  the  last  decade  was  60  per 
cent  less  than  from  1880  to  1890,  and 
even  20  per  cent  less  than  from  1870 
to  1880.  The  decrease  in  the  last  de- 
cade was  common  to  Canada  and 
Mexico,  as  well  as  to  the  United 
States.  It  was  altogether  healthy. 
But  this  country  and  Canada,  at 
least,  are  richer  to-day  than  they 
would  have  been  if  they  had  built 
as  much  railroad  in  the  last  decade  as 


117 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE;    BOOK, 


120 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  the  one  preceding  it.  Fully  $2,- 
000,000,000  more  than  has  actually 
been  expended  for  new  railroads  would 
have  been  required :  and  the  indica- 
tions are  that  the  capital  thus  saved 
has  been  most  profitably  employed  in 
productive  industries  which  give  the 
railroads  traflBc  to  carry. 

South  and  Central  America  (in- 
cluding West  Indies)  do  not  cut  much 
of  a  figure  in  the  railroad  world,  hav- 
ing now  altogether  only  29,071  miles, 
or  less  than  Asia.  Two-thirds  of  the 
South  American  mileage  is  in  Argen- 
tina and  Brazil. 

Australia  also  has  slackened  its  pace 
in  railroad  construction.  It  has  room 
for  more  roads,  but  not  people  enough 
as  yet  to  support  them,  and  it  grows 
slowly.  It  had  1,097  miles  in  1870, 
added  3,780  by  1880,  6,863  more  by 
1890,  and  only  3,185  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  century.  Australia  now  has 
14,925  miles. 

The  last  annual  return  from  the 
same  source,  published  in  June,  1903, 
shows  the  world's  railroad  mileage  at 
the  end  of  1901. 

Europe,  181,760  miles. 


Mileage  of 

Principal 

Countries. 

Germany 32,943 

Russia 32,130 

France 27,285 

Austro-Hung'y  23,432 
Great     Britain 
and  Ireland..  22,164 

Italy 9,881 

Spain 8,447 

Sweden 7,242 

Belgium 4,047 

Switzerland.  .  .     2,443 


Mileage  of 
Principal 
Countries. 
HoUand  2,035 

Roumania ....     1,982 
Turkey  (includ- 
ing  Bulgaria 
and  Roumelia)  1,963 

Denmark 1,917 

Portugal 1,492 

Norway 1,313 

Greece 607 

Servia 361 


Total  America  (North  and  South),  256,643 

nviles. 


United  States .  198,346 
British    North 

America.  . .  .    18,397 
Argentina.  .  .  .    10,479 


Mexico 9,660 

Brazil 9,248 

Chili 2,896 


Total  Asia,  42,057  miles. 


British  India.  .  25,515 
Siberia        and 
Manchuria.  .     5,697 


Japan 4,093 

Dutch  Indies. .  .   1,392 
China 772 


Total  Africa,  14,270  miles. 


British  South 
and  Central 
Africa 5,504 


Algiers  and 

Tunis 3.060 

Egypt 2,903 


Total  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  15,470 

miles. 

Grand  Total  of  World's  Railroads,  510,470 
miles. 


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— Encyclopedia  Americana, 


RAILWAY  SIGNALS. 

One  blast  of  the  whistle  means 
"stop  at  once,"  or  what  is  known 
as  "down  brakes";  two  blasts  of 
the  whistle  mean  "off  brakes"; 
three  blasts  of  the  whistle  mean 
"back  up";  a  continuous  blast  means 
"danger."  A  semaphore  signal  at 
right  angles  to  the  post  indicates  dan- 
ger;  when  the  semaphore  drops  to 
an  angle  it  is  a  signal  to  proceed.  A 
red  lantern  indicates  danger,  as  does 
a  red  flag ;  a  green  lantern  or  a  green 
flag  indicates  "caution."  Lanterns 
which  are  swung  at  right  angles  across 
the  tracks  mean  "stop" ;  a  lantern 
raised  and  lowered  means  "start" ; 
when  lanterns  are  swung  in  a  circle 
it  means  "back  the  train." 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


121 


THE  RAILROAD  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 


If  one  were  called  upon  to  name  the 
field  of  engineering;  in  which  the  vast 
scale  ui)on  which  things  are  done  in 
this  country  is  most  strikingly  shown, 
he  would  be  safe  in  pointing  to  the 
colossal  railroad  system  of  the  United 
States.  In  respect  of  the  total  length 
of  track,  the  total  number  of  locomo- 
tives and  cars,  the  veritable  army  of 
employees,  and  the  gross  value  of 
capital  invested,  our  railway  system  is 
so  huge  that  it  stands  absolutely  in  a 
class  by  itself  among  the  railroad  sys- 
tems of  the  world.  It  is  equally  true 
that  in  respect  of  the  character  of  its 
track,  rolling  stock,  its  general  equip- 
ment, and  methods  of  operation,  it  is 
marked  b^  national  characteristics 
which  distinguish  it  far  more  sharply 
from  the  great  European  and  Asiatic 
roads,  than  they  are  distinguished 
from  each  other. 

In  attempting  to  impress  upon  the 
mind  the  magnitude  of  the  properties 
and  the  operations  represented  by  the 
statistics  of  such  huge  interests  as  the 
railroads  of  the  United  States,  where 
the  figures  run  into  the  millions  and 
billions,  it  is  necessary  to  translate 
these  figures  into  concrete  terms  and 
refer  them  to  some  widely  known 
standard  of  measurement,  whether  of 
distance,  weight,  or  bulk.  On  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  our  artist  has  endeavored 
— and  we  think  very  successfully — to 
transform  the  statistics  of  our  rail- 
roads into  concrete  form  by  taking  as 
a  unit  of  measurement  the  greatest 
single  constructive  work  of  man,  the 
great  Pyramid  of  Egypt,  with  whose 
dimensions  every  voting  American 
citizen  is  perfectly  familiar,  or,  if  he  is 
not,  ought  to  be.  From  time  immemo- 
rial the  great  Pyramid,  being  one  of 
the  original  seven  wonders  of  the 
world,  has  been  a  favorite  standard  of 
comparison  with  other  great  construc- 
tive works.  It  measures  some  756  feet 
on  the  base  by  481  feet  in  height,  and 
contains  about  91^  million  cubic  feet. 
Now,  before  we  can  use  even  this  well- 
known  standard  and  be  sure  that  it 
will  convey  its  full  impression  to  the 
average  reader,  we  must  compare  the 
Pyramid  itself  with  some  big  and  well- 
known  structure,  and  for  this  purpose 
our  artist  has  drawn  the  Capitol  of 
Washington  at  the  side  of  the  Pyra- 
mid, both  on  the  same  scale.  If  it 
were  possible  to  take  a  shell  of  the 
Pyramid,  composed  merely  of  the  outer 


layer  of  stone,  and  place  it  over  the 
Capitol,  it  would  practically  shut  it 
out  from  view,  and  the  apex  of  the 
Pyramid  would  extend  200  feet  above 
the  highest  point  of  the  Capitol  dome. 

The  total  length  of  the  railroads  in 
operation  in  the  United  States  at  the 
close  of  the  fiscal  year  1901  was  195,- 
887  miles,  this  total  not  including 
track  in  sidings,  etc.  If  these  rail- 
roads could  be  stretched  out  in  one 
continuous  line,  they  would  ba  suffi- 
cient to  girdle  the  earth  at  the  equator 
more  than  eight  times ;  or,  if  started 
from  the  earth  and  stretched  outward 
into  space,  they  would  reach  four- 
fifths  of  the  distance  from  the  earth  to 
the  moon. 

Steel  Rails. — Now,  to  arrive  at  an 
estimate  of  what  it  has  taken  in  ma- 
terial to  build  this  length  of  railroad, 
let  us  assume  that  a  fair  average  size 
of  rail  is  one  weighing  75  pounds  to 
the  yard.  Much  of  the  track  in  the 
Eastern  States  weighs  80,  90  and  100 
pounds  to  the  yard,  while  most  of  the 
track  west  of  the  Mississippi  weighs 
70,  (K)  and  in  some  instances  as  low  as 
56  pounds  to  the  yard.  On  this  basis 
it  is  an  easy  calculation  to  determine 
that  the  total  weight  of  these  rails  is 
over  25,000,000  tons ;  and  if  the  mass 
were  melted  and  cast  in  solid  pyra- 
midal form  it  would  contain  105,540,- 
000  cubic  feet,  and  would  be  over 
15  per  cent  larger  than  the  great 
Pyramid  itself.  If  the  rails  were  cast 
in  one  rectangular  block,  it  would 
form  a  mass  436  feet  square  on  the 
base  and  equal  in  height  to  the  Wash- 
ington Monument,  which  towers  550 
feet  above  its  base. 

Railroad  Ties. — The  railroad  ties 
used  in  this  country  vary  in  size  from 
a  tie  8  inches  wide,  6  inches  deep  and 
9  feet  long  to  ties  as  much  as  12  inches 
in  width  and  8  inches  in  depth.  .  A 
fair  average  would  be  a  tie  10  inches 
in  width  and  7  inches  in  depth  and  9 
feet  long,  and  a  good  average  spacing 
would  be  24  inches,  center  to  center 
of  the  ties,  or  say  2,600  to  the  mile. 
On  this  basis  we  find  that,  could  all 
these  ties  be  gathered  together  on  the 
Nile  desert  and  piled  one  upon  an- 
other into  a  pyramid  of  the  same  pro- 
portions as  that  at  Gizeh,  it  would 
form  a  mass  twenty-four  times  as  great 
as  the  Pyramid  of  the  Pharaohs,  meas- 
uring 2,200  feet  on  its  base  and  reach- 
ing  1,390   feet   into   the   air. 


♦Reprinted  from  the  *'  Transportation  Number"  of  the  Scientific  American^  Dec,  13,  1902, 
therefore  the  figures  and  the  comparisons  are  for  that  year. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   RBPERENCE   BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


134 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Rock  and  Gravel  Ballast. — After  the 
ties  and  rails'  have  been  laid  in  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  the  ballast 
cars  pass  over  it  and  unload  their 
broken  rock  or  gravel,  which  is  tamped 
beneath  and  filled  around  the  ties  to 
form  a  solid  but  well-drained  founda- 
tion. On  some  of  our  Eastern  roads 
the  depth  of  the  ballast  will  exceed 
18  or  20  inches ;  on  the  other  hand, 
some  of  the  Western  roads  have  nono 
at  all,  although  of  late  years  a  vast 
advance  has  been  made  in  the  ballast 
ing  of  the  more  cheaply  constructed 
systems.  Assuming  an  average  depth 
of  12  inches  of  ballast,  we  find  that 
if  the  railroad  builders  of  the  United 
States  had  concentrated  their  efforts, 
as  did  the  Egyptians  of  old,  on  a  sin- 
gle structure  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
they  would,  in  a  period  of  years  not 
much  greater  than  that  required  to 
build  the  Pyramid,  have  raised  a  pyra- 
mid of  their  own  135  times  greater  in 
bulk  than  the  tomb  of  Cheops.  This 
vast  pile  would  measure  3,900  feet  on 
each  side  at  the  base,  and  would  lift 
its  head  nearly  half  a  mile  into  the 
air,  or  to  be  exact,  just  2.500  feet. 
Were  the  spirit  of  the  great  Cheops 
to  return  to  earth,  and  attempt  to 
pace  off  the  distance  around  the  base, 
it  would  have  to  step  out  some  5,000 
paces,  or  say  three  miles,  to  make  the 
circuit ;  and  should  it  climb  to  the 
summit,  it  would  have  to  make  a  jour- 
ney of  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile. 
So  much  for  the  roadbed  and  the 
track.  Now  let  us  turn  our  attention 
to  the  equipment. 

Locomotives. — At  the  close  of  the 
fiscal  year  1901,  there  were  in  service  . 
on  the  United  States  railroads  39,729 
locomotives.  Assuming  that  the  av- 
erage locomotive  fills  a  block  10  feet 
wide  by  15  feet  high  by  50  feet  long, 
and  that  all  these  locomotives  could  be 
brought  into  review  at  Gizeh  and  there 
piled  up  into  one  great  block,  a  loco- 
motive that  would  fill  that  block  would 
be  510  feet  in  height  and  IJOO  feet, 
or,  say,  a  third  of  a  mile,  in  length,  its 
smokestack  towering  29  feet  above  the 
summit  of  the  Pyramid. 

Passenger  Cars. — There  are  35,800 
passenger,  mail  and  baggage  cars  on 
our  railroads,  and  a  typical  car  repre- 
senting the  space  occupied  by  these 
would  be  500  feet  high  and  1,950  feet 
in  length,  and  it  would  take  3  1-2  great 
Pyramids  to  equal  it  in  bulk. 

Freight  Cars. — As  far  as  the  equip- 
ment is  concerned  it  is  in  the  extraor- 
dinary number  of  the  freight  cars  em- 
ployed that   we  get   the  best  idea  of 


the  great  scale  upon  which  our  rail- 
roads are  operated.  The  total  number 
of  cars  is  1,409,472.  They  vary,  of 
course,  considerably  in  size,  capacity 
and  type,  there  being  in  addition  to  the 
familiar  box  car,  the  coal  cars  of  va- 
rious size  and  type,  the  freight  cars, 
and  a  small  number  of  miscellaneous 
cars  for  railroad  construction  and 
other  purposes.  A  single  box  car  repre- 
senting the  space  occupied  by  all  these 
freight  cars  would  be  two-thirds  of  a 
mile  in  length  and  one-quarter  of  a 
mile  in  height.  -The  Pyramid  of  Che- 
ops would  reach,  about  to  the  floor  of 
the  car.  Were  the  Eiffel  Tower  set 
alongside  of  it,  it  would  reach  only 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  its  roof, 
while  the  whole  Brooklyn  Bridge,  with 
its  anchorages,  could  be  placed  bodily 
inside  the  car,  and  if  the  foundations 
of  its  piers  rested  upon  the  car  floor, 
the  summit  of  its  towers  would  still 
reach  only  half  way  to  the  roof  of  the 
car. 

Employees. — It  requires  over  one  mil- 
lion employees  for  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  our  railroads.  Of  these 
nearly  one-half  are  engaged  upon  the 
track  and  roadbed,  in  proportions 
made  up  as  follows :  There  are  33,- 
817  section  foremen,  each  of  whom  has 
"0.  stretch  of  a  few  miles  of  track  under 
his  charge,  and  a  gang  of  from  five  to 
eight  or  ten  section  men,  his  duties  be- 
ing those  of  maintaining  the  track  in 
proper  level  and  line,  seeing  that  the 
track  bolts  are  kept  tight,  the  joints  in 
good  order,  and  that  the  roadbed  is 
properly  trimmed,  graded  and  drained. 
The  total  number  of  trackmen  em- 
ployed in  the  section  gangs,  as  they 
are  called,  is  239,166.  There  are  also 
47,576  switchmen,  flagmen  and  watch- 
men, who  are  engaged  in  switching 
work  at  the  yards,  in  guarding  the 
level  crossings,  and  in  patrolling  the 
track.  There  are  also  over  7,423  men 
employed  on  work  trains  and  other 
work  incidental  to  track  maintenance. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  131,722 
laborers  engaged  in  construction  and 
repair  and  maintenance  work  of  va- 
rious kinds,  making  a  total  engaged 
on  track  work  and  general  labor  con- 
nected therewith  of  459,704  men.  Car- 
rying out  our  system  of  comparison 
with  some  standard  of  bulk,  we  have 
chosen  the  I*ark  Row  Building,  New 
York,  which  has  a  total  height  of  390 
feet.  If  this  army  of  trackmen  and 
laborers  were  combined  in  one  typical 
giant,  he  would  be  some  385  feet  in 
height  and  of  proportionate  weight  and 
bulk.     The  next   laigest   item   is   the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK 


aerks,  etc. 

Telegraph 


126 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


machinists,  of  which  there  are  34,698, 
the  carpenters,  of  which  there  are  48,- 
946,  and  various  other  shopmen  en- 
gaged in  the  repair  and  general  main- 
tenance of  the  rolling  stock  to  the 
number  of  120,550,  making  a  total 
number  of  skilled  and  unskilled  men 
in  the  railroad  shops  of  204,194.  The 
next  largest  total  is  that  of  the  sta- 
tion agents,  baggage  masters,  porters, 
etc.,  there  being  32,294  station  agents 
and  94,847  baggage  masters,  porters, 
etc.  Then  follow  the  conductors  and 
brakemen,  32,000  of  the  former  and 
84,493  of  the  latter.  There  are  92,- 
458  enginemen  and  firemen,  45,292  of 
the  former  and  47,166  of  the  latter. 
Employed  in  the  general  ofiSces  of  the 
various  railroad  companies,  in.  per- 
forming the  vast  amount  of  clerical 
work  required,  there  are  39,701  clerks, 
while  sheltered  under  the  same  roof 
is  a  body  of  men  upon  whom  as  much 
as  or  more  than  any  other  in  the  whole 


army  of  railroad  employees  falls  the 
responsibility  of  the  safety  of  trains 
and  passengers — the  telegraph  opera- 
tors and  dispatchers,  of  whom  there 
are  altogether  26,606.  The  smallest  in 
number,  but  controlling  the  whole  of 
this  vast  organization,  are  the  general 
officers,  presidents,  vice-presidents, 
treasurers,  secretaries,  etc.,  of  whom 
there  are  4.780. 

Money  Value. — Perhaps,  after  all, 
the  most  remarkable  figures  are  -those 
which  show  the  total  value  of  the  rail- 
road system  of  the  United  States, 
which  expressed  in  figures  is  13,308,- 
029,032  dollars.  If  this  sum  were  rep- 
resented in  ten-dollar  gold  pieces,  and 
these  pieces  were  set  on  edge,  side  by 
side,  they  would  reach  more,  than  half 
way  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, or  1,700  miles.  Or,  were  this 
coin  melted  and  run  into  a  single  cast- 
ing, it  would  form  a  column  15  feet 
in  diameter  and  259  feet  in  height. 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATISTICS  OF  RAILWAYS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1903. 


From  summaries  which  appear  in 
the  Sixteenth  Statistical  Report  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  pre- 
pared by  its  statistician  as  the  com- 
plete report  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1903,  this  information  is  obtained : 

MILEAGE       AND       CAPITALIZATION       OF 

BO  ADS. 

The  total  single-track  railway  mile- 
age in  the  United  States  on  June  30, 
1903,  was  207,977.22  miles,  having  in- 
creased 5,505.37  miles  in  the  year  end- 
ing on  that  date.  This  increase  ex- 
ceeds that  of  any  previous  year  since 
1890.  The  nineteen  states  and  terri- 
tories for  which  an  increase  in  mileage 
exceeding  100  miles  is  shown  are  Ar- 
kansas, California,  Georgia,  Illinois, 
Louisiana,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri,  North  Carolina, 
North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  Texas, 
Washington,  West  Virginia,  .Wiscon- 
sin, Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico, 
and  Oklahoma.  Most  of  the  railway 
mileage  of  the  country,  excepting  that 
of  street  lines,  is  covered  by  reports 
rendered  to  the  Commission  by  the  car- 
riers. 

For  the  year  under  consideration  the 
operated  mileage  concerning  which  sub- 
stantially complete  returns  were  made 
was  205,313.54  miles,  including  5,902.87 
miles  of  line  on  which  trackage  privi- 
leges were  exercised.     The  aggregate 


length  of  railway  mileage,  including 
tracks  of  all  kinds,  was  283,821.52 
miles,  being  classified  as  follows : 
Single  track,  205,313.54  miles;  sec- 
ond track,  14,681.03  miles;  third 
track,  1,303.53  miles ;  fourth  track, 
963,36  miles;  and  yard  track  and 
sidings,  61,560.06  miles.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  there  was  an  increase  of 
9.626.16  miles  in  the  aggregate  length 
of  all  tracks,  of  which  3,339.13  miles, 
or  34.69  per  cent,  were  due  to  the  ex- 
tension of  yard  track  and  sidings. 

The  number  of  railway  corporations 
included  in  the  report  was  2,078.  Of 
this  number  1,036  maintained  operat- 
ing accounts,  805  being  classed  as  in- 
dependent operating  roads  and  231  as 
subsidiary  roads.  Of  roads  operated 
under  lease  or  some  other  form  of  con- 
tract, 316  received  a  fixed  money  rent- 
al, 150  a  contingent  money  rental,  and 
275  were  operated  under  conditions 
not  readily  classified.  In  the  course 
of  the  year  railway  companies  owning 
11,074.19  miles  of  line  were  reorgan- 
ized, merged,  consolidated,  etc.  For 
the  year  1902  the  corresponding  item 
was  7,385.99  miles. 

The  length  of  mileage  operated  by 
receivers  on  June  30,  1903,  was  1,- 
185.45  miles,  showing  a  decrease  of 
289.87  miles  as  compared  with  the 
previous  year.  The  number  of  roads 
in  the  hands  of  receivers  was  the  same 
as  at  the  close  of  the  previous  year,  9 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


128 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


roads  having  been  taken  from  the 
hands  of  receivers  and  a  like  number 
having  been  placed  in  charge  of  the 
courts. 

EQUIPMENT. 

On  June  30,  1903,  there  were  in 
the  service  of  the  railways  43,871  loco- 
motives, the  increase  being  2,646.  As 
classified,  these  locomotives  were :  Pas- 
senger, 10,570;  freight,  25,444; 
switching,  7,058.  There  were  also  799 
not  assigned  to  any  class. 

The  total  number  of  cars  of  all 
classes  was  1,753,389,  this  total  hav- 
ing increased  113,204  during  the  year. 
The  assignment  of  this  rolling'  stock 
was,  to  the  passenger  service,  38,140 
cars;  to  the  freight  service,  1,653,782 
cars;  the  remaining  61,467  cars  being 
those  employed  directly  by  the  rail- 
ways in  their  own  service.  Cars  used 
by  the  railways  that  were  owned  by 
private  companies  and  firms  are  not 
included  in  this  statement.  The  aver- 
age number  of  locomotives  per  1,000 
miles  of  line  was  214,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  8.  The  average  number  of 
cars  per  1,000  miles  of  line  was  8,540, 
showing  an  increase  of  345  as  com- 
pared with  the  previous  year.  The 
number  of  passenger-miles  per  pas- 
senger locomotive  was  1,978,786,  show- 
ing an  increase  of  70,476  miles.  The 
number  of  ton-miles  per  freight  loco- 
motive was  6,807,981,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  141,482  miles  as  compared 
with  June  30,  1902. 

The  aggregate  number  of  locomo- 
tives and  cars  in  the  service  of  the 
railways  was  1,797,260.  Of  this  num- 
ber 1,462,259  were  fitted  with  train 
brakes,  indicating  an  increase  during 
the  year  of  155,414,  and  1,770,558 
were  fitted  with  automatic  couplers, 
indicating  an  increase  of  122,028. 
Practically  all  locomotives  and  cars  in 
passenger  service  had  train  brakes, 
and  of  the  10,570  locomotives  in  that 
service.  10  110  were  fitted  with  auto- 
matic couplers.  Only  a  few  cars  in 
passenger  service  were  without  auto- 
matic couplers.  With  respect  to 
freight  equipment  it  appears  that  most 
of  the  freight  locomotives  had  train 
brakes  and  98  per  cent  of  them  auto- 
matic couplers.  Of  1,653.782  cars  in 
freight  service  on  June  30.  1903,  1.- 
352,123  had  train  brakes  and  1,632,330 
automatic  couplers.  In  this  report 
there  have  been  continued  several  sum- 
maries, first  presented  in  the  report  for 
1902,  to  show  the  general  type  of 
efficiency  of  locomotives  and  the  ca- 
pacity of  freight  cars. 


In  these  summaries  locomotives  are 
classified  under  the  heads  of  single-ex- 
pansion locomotives,  four-cylinder  com- 
pound locomotives,  and  two-cylinder 
compound  or  cross-compound  locomo- 
tives. Each  of  these  classes  of  locomo- 
tives is  further  classified  according  to 
the  number  of  drivers,  and  the  number 
of  pilot  wheels  and  trailers. 

Freight  cars  are  first  classified  as 
box  cars,  flat  cars,  stock  cars,  coal 
cars,  tank  cars,  refrigerator  cars,  and 
other  cars.  The  cars  in  these  classes 
are  further  distributed  among  the 
requisite  number  of  subclasses^  the 
lowest  of  which.  Class  I,  being  for  cars 
having  capacities  in  the  10,000  of 
pounds;  Class  II  for  cars  in  the  20,- 
000  of  pounds,  the  other  classes  suc- 
cessively increasing  in  the  same  ratio. 


EMPLOYEES. 

The  number  of  persons  on  the  pay 
rolls  of  the  railways  in  the  United 
States,  as  returned  for  June  30,  1903, 
was  1,312,537,  or  639  per  100  miles  of 
line.  These  figures,  when  compared 
with  the  corresponding  ones  for  the 
year  1902,  show  an  increase  of  123,222 
in  the  number  of  employees,  or  45  per 
100  miles  of  line.  The  classification 
of  employees  includes  enginemen,  52,- 
993 ;  firemen,  56,041 ;  conductors,  39,- 
741,  and  other  trainmen,  104,885. 
There  were  49.961  switch  tenders, 
crossing  tenders,  and  watchmen.  With 
regard  to  the  four  general  divisions  of 
railway  employment  it  appears  that 
general  administration  required  the 
services  of  45,222  employees ;  mainte- 
nance of  way  and  structures,  433,648 
employees  ;  maintenance  of  equipment, 
253,889  employees,  and  conducting 
transportatiou,  576,881  employees. 
This  statement  disregards  a  few  em- 
ployees of  which  no  assignment  was 
made. 

The  usual  statement  of  the  average 
daily  compensation  of  the  18  classes  of 
employees  for  a  series  of  years  is  con- 
tinued in  the  present  report,  which 
shows  also  the  aggregate  amount  of 
compensation  paid  to  more  than  97  per 
cent  of  the  number  of  employees  for 
the  year  1903  and  more  than  99  per 
rent  for  the  six  years  preceding.  The 
amount  of  wages  and  salaries  paid  to 
employees  during  the  year  end-ng  June 
.30.  1903,  as  reported,  was  $757,321,- 
415:  but  this  amount,  as  compared 
with  the  total  reported  for  the  year 
1902, ,  is  understated  for  want  of  re- 
turns.'by  $18,000,000  at  least. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


129 


CAPITALIZATION  OF  RAILWAY  PROPERTY. 

The  par  value  of  the  amount  of 
railway  capital  outstanding  on  June 
30,  1903,  was  $12,599,990,258, 
which  represents  a  capitalization 
of  $G3,186  per  mile  for  the  rail- 
ways of  the  United  States.  Of 
this  Capital,  $6,155,559,032  existed  as 
stock,  of  which  $4,876,961,012  was 
common  and  $1,278,598,020  preferred, 
and  the  remaining  part,  $6,444,431,220, 
as  funded  debt,  which  consisted  of 
mortgage  bonds,  $5,426,730,154;  mis- 
cellaneous obligations,  $640,704,135 ; 
income  bonds,  $234,016,821,  and  equip- 
ment trust  obligations,  $142,980,116. 
Current  liabilities  are  not  included  in 
railway  capital  for  the  reason  that  this 
class  of  indebtedness  has  to  do  with 
the  operation  rather  than  with  the 
construction  and  equipment  of  a  road. 
Current  liabilities  for  the  year  amount- 
ed to  $864,552,960,  or  $4,211  per  mile 
of  line. 

Of  the  total  capital  stock  outstand- 
ing, $2,704,821,163,  or  43.94  per  cent, 
paid  no  dividends.  The  amount  of 
dividends  declared  during  the  year  was 
$196,728,176.  being  equivalent  to  5.70 
per  cent  on  dividend-paying  stock.  For 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  the 
amount  of  dividends  declared  was 
$185,391,655.  Of  the  total  amount  of 
stock  outstanding,  $6,155,559,032,  6.59 
per  cent  paid  from  1  to  4  per  cent ; 
13.51  per  cent  from  4  to  5  per  cent; 
10.34  per  cent  from  5  to  6  per  cent; 
11.39  per  cent  from  6  to  7  per  cent, 
and  9.10  per  cent  from  7  to  8  per  cent. 
The  amount  of  funded  debt  (omitting 
equipment  trust  obligations)  that  paid 
no  interest  was  $272  788.421,  or  4.33 
per  cent.  Of  mortgage  bonds,  $194,- 
295,524,  or  3.58  per  cent,  of  miscel- 
laneous obligations,  $7,377,925,  or  1.15 
per  cent,  and  of  income  bonds,  $71,- 
114,972,  or  30.39  per  cent,  paid  no  in- 
terest. 


PUBLIC  SERVICE  OF  RAILWAYS. 

The  number  of  passengers  reported 
as  carried  by  the  railways  in  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  was  694.891,535, 
indicating  an  increase  of  45,013  030  as 
compared  with  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1902.  The  passenger-mileage,  or 
the  number  of  passengers  carried  1 
mile,  was  20.915,763,881,  having  in- 
creased 1.225,826  261. 

The  number  of  tons  of  fre'ght  re- 
ported as  carried  (including  freight 
received  from  connecting  roads  and 
other     carriers)     was     1,304,394,323, 


which  exceeds  the  tonnage  of  the  pre- 
vious year  by  104,078,536  tons.  The 
ton-mileage,  or  the  number  of  tons  car- 
ried 1  mile,  was  173  222,278,993,  the 
increase  being  15,932,908,940.  The 
number  of  tons  carried  1  mile  per  mile 
of  line  was  855,447,  which  figures  in- 
dicate an  increase  in  the  density  of 
freight  traffic  of  62,096  ton-miles  per 
mile  of  line. 

The  average  revenue  per  passenger 
per  mile  for  the  year  mentioned  was 
2.006  cents,  the  average  for  the  pre- 
ceding year  being  1.9o6  cents.  The 
average  revenue  per  ton  per  mile  was 
0.763  cent.  This  average  for  the  pre- 
ceding year  was  0.757  cent.  Earnings 
per  train  mile  show  an  increase  both 
for  passenger  and  freight  trains.  The 
average  cost  of  running  a  train  1  mile 
appears  to  have  increased  between  8 
and  9  cents.  The  ratio  of  operating 
expenses  to  earnings,  66.16  per  cent, 
also  increased  in  comparison  with  the 
preceding  year,  when  it  was  64.66  per 
cent. 

A  summary  of  freight  traffic,  classi- 
fied on  the  basis  of  a  commodity  classi- 
fication embracing  some  thirty-eight 
items,  is  continued  for  the  year  under 
review. 

EARNINGS  AND  EXPENSES. 

The  gross  earnings  of  the  railways  in 
the  United  States  from  the  operation 
of  205,313.54  miles  of  line  were,  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  $1,9CK),- 
846,907,  being  $174,466,640  greater 
than  for  the  previous  year.  Their 
operating  expenses  were  $1,257,538,- 
852,  or  $141,290,105  more  than  in 
1902.  The  following  figures  give  gross 
earnings  in  detail,  with  the  increase 
or  the  decrease  of  the  several  items  as 
compared  with  the  previous  year :  Pas- 
senger revenue,  $421,704,592 — increase. 
$28,741,344 ;  mail,  $41,709,396— in- 
crease, $1,873,552;  express,  $38.331,- 
964 — increase,  $4,078,505  ;  other  earn- 
ings from  passenger  service,  $9,821,- 
277— increase.  $962,508;  freight  reve- 
nue, $1,338,020,026— increase,  $130,- 
791,181 ;  other  earnings  from  freight 
service,  $4.467,025 — decrease,  $379,- 
693 ;  other  earnings  from  operation, 
including  unclassified  items,  $46,792,- 
627  —  increase,  $8,399,243.  Gross 
earnings  from  operation  per  mile  of 
line  averaged  $9,258,  the  correspond- 
ing average  for  the  year  1902  being 
$633  less. 

The  operating  expenses  were  as- 
signed to  the  four  general  divisions  of 
such    expenses^  as    follows :     Mainte- 


130 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


nance  of  way  and  structures,  $266,421,- 
774 ;  maintenance  of  equipment,  $240,- 
429,742 ;  conducting  transportation, 
$702,509,818;  general  expenses,  $47,- 
767,947;  undistributed,  $409,571.  Op- 
erating expenses  were  $6,125  per  mile 
of  line,  having  increased  $548  per  mile 
in  comparison  with  the  preceding  year. 
The  statistical  report  contains  an 
analysis  of  the  operating  expenses  for 
the  year  according  to  the  fifty-three 
accounts  prescribed  in  the  official 
classification  of  these  expenses,  with 
the  percentage  of  each  item  of  the  ex- 
penses as  classified  for  the  years  1897 
to  1903. 

The  income  from  opjeration,  or  the 
net  earnings,  of  the  railways  amount- 
ed to  $643,308,055.  This  item,  when 
compared  with  the  net  earnings  of  the 
year  1902,  shows  an  increase  of  $33,- 
176,535.  Net  earnings  per  mile  for 
1903  averaged  $3,133;  for  1902,  $3,- 
048,  and  for  1901,  $2,854.  The 
amount  of  income  obtained  from  other 
sources  than  operation  was  $205,687,- 
480.  In  this  amount  are  included  the 
following  items :  Income  from  lease 
of  road,  $109,696,201;  dividends  on 
stocks  owned,  i  >40,081,725 ;  interest  on 
bonds  owned,  $17,696,586,  and  miscel- 
laneous income,  $38,212,968.  The  to- 
tal income  of  the  railways,  $848,995,- 
535 — that  is,  the  income  from  opera- 
tion and  from  other  sources— is  the 
amount  from  which  fixed  charges  and 
similar  items  of  expenditure  are  de- 
ducted to  ascertain  the  sum  available 
for  dividends.  Deductions  of  such  na- 
ture totalized  $552,619,490,  leaving 
$296,376,045  as  the  net  income  for  the 
year  available  for  dividends  or  surplus. 

The  amount  of  dividends  declared 
during  the  year  (including  $420,400, 
other  payments  from  net  income)  was 
$197,148,576,  leaving  as  the  surplus 
from  the  operations  of  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1903,  $99,227,469,  that  of 
the  previous  year  having  been  $94,855,- 
088.  The  amount  stated  above  for  de- 
ductions from  income,  $552,619,490, 
comprises  the  following  items : 
Salaries  and  maintenance  of  organi- 
zation. $430,427 ;  interest  accrued  on 
funded  debt,  $283,953,124;  interest  on 
current  liabilities,  $9,060,645;  rents 
paid  for  lease  of  road,  $112,230,384; 
taxes,  $57,849,569;  permanent  im- 
provements charged  to  income  account, 
$41,948,183;  other  deductions,  $47,- 
147,158. 

It  is  perhaps  appropriate  to  mention 
that  the  foregoing  figures  for  the  in- 
come and  expenditures  of  the  railways, 
being   compiled   from    the   annual    re- 


turns of  leased  roads  as  well  as  of  op- 
erating roads,  necessarily  include  du- 
plications in  certain  items  of  income, 
and  also  of  expenditure,  since,  in  gen- 
eral, the  income  of  a  leased  road  is  the 
rent  paid  by  the  company  which  op- 
erates   it. 

RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS. 

The  statement  of  accidents  to  per- 
sons in  the  summaries  in  the  statisti- 
cal report  under  consideration  are  pre- 
sented under  the  two  general  classes 
of  accidents  resulting  from  the  move- 
ment of  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars, 
and  of  accidents  arising  from  causes 
other  than  those  resulting  from  the 
movement  of  trains,  locomotives,  or 
cars.  These  classes  include  all  the 
casualties  returned  by  the  carriers  in 
their  annual  reports  to  the  Commis- 
sion, whether  sustained  by  passengers, 
employees,  trespassers,  or  other  per- 
sons, and  for  a  number  of  reasons  they 
are  not  in  all  respects  comparable  with 
others  in  the  bulletins  that  are  based 
on  monthly  reports. 

The  total  number  of  casualties  to 
persons  on  the  railways  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  was  86,393,  of 
which  9,840  represented  the  number 
of  persons  killed  and  76,553  the  num- 
ber injured.  Casualties  occurred 
among  three  general  classes  of  rail- 
way employees,  as  follows :  Train- 
men, 2,070  killed  and  25,676  injured; 
switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders  and 
watchmen,  283  killed,  2,352  injured; 
other  employees,  l,25i3  killed,  32,453 
injured.  The  casualties  to  employees 
coupling  and  uncoupling  cars  were, 
employees  killed,  281 ;  injured,  3,551. 
For  the  year  1902  the  corresponding 
figures  were,  killed,  167;  injured,  2,- 
864.  The  casualties  connected  with 
coupling  and  uncoupling  cars  are  as- 
signed as  follows:  Trainmen  killed, 
211 ;  injured,  3,023 ;  switch  tenders, 
crossing  tenders  and  watchmen  killed, 
57 ;  injured,  416 ;  other  employees 
killed,  13;  injured,  112. 

The  casualties  due  to  falling  from 
trains,  locomotives,  or  cars  in  motion 
were  :  Trainmen  killed,  440 ;  injured, 
4,191 ;  switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders 
and  watchmen  killed,  39 ;  injured, 
461 ;  other  employees  killed,  72 ;  in- 
jured, 536.  The  casualties  due  to 
jumping  on  or  oflf  trains,  locomotives, 
or  cars  in  motion  were :  Trainmen 
killed,  101;  injured,  3,133;  switch 
tenders,  crossing  tenders  and  watch- 
men killed,  15;  injured,  279;  other 
employees    killed,    82;    injured,    508. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


131 


The  casualties  to  the  same  three 
classes  of  employees  in  consequence  of 
collisions  and  derailments  were : 
Trainmen  killed,  648;  injured,  4,526; 
switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders  and 
watchmen  killed,  17;  injured,  137; 
other  employees  killed,  128;  injured, 
743. 

The  number  of  passengers  killed  in 
the  course  of  the  year  1903  was  355, 
and  the  number  injured  8,231.  In  the 
previous  year  345  passengers  were 
killed  and  6,683  injured.  There  were 
173  passengers  killed  and  4,584  injured 
because  of  collisions  and  derailments. 
The  total  number  of  persons,  other 
than  employees  and  passengers,  killed 
was  5,879;  injured,  7,841.  These  fig- 
ures include  the  casualties  to  persons 
classed  as  trespassing  of  whom  5,000 
were  killed  and  5,0/9  were  injured. 
The  total  number  of  casualties  to  per- 
sons other  than  employees  from  being 
struck  by  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars, 
were  4.534  killed  and  4,029  injured. 
The  casualties  of  this  class  were  as 


follows :  At  highway  crossings,  pas- 
sengers killed,  3;  injured,  7;  other 
persons  killed,  895;  injured,  1,474;  at 
stations,  passengers  killed,  24;  in- 
jured, 108;  other  persons  killed,  390; 
injured,  501 ;  at  other  points  along 
track,  passengers  killed,  8;  injured, 
14 :  other  persons  killed,  3,214 ;  in- 
jured, 1,925.  The  ratios  of  casualties 
indicate  that  1  employee  in  every  364 
was  killed,  and  1  employee  in  every  22 
was  injured.  With  regard  to  train- 
men— that  is,  enginemen,  firemen,  con- 
ductors, and  other  trainmen — it  ap- 
pears that  1  trainman  was  killed  for 
every  123  employed,  and  1  was  injured 
for  every  10  employed. 

One  passenger  was  killed  for  every 
1,957,441  carried,  and  1  injured  for 
every  84,424  carried.  With  respect  to 
the  number  of  miles  traveled,  how- 
ever, the  figures  show  that  58,917,645 
passenger-miles  were  accomplished  for 
each  passenger  killed,  and  2,541,096 
passenger-miles  for  each  passenger  in- 
jured. 


INTERESTING   FACTS   CONCERNING   RAILWAYS. 


Di£Ferences  of  Gauge. — It  is  not  really 
known  what,  if  any,  principle  governed  the 
determination  in  the  first  instance  of  the 
gauge  between  the  rails  of  4  ft.  8i  ins.,  which 
is  the  standard  railway  gauge  of  the  world. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  adopted  from  the 
roads  of  the  collieries  in  the  north  of  England, 
whose  uniform  width  necessitated  the  use  of 
wagons  having  axles  of  an  outside  width  of 
5  feet.^  In  places  these  wagons  ran  on  tram- 
ways, with  a  flange  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
rail.  Then  came  the  edge  rail,  which  trans- 
ferred the  flange  to  the  wheel.  However,  the 
same  width  of  track  was  continued,  but  meas- 
ured from  the  inner  edge  of  the  rail  it  gave  a 
gauge  of  4  ft.  8i  ins.  When  Stephenson  was 
selected  from  these  collieries  to  build  the  Liv- 
erpool and  Manchester  railway,  he  brought 
with  him  the  gauge  with  which  he  was  famiUar. 

The  4  ft.  8i  ins.  gauge  is  the  standard  one  in 
Europe,  with  but  few  exceptions,  and  in  North 
America,  and  throughout  the  world  generally, 
though  every  country  possesses  lines  of  nar- 
rower gauges.  European  countries  having  a 
different  gauge  are  Ireland,  5  ft.  3  ins.,  Russia, 
5  ft.,  and  Spain,  5  ft.  6  ins.  The  standard 
gauge  of  India  is  5  ft.  6  ins.,  while  there  are 
also  a  number  of  railways  whose  mileage 
amounts  to  42  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  built  on 
the  3  ft.  3i  ins.  gauge.  In  New  Zealand.  Tas- 
mania, South  Africa  and  the  Sudan  the  stand- 
ard gauge  is  3  ft.  6  ins.  Australia  has  no 
standard  gauge.  In  New  South  Wales  the 
gauge  is  4  ft.  8^  ins.,  in  Queensland  3  ft.  6  ins., 
and  in  Victoria,  5  ft.  3  ins. 


CAPE     TO    CAIRO     RAILWAY. 

The  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  which  was  the 
late  Mr.  Rhodes's  scheme  for  joining  the 
south  and  north  of  Africa,  a  distance  of  nearly 
5,000  miles,  is  making  rapid  progress.  North- 
wards from  the  Cape  the  line  has  been  carried 
forward  by  the  Chartered  Company  to  the 
Wankie  coal-fields,  which  are  200  miles  north 
of  Buluwayo  (or  1,560  miles  north  from  the 
sea),  and  some  70  miles  south  of  the  Victoria 
Falls.  At  the  present  rate  of  progress  it  is 
expected  that  the  railway  will  reach  the  Vic- 
toria Falls  about  April,  1905.  In  the  north 
the  railway  only  runs  as  far  as  Khartoum,  and 
in  spite  of  the  agreement  with  Abjrssinia  per- 
mitting the  making  of  a  line  through  its  terri- 
tory, no  extension  south  is  likely  in  the  present 
generation. 

Mr.  Rhodes's  idea  was  to  fit  the  main  lines 
with  branches  to  the  coast;  there  will  be 
many  of  these  in  time.  Two  are  finished,  the 
Uganda  Railway  (British)  and  the  Beira-Sal- 
isbury  line  (Portuguese);  others  are  planned, 
such  as  the  Congo-Katanga  Railway  (Belgian) 
to  Rhodesia  and  one  through  German  East 
Africa.  The  Cape  to  Cairo  telegraph  is 
rapidly  approaching  completion;  it  has  now 
reached  (Central  Africa. 


TRANS-SIBERIAN     RAILWAY. 

The  opening  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Mail 
route  promises  to  accelerate  the  transmission 
of  European  letters  to  and  from  the  north  of 


132 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


China.  A  letter  posted  from  Tientsin  on  the 
30th  August,  1902,  and  forwarded  by  this 
route,  was  delivered  in  Liverpool  on  the  28th 
September — just  28  days  later.  The  trans- 
mission of  letters  via  Brindisi  or  via  Van- 
couver usually  takes  from  36  to  40  days. 
Therefore,  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  saves 
at  least  a  week,  which  is  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance to  commercial  houses.  Delivery  is, 
however,  erratic,  and  no  working  arrange- 
ment has  yet  been  arrived  at  between  the 
Post  Offices  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia.  All 
that  the  former  does  is  to  forward  letters 
marked  "Via  Siberia"  by  the  Russian  route; 
all  others  go  by  sea. 

On  Sept.  27th,  1903,  the  mails  to  the  Far 
East  were  despatched  from  Paris  (Nord)  for 
the  first  time  via  Berlin  and  Moscow. 

Moscow  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  the  main  line  of 
which  extends  thence  to  Dalny,  a  distance  of 
5,403  miles.  The  Manchuria-Dalny  section, 
1,171  miles,  embraces  the  following  important 
junctions:  Harbin,  for  Vladivostok  via  Gro- 
dekovo;  Tachitchiao,  for  Pekin  via  Inkoo 
(Newchang),  and .  Nangaline  for  Port  Arthur. 

The  most  direct  route  from  London  to  Mos- 
cow is  via  Dover,  Ostend,  Berlin,  Alexan- 
drowo,  Warsaw,  and  Brest  Litewski.  The 
distance  is  1,800  miles,  and  the  through  jour- 
ney occupies  67  hours. 

The  Coast  terminals  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  viz.,  Dalny,  Vladivostok,  and  Port 
Arthur,  are  also  ports  of  call  with  various 
steamship  companies,  whose  boats  are  ar- 
ranged to  connect  with  the  train  service  gen- 
erally. Thus,  the  boats  of  the  East  China 
Railway  Company  ply  between  Dalny  and 
Shanghai,  Dalny  and  Npgasaki,  and  Dalny, 
Port  Arthur,  and  Chifu,  and  between  Vladi- 
vostok and  Shanghai.  The  "Oiye"  (Japan) 
line  call  at  Vladivostok  and  sail  to  and  from 
all  Japanese  ports.  The  Russian  Volunteer 
fleet  has  a  steamship  service  between  Odessa 
and  Vladivostok,  calling  at  Singapore,  Port 
Arthur,  and  Nagasaki.  The  **Nipon.Yusen- 
Kaisha"Company  furnish  boats  between  Kobe, 


Nagasaki,  Fusan,  Gensan,  and  Vladivostok, 
and  between  Kobe,  Chifu,  Dalny,  Port  Arthur, 
and  Taku.  The  Hamburg-American  Line 
gives  a  service  between  Hongkong  and  Vladi- 
vostok. 

Fares  from  London,  via  Dover,  Ostend,  and 
Alexandrowo: 

1st        2d' 
Class.  Class 

To  Dalny $195  $135 

To  Pekin 200  140 

To  Port  Arthur 200  140 

To  Vladivostok 185  125 

To  Shanghai 215  150 

To  Nagasaki 215  150 

Trains  are  ferried  across  Lake  Baikal,  but 
the  railway  round  the  south  of  the  lake  is 
being  built.  The  Manchurian  Railway  itself 
is  in  a  very  bad  condition,  owing  to  poor  con- 
struction. Days  and  sometimes  weeks  of  de- 
lay are  common.  '  The  Siberian  main  line, 
now  single,  is  to  be  doubled. 

New  Trans-Canadian  Railway. — The  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  Company  has  secured  the 
assent  of  the  Dominion  Parliament  to  the 
construction  of  a  new  railroad  straight  across 
Canada,  from  New  Brunswick  in  the  east  te 
the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  west.  The  Govern- 
ment will  themselves  be  the  owners  of  the 
whole  line  from  New  Brunswick  to  Winnipeg, 
but  the  line  is  to  be  leased  to  and  worked  by 
the  Grand  Trimk  Pacific.  The  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  will  be  restricted  in  its  possession  and 
ownership  of  the  road  west  of  Winnipeg. 

Sahara  Railway. — A  project  which  is  being 
much  discussed  in  France  is  a  railway  across 
the  Sahara.  Three  routes  have  been  sug- 
gested, one  from  Igli  to  the  Niger,  one  from 
Biskra,  214  miles  southeast  of  Algiers,  to  the 
west  shore  of  Lake  Chad,  and  the  third  from 
Bizerta  in  Tunis  to  Lake  Chad.  M.  Paul 
Bonnard,  an  expert  in  African  affairs,  recom- 
mends the  latter,  as  it  would  connect  the 
French  possessions  in  North  Africa  with  the 
French  Congo,  and  thus  become  a  trans- 
African  railway. 

— Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


STREET  AND  ELECTRIC  RAILW^AYS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1902. 


The  statistics  contained  in  this  sec- 
tion cover  all  street  and  electric  rail- 
ways in  the  United  States  that  were 
in  operation  during  any  part  of  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1902.  The  term 
"street  and  electric  railways"  as  here 
used  includes  all  electric  railways  irre- 
spective of  their  length  or  location, 
and  all  street  railways  irrespective  of 
their  motive  power.  At  the  census  of 
1890  the  railroads  that  used  motive 
power  other  than  steam  were  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  urban  districts 
and  were  properly  classed  as  "street 
railways,"  but  the  application  of  elec- 


tricity has  enabled  these  roads  to 
greatly  extend  their  lines  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
trackage  is  now  outside  the  limits  of 
cities,  towns,  or  villages.  That  the 
use  of  electric  power  has  been  the 
principal  factor  in  the  development  of 
these  railways  during  the  past  few 
years  is  shown  by  the  table  which 
presents  for  the  years  1890  and  1902, 
the  number  of  companies  and  miles 
of  single  track  in  the  United 
States,  segregated  according  to  char- 
acter of  motive  power  which  is  em- 
ployed. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


133 


NUMBER    OF    COMPANIES     AND     MILES     OF    SINGLE    TRACK     GROUPED 
ACCORDING     TO     MOTIVE     POWER:     1890    AND     1902. 


CHARACT£R    OF    POWER. 


1902 


United  States. 


Electric. 
Animal. 
Cable.  . . 
Steam. . 


Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 


849 

747 

67 

26 

9 


Miles  of 
single 
track. 


*22,689.47 


t21, 920.07 
259.10 
240.69 
169.61 


1890 


Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 


761 


126 

606 

55 

74 


Miles  of 
single 
track. 


8.123.02 


1.261.97 

5,661.44 

488.31 

711.30 


PER  CENT  OF 
INCREASE. 


Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 


11.6 


492.9 
::86.8 
::52.7 
::87.8 


Miles  of 
single 
track. 


178.1 


1,637.0 
195.4 
$50.7 
t76.2 


*  Includes  12.48  miles  of  track  duplicated  in  reports  of  different  companies. 
t  Includes  6.06  miles  operated  by  compressed  air. 
t  Decrease. 


At  both  censuses  some  companies 
reported  the  use  of  more  than  one  kind 
of  power,  and  in  order  to  show  the 
total  number  of  companies  for  each 
class,  they  have  been  counted  more 
than  once ;  therefore  the  total  given  in 
table  above  exceeds  the  actual  number 
of  separate  companies.  The  increase 
in  the  length  of  track  is  confined  en- 
tirely to  the  roads  operated  by  electric 
power.  The  use  of  electric  power  was 
reported  by  126  companies  in  1890 
and  747  in  1902.  The  single  track 
mileage  operated  by  this  power  in- 
creased  from   1,261.97   miles   in    1890 


to  21,920.07  in  1902.  A  decided  de- 
crease is  shown  in  the  number  of 
companies  and  the  trackage  for  each 
of  the  other  classes  of  power. 

The  length  of  single  track,  22,589.47 
miles,  reported  for  1J)02,  consists  of 
16,651.58  miles  of  first  main  track, 
5,030.36  miles  of  second  main  track, 
and  907.53  miles  of  sidings  and  turn- 
outs. The  second  table  reproduces 
the  totals  for  the  United  States  and 
shows  the  mileage  of  each  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  track  and  the  per 
cent  which  each  class  forms  of  the 
total. 


SINGLE-TRACK     MILEAGE     AND     PER    CENT.     WHICH     EACH     CLASS     IS 

OF     TOTAL:     1902. 


CLASS    OF   TRACK. 


Total. 


First  main  track 

Second  main  track.  . 
Sidings  and  tiimouts. 


Overhead  trolley.  . .  . 
Other  electric  power. 

Compressed  air 

Animal 


Cable , 

OX  osvxu  •  ••  •  ••••••••••■••••••••• 

Trackage  owned 

Trackage  leased 

Operated  under  trackage  rights. 

Constructed  and  opened  for  operation  during  the  year. 

On  private  right  of  way  owned  by  company 

On  private  ri^ht  of  way  not  owned  by  company 

Located  within  city  limits 

Located  outside  city  limits.  . 

Equipped  with  cast  welded  joints 


Sinjifle-track 
mileage. 


*22,589.47 


16.651.58 

5,030.36 

907.53 


21.302.57 

611.44 

6.06 

529.10 

240.69 

169.61 

19,038.33 

3,551.14 

560.92 

1,549.73 

3,424.96 

377.11 

J  13,208.24 

t6.855.58 

1,642.68 


*  Includes  12.48  miles  of  track  duplicated  in  reports  of  different  companies. 

t  Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 

X  Exclusive  of  the  mileage  of  Massachusetts. 


Per  cent 
of  total. 


100.0 


73.7 

22.3 

4.0 


94 
2 

1 

1 


t 

.8 
84.3 
15.7 

2.5 

6.9 
15.2 

1.7 
65.8 
34.2 

7.3 


134 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Of  the  total  single-track  mileage, 
21,914.01  miles,  or  97  per  cent,  were 
operated  by  electric  power  and  416.36 
miles,  or  1.9  per  cent,  by  other  me- 
chanical traction,  while  only  259.10 
miles,  or  1.1  per  cent,  were  operated 
by  animal  power,  as  compared  with 
69.7  per  cent  in  1890.  Of  the  total 
trackage  in  use  by  all  companies,  S4.3 
per  cent  was  owned  by  the  operating 
companies  and  15.7  per  cent  leased. 
The  mileage  of  track  constructed  and 
opened  for  operation  during  the  year 
covered  by  this  report  was  1,549.73 
miles,  or'6.9  per  cent  of  the  total,  but 
this  does  not  cover  all  of  the  track  un- 
der constructioiT.  A  number  of  miles 
of  track  were  in  various  stages  of  com- 
pletion, but  it  was  impracticable  to 
fix  upon  any  stage  of  the  work  at 
which  the  trackage  could  be  enume- 
rated other  than  that  of  actual  com- 
pletion. The  statistics  concerning 
track  located  on  private  right  of  way 
refer  particularly  to  rural  electric  rail- 
ways, many  of  which  have  bought  or 
have  had  surrendered  to  them  a  sepa- 
rate roadbed,  either  adjoining  or  in- 
dependent of  the  highway,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  steam  railroad.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  reports  that  3,424.96 
miles  of  single  track  were  on  private 
right  of  way  owned  by  the  company. 
Occasionally  the  railway  is  built  on  a 
private  right  of  way  not  owned  by  the 
company,  an  example  of  which  would 
be  a  toll  bridge  owned  by  a  bridge  com- 
pany, to  whom  payment  for  the  privi- 
lege of  using  it  was  made.    There  were 


377.11  miles  of  single  track  on  right  of 
way  of  this  character. 

The  inquiries  concerning  the  loca- 
tion of  track,  whether  within  or  with- 
out city  limits,  were  made  with  the 
intention  of  ascertaining  the  relative 
length  of  track  operated  in  urban  and 
rural  districts,  respectively.  In  a  num- 
ber of  cases  it  was  impossible  to  de- 
termine exactly  the  trackage  that 
should  be  assigned  to  these  two  sub- 
divisions. In  some  instances  the  track 
was  within  or  passed  through  thickly 
settled  communities  that  were  not  or- 
ganized as  cities  or  towns,  and  there- 
fore had  no  legal  limits,  and  it  was 
difficult  to  obtain  the  length  that 
should  be  considered  as  within  the  ur- 
ban district.  In  the  New  England 
states  densely  populated  communities 
are  legally  part  of  the  town  govern- 
ment, which  includes  also  rural  dis- 
tricts. Many  companies  in  Massachu- 
setts reported  that  it  was  impractica- 
ble to  make  the  distinction,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  trackage  for  that  state 
has  not  been  included  in  this  classifica- 
tion. For  the  United  States,  exclusive 
of  Massachusetts,  13,208.24  miles  of 
single  trackage,  or  65.8  per  cent  of  the 
total,  were  reported  as  within  urban 
limits  and  6,855.58  miles,  or  34.2  per 
cent,  as  outside  of  such  limits. 

The  increase  in  the  trackage  is  due 
net  only  to  the  establishment  of  new 
companies,  but  very  largely  to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  lines  of  established  com- 
panies. 


COMPANIES     GROUPED     ACCORDING     TO     LENGTH     OF     LINE: 

1890     AND     1902. 


LENGTH    OF  ROAD    BED. 


Total. 


1902 


Number 
of  com- 
panies. 


♦817 


Under  10  miles  .... 

10  to  20  miles 

Over  20  to  30  miles.  , 
Over  30  to  40  miles.  . 
Over  40  to  50  miles. . 
Over  50  to  60  miles. . 
Over  60  to  70  miles.  . 
Over  70  to  80  miles. . 
Over  80  to  90  miles. . 
Over  90  to  100  miles. 
Over  100  miles 


394 

219 

76 

34 

25 

16 

12 

7 

6 

3 

25 


Length  of 
line. 


16,651.58 


1,957.16 

3,148.94 

1,878.54 

1,197.83 

1,117.05 

892.86 

785.22 

532.46 

515.30 

277.12 

4,349.10 


1890 


Number 
of  com- 
panies. 


t691 


557 
99 
16 
7 
4 
2 
2 
1 
1 


Length  of 
line. 


t6,119.63 


2,304.49 

1,353.42 

400.39 

251.74 

178.04 

101.67 

130.33 

76.48 

84.42 


238.65 


*  Operating  companies. 

t  Exclusive  of  15  lessor  companies. 

t  Exclusive  of  663.94  miles  estimated  in  1890. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


135 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,     ALL     COMPANIES:     1890     AND     1902. 


ITEMS. 


Number  of  companies 

Cost  of  construction  and  equipment 

Capital  stock  issued 

Funded  debt  outstanding 

Earnings  from  operation 

Operating  expenditures 

Percentage  operating  expenses  of  earnings. . . 

Number  of  passenger  cars 

Number  of  fare  passengers  carried 

Number  of  employees* 

*  Exclusive  of  salaried  officials  and  clerks. 


Per  cent 

1902 

1890 

of 
increase. 

987 

706 

39.8 

$2,167,634,077 

$389,357,289 

456.7 

$1,315,572,960 

$289,058,133 

365.1 

$992,709,139 

$189,177,824 

424.7 

$247,553,999 

$90,617,211 

173.2 

$142,312,697 

$62,011,185 

129.5 

57.6 

68.4 

60,290 

32,506 

85.5 

4,809.654.438 

2,023,010,202 

137.7 

133,641 

70,764 

88.9 

The  "length  of  line"  as  given  in  the 
report  means  the  length  of  the  road- 
bed, or,  in  the  case  of  a  railway  lying 
entirely  within  city  limits,  the  length 
of  street  occupied.  In  determining 
the  length  of  single  track,  switches  and 
sidings  are  included,  and  double  track 
is  reckoned  as  two  tracks.  The  in- 
crease in  the  length  of  line  during  the 
period  of  twelve  years  amounted  to 
11,532.05  miles,  or  225.3  per  cent,  as 
compared  with  an  increase  of  14,466.45 


miles,  or  178.1  per  cent,  in  the  length 
of  single  track.  Single-track  roads  are 
characteristic  of  rural  districts,  and 
the  fact  that  the  percentage  of  increase 
in  length  of  line  is  greater  than  in 
length  of  single  track  is  due  princi- 
pally to  the  great  development  of  in- 
terurban  single-track  lines  since  1890. 
The  average  length  of  line  per 
operating  company  in  1890  was  7.41 
miles  as  compared  with  20.38  miles  in 
1902.      The    average    operating    com- 


RELATION    OF    STREET    AND     ELECTRIC     RAILWAYS    TO    POPULATION 

1890     AND     1902. 


OEOORAPHIC    DIVISIONS. 


United  States. . 


Increase 


North  Atlantic 

1902 

Increase 

1890 

South  Atlantic 

1902 

Increase 

1890 

North  Central 

1902 

Increase 

1890 

South  Central 

1902 

Increase 

1890 

Western 

1902 

Increase 

1890 

Year. 


1902 
1890 


Population,* 


75,994,575 
62,622,250 


13,372,326 


21,046,695 
17,401,545 


3,645,150 

10,443,480 
8,857,920 


1,585,560 

26,333,004 
22.362,279 


3,970,725 

14.080,047 
10,972,893 


3,107,154 

4,091,349 
3,027,613 


1.063,736 


Total  number 
of  fare  passen- 
gers carried. 


4.809,554.438 
2,023,010,202 


2,786,544,236 


2,618.628,979 
1,141,187,460 


1,477,341,519 

332,541,075 
101,647,174 


230,893,901 

1,344,000,951 
538,309,887 


805,691,064 

210.103,861 
98,005,026 


112,098,835 

304,379,572 
143,860.655 


160,518,917 


Average 

numbOT 

of  rides 

perin- 

habitaivt. 


63 
32 


31 


124 

66 


58 

32 
11 


21 

51 

24 


27 

15 
9 


6 

74 
48 


26 


*  Population  shown  fo^  1902  is  that  reported  at  the  census  of  1900. 


136 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


pany  in  1902  controlled  almost  three 
times  the  length  of  line  that  was  con- 
trolled by  the  average  company  in 
1890.  In  1890  there  were  only  8  com- 
panies operating  more  than  50  miles 
of  line,  and  in  1902  the  number  of 
such  companies  had  increased  to  69. 
Of  the  total  number  of  companies  re- 
ported for  1890,  94.9  per  cent  operated 
less  than  20  miles  of  line  each,  and 
thoir  combined  length  of  line  amounted 
to  71.5  per  cent  of  the  total  in  the 
United  States ;  in  1902  corresponding 
percentages  were  75  and  30.7,  respec- 
tively. Thus,  while  there  are  still  a 
large  number  of  companies  that  op- 
erate less  than  20  miles  of  track,  the 
portion    of    the    total    length    of    line 


operated  by  them  is  not  half  as  great 
as  in  1890. 

The  extent  to  which  street  and  elec- 
tric railways  are  used,  and  the  in- 
crease in  their  use  as  measured  by  the 
average  number  of  rides  per  inhabi- 
tant, are  shown  below. 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  the 
most  extensive  use  of  street  and  elec- 
tric railways  is  in  the  North  Atlantic 
states,  where  the  average  number  of 
rides  per  inhabitant  in  1902  was  124; 
the  Western  states  come  next  with  an 
average  of  74.  The  greatest  increase 
in  this  respect  is  shown  for  the  South 
Atlantic  states,  where  the  average  was 
almost  three  times  as  great  in  1902  as 
it  was  in  1890. 


NUMBER   OF   OPERATING   AND   LESSOR  COMPANIES    BY  STATES   AND 

TERRITORIES:    1902. 


States  and  Territories 

United  States 

Alabama 

Arizojna 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

lodiana. 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 


Total. 

Operat- 

ing. 

987 

817 

9 

9 

2 

2 

7 

7 

35 

35 

9 

8 

27 

23 

3 

3 

8 

8 

6 

6 

10 

10 

1 

1 

58 

50 

27 

27 

22 

22 

12 

12 

12 

12 

8 

8 

20 

19 

12 

10 

93 

75 

24 

24 

5 

5 

States  and  Territories. 


Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire. 
New  Jersey .... 
New  Mexico.  .  . 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.  . 
Rhode  Island.  . 
South  Carolina . 
South  Dakota.  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.  .  .  . 
West  Virginia.  . 
Wisconsin 


Total. 


5 

17 
5 
4 

13 

30 

1 

119 

7 

67 
6 
196 
8 
7 
1 
8 

17 
3 
9 

21 
8 
8 

17 


Operat- 
ing. 


5 
16 

5 

4 

7 
26- 

1 
96 

7 
63 

6 
98 

8 

7 

1 

8 
17 

3 

9 
21 

8 

8 
17 


Accidents. — The  following  state- 
ment reproduces  the  totals  concerning 
the  number  of  persons  killed  and  in- 
jured in  the  United  States  for  the  year 
1902: 


Persons. 

Total 

Passengers 

Employees 

Others 


Killed. 


1,218 


265 
122 
831 


Injured. 


47,429 


26,690 

3,699 

17,040 


"Others"  referred  to  in  this 
statement,  include  persons  on  foot  or 
riding  in  vehicles  other  than  street 
cars  who  were  killed  or  injured  in  col- 
lision with  street  cars.  The  number 
of  persons  reported  as  killed,  1,218, 
and  injured,  47,429,  form  only  an  in- 
appreciable percentage  of  the  total 
number  of  passengers  carried. — From 
a  Bulletin  published  by  the  Census 
Bureau. 


CHAPTER  VI, 


POPULATION    or   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  populfttion.oE  the  United  States, 
accoi'ding  Co  the  Twelfth  CetisuB,  wrs 
75.99+.575.  divided^aa  follows:  38.- 
816,448  malea,  37,178.127  femaleB.  Of 
the  total,  65,653,299  were  natlre  born, 
and    10,341,276    foreign    born.      The 


population  la  again  divided  aa  followa: 
White,  66,809.196;  negroes.  8,833,994 ; 
Indiana  237,196,  bnt  this  figure  doea 
not  include  the  population  of  Indian 
territory  or  on  Indian  reservations; 
Chinese,  89,863 ;  Japanese,  24.326. 


POPULATION  OF  BACH  STATE  AND  TERRITORY  OF  THE 

XJNITED  STATES. 


Staue  and  Territoriw. 

1790. 

1800. 

ISSO. 

1880. 

1890 

1900. 

964.201 

1,262.S06 

1513,017 
32,052 

':'"'! 

Jl  1'2 

1  1  ^.3 

'i  i 

1    II     w 

40,440 

177,624 
269,493 
1.542,180 

rJlii 

435,450 

112>I6 
75,080 

1.0S7:2S6 

69;096 

251,002 
14;093 

278  718 

82,S48 

162.086 

6,641 ' 

l|3S0)428 

IfJSS 

1|| 
'III 

i,ia2;oi2 

'996'09b 

■■S|g 

934:943 
1,733.085 

■780:773 

1.131.597 

452:402 
62,268 

,.fSS 

135,177 
3,198,062 

73,677 

220.955 

I     46 

1            W 

1            10 

'328:808 

2:235:523 
207.905 

1381625 

96.540 
310,728 
378.787 

1S1.719 
341.548 

422.84B 

M|«|^U»tCs. 

i'^ltl 

■*'*8,856' 

yA?s*. 

,31 

672^036 

93.S16 

3.880,736 

..3i 

'S 

vZf^t^:":::-::: 

1» 

safss 

-^z:!^i 

689,051 
47S.103 

North  Carolina 

189    810 

45.36S 

398  33 

'•si 

703J08 

174.768 

'276:  S3 
995,577 

2m:o^ 

Si 

428,566 

21 

3,048.710 
276,740 

South  Carolina. 

35.691 

106.602 

1,109,801 
401273 

■l43:9B3 

Utah 1. ,:::::::: 

if  the  nveral  Stati 


138 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION  OF  EACH  STATE  AND  TERRITORY 

Contimted. 


OF  THE  UNITED  STATES— 


States  and  Territories. 

1790. 

1800. 

1860 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

Vermont 

85,425 
747,610 

154,465 
880,200 

315,098 

1,596,318 

11,594 

332,286 

1,512,665 

75,116 

618,467 

1,316,497 

20,789 

332,422 

1.655,980 

349,390 

762,794 

1,686,880 

60,705 

343.641 

vinrinia 

1,854,184 

Washimrton 

618,103 

West  Virginia 

958,800 

Wisconsin 

775,881 

2,069.042 

Wvominir,  .       

02,631 

Persons  on  public  ships 
in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  or  sta- 
tioned   broad 

♦91,219 

Total  United  States, 

3,929,214 

5,308,483 

31,443,321 

50,155,783 

62,622,250 

75,603,734 

Alaska 

32,052 

89,990 

180,182 

145,282 

63,592 

Hawaii 

154,001 

Tndinn  Tf^rritf>TTr 

302.060 

Indians  on  Reservations 

(t) 



Total 

1 

•    •■>■>■■•■'■■■    ••■■•■■ 

76.303.387 

1 

♦Includes  6,394  negroes 


t  Included  in  the  population  of  the  several  States. 

[From  Reports  of  the  Cenaua.} 


The  figures  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics vary  somewhat  from  those  of  the 
Census,  and  their  table  given  farther 
on  is  later  than  the  Census  figures. 
The  census  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
taken  1904,  gives  the  population  as  7,- 
(535,426,  of  which  647,740  are  classi- 


fied as  wild  and  uncivilized.  Luzon 
contains  3,798,507  persons;  Panay 
has  743,646  people;  Mindanao  is 
fourth  with  499,634  inhabitants; 
Jolo  follows  with  44,718  people,  of 
whom  only  1,270  are  civilized.  The 
population  of  Manila  is  219,028. 


OFFICIAL  CENSUS   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  COUNTIES, 

FOR  1900. 


Autauga 17,915 

Baldwin 13,194 

Barbour 36,152 

Bibb 18,498 

Blount 23,119 

Bullock 31,944 

Butler 25,761 

Calhoun 34,874 

Chambers  ....  32,554 

Cherokee 21,096 

Chilton 16,522 

Choctaw 18,136 

aarke 27,790 

Qay 17,099 

Cleburne 13,206 

Coffee 20,972 

Colbert 22,341 


ALABAMA. 

AREA,    50,722   SQUARE   MILES. 


Conecuh 17,514 

Coosa 16,144 

Covington.  . .  .  15,346 

Crenshaw 19,668 

Cullman 17,849 

Dale 21,189 

Dallas 54,657 

Dekalb 23,558 

Elmore 26,099 

Escambia 11,320 

Etowah 27,361 

Fayette 14,132 

Franklin 16,511 

Geneva 19,096 

Greene 24,182 

Hale 31,011 

Henry 36,147 


Jackson 30,508 

JeflFerson 140,420 

Lamar 16,084 

Lauderdale.  . .  26,559 

Lawrence  ....  20,124 

Lee 31,826 

Limestone.  . .  .  22,387 

Lowndes 35,651 

Macon 23,126 

Madison 43,702 

Marengo 38,315 

Marion 14,494 

Marshall 23,289 

Mobile 62,740 

Monroe 23,666 

Montgomery. .  72,047 

Morgan 28,820 


Perry 

Pickens.  .  . . 

Pike 

Randolph  . . 
Russell .  . . . 

St.  Clair 

Shelby 

Sumter  . . . . 
Talladega  . . 
Tallapoosa  . 
Tuscaloosa  . 
Walker  . . . . 
Washington 
Wilcox  .... 
Winston  . . . 


31,783 
24,402 
29,172 
21,647 
27,083 
19,425 
23,684 
32,710 
35,773 
29,675 
36,147 
25,162 
11,134 
35.631 
9,554 


Total 1,828,697 


Apache 8,297 

Cochise 9,251 

Coconino 5,514 

Gila 4,973 


ARIZONA. 

AREA,    113,916   SQUARE    MILES. 


Graham 14,162 

Maricopa 20,457 

Mohave 3,426 

Navajo 8,829 


Pima 14,689 

Pinal 7,779 

Santa  Cruz  . .  .  4,545 

Yavapai 13,799 


Yuma 4,146 

San  Carlos  In- 
dian Reserv'n.      3,065 


Total 122,931 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


aj™;.: 

Cross 

Alameda.  .  . 

if^:::;:: 

.    1^480 

f^nld!!^^ 


Hot  Spring 

JukHin 
Jeffenmn 

Lslayette 


I    LoesD 20.G63  R 


i  Ouschitk.' .'..'. 

'  fSKi.;;;:;: 


1   Polk J8,362 


16,609  Si 
12,538  U 
20.802  V 

7,294  n 

2fl,sei  w 


A  Sebutiui Se.SSfl 

6  Sevier 16,330 

4  Sharp 12.199 

■"• ,.  8.100 

..  22,4»S 

, .  11.220 


CALIFORNIA. 


Planer 15,786 


Is  Obift-  T 

16.637  T 

teo  ,  . .  12,094  V 

larbiuv  18.934  Y 


ArcEult 


3m^U.'. 


rwta. 5,487 

Dolores 1,134 

~       ■  8.120 


Douglaa 
EagS.  . 


701  Park 

1,580  PhilUlw 

18,064  Pitkin 

7,016  Prowers 3.766 

12,168  Pueblo 34,448 


DELAWARE, 

iEA.    2.120    SQUAHE    MILES. 

Newcastle,  .  , .  109,687 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


141 


IVwdfOi  CchwsoTOM  United  3lMtt 
VMIltam  R .  MBiTtam,  DiTMCor. 


PLATE  No.  14 


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o 


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142 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

AREA,    60    SQUARE    MILES. 

The  District 278,718 


Alachua 32,245 

Baker 4,516 

Bradford 10.295 

Brevard 5,158 

Calhoun 5,132 

Citrus 5,391 

Clay 5,635 

Columbia  ....  17,094 

Dade 4,955 

De  Soto 8,047 

Duval 39,733 

Escambia 28,313 

Total 


AREA, 

Franklin 

Gadsden 

Hamilton  .  .  .  . 
Hernando.  .  .  . 

Hillsboro 

Holmes 

Jackson 

Je£Ferson 

Lafayette  .  . . . 
Lake 

ajGG  • 

Leon 


FLORIDA. 

59,268   SQUARE    MILES. 


4,890 

15,294 

11,881 

3,638 

36,013 

7,762 

23,377 

16,195 

4,987 

7,467 

3,071 

19,887 


Levy  .  . . 
Liberty  . 
Madison 
Manatee 
Marion  . 
Monroe  . 
Nassau  . 
Orange  . 
Osceola  . 
Pasco.  . . 
Polk.... 
Putnam . 


8,603 

2,956 

15,446 

4,663 

24,403 

18,006 

9,654 

11,374 

3,444 

6,054 

12,472 

11,641 


St.  John 9,165 

Santa  Rosa.  . .  10,293 

Sumter 6,187 

Suwanee 14,554 

Taylor 3,999 

Voluaia 10,003 

Wakulla 5,149 

Walton 9,346 

Washingon.  .  .  10,154 


,528,542 


GEORGIA. 

AREA,    58,000   SQUARE    MILES. 


Appling 12,336 

Baker 6,704 

Baldwin 17,768 

Banks 10,545 

Bartow 20,823 

Berrien 19,440 

Bibb 50,473 

Brooljs 18,606 

Bryan 6,122 

Bulloch 21,377 

Burke 30,165 

Butts 12,805 

Calhoun 9,274 

Camden 7,669 

Campbell  ....  9,518 

CarroU 26,576 

Catoosa 5,823 

Charlton 3,592 

Chatham 71,239 

Chattahoochee  5,790 

Chattooga.  . .  .  12,952 

Cherokee 15,243 

Clarke 17,708 

Clay 8,568 

Clayton 9,598 

Clinch 8,732 

Cobb 24,664 

CoflFee 16,169 

Colquitt 13,636 

Columbia  ....  10,653 

Coweta 24,980 

Crawford 10,368 

Dade 4,578 

Dawson 5,442 

Decatur 29,454 


Dekalb  .  . . . 

Dodge 

Doofy 

Dougherty  , 
Douglas .  . .  , 

Early 

Echols 

Effingham.  , 

Elbert  

Emanuel.  .  , 
Fannin  .  .  .  , 
Fayette.  . . , 

Floyd 

Forsyth.  .  .  , 
Franklin  .  .  , 

Fulton 

Gilmer 

Glascock.  .  . 

Glynn  

Gordon  .  .  .  , 

Greene 

Gwinnett  .  , 
Habersham. 

Hall 

Hancock.  .  . 
Haralson.  .  , 

Harris 

Hart 

Heard 

Henry 

Houston  . .  . 

Irwin 

Jackson.  . .  , 

Jasper 

Jenerson.  .  , 


21,112 
13,975 
26,567 
13,679 

8,745 
14,828 

3,209 

8,334 
19,729 
21,279 
11,214 
10,114 
33.113 
11,550 
17.700 
117,363 
10,198 

4,516 
14,317 
14,119 
16,542 
25,585 
13.604 
20,752 
18.277 
11,922 
18,009 
14,492 
11,177 
18,602 
22,641 
13,645 
24,039 
15,033 
18,212 


Johnson  .  . . . 

Jones 

Laurens ...... 

Lee  .- 

Liberty 

Lincoln 

Lowndes.  .  . 
Lumpkin . .  . . 
McDuffie.  .  . . 
Mcintosh.  . . . 

Macon 

Madison  .  .  .  . 

Marion 

Meriwether.  . 

Miller 

Milton 

Mitchell 

Monroe 

Montgomery. 

Morgan 

Murray 

Muscogee.  . . . 

Newton 

Oconee 

Oglethorpe.  . 
Paulding  .  . . . 

Pickens 

Pierce 

Pike 

Polk 

Pulaski 

Putnam 

Quitman.  .  .  . 

Rabun 

Randolph  .  .  . 


11,409 

13,358 

25,908 

10,344 

13,093 

7,156 

20,036 

7,433 

9,804 

6,537 

14,093 

13,224 

10,080 

23.339 

6,319 

6,763 

14,767 

20,682 

16,359 

15.813 

8,623 

29,836 

16,734 

8,602 

17,881 

12,969 

8,641 

8,100 

18,761 

17,856 

18,489 

13,436 

4,701 

6,285 

16,847 


Richmond. . 
Rockdale.  .  . 

Schley 

Screven. .  .  . 
Spalding.  .  . 
Stewart. .  . , 

Sumter 

Talbot 

Taliaferro. . 

Tattnall 

Taylor 

Telfair 

Terrell 

Thomas.  . .  . 
Towns. .... 

Troup 

Twiggs 

Union 

Upson 

Walker 

Walton 

Ware 

Warren.  .  .  . 
Washington. 

Wayne 

Webster. .  . . 

White 

Whitfield.  . . 

Wilcox 

Wilkes 

Wilkinson.  . 
Worth 


63,735 

7,615 

6,499 

19,262 

17,619 

16,866 

26,212 

12,197 

7.912 

20,419 

9.846 

10,083 

19.023 

31,076 

4.748 

24,002 

8,716 

8,481 

13,670 

16,661 

20,942 

13,761 

11,463 

28,227 

9,449 

6,618 

6,912 

14,609 

11.097 

20,866 

11.440 

18,664 


Total 2,216,331 


Ada. 11,559 

Bannock 11,702 

Bear  Lake....  7,051 

Bingham 10,447 

Blaine 4,900 

Boise 4,174 


IDAHO. 

AREA.    86,294   SQUARE    MILES. 


Canyon 7,497 

Cassia 3,951 

Custer 2,049 

Elmore 2,286 

Fremont 12,821 

Idaho 9,121 


Kootenai.  . 

Latah 

Lemhi.  .  .  . 
Lincoln.  .  . 
Nez  Perces. 
Oneida.  .  .  . 


10,216 

13,451 

3,446 

1,784 

13.748 

8,933 


Owyhee 3,804 

Shoshone 11,950 

Washington. . .      6,882 


Total 161,772 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


143 


>-) 

O 

w 
o 

GQ 

H 
52; 

o 

O 

W 
H 

O 


144 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ILLINOIS. 

AREA,    55,405   SQUARE    MILES. 


Adams 

Alexander.  . . 

Bond 

Boone 

Brown 

Bureau 

Calhoun 

Carroll 

Cass 

Champaign.  . 
Christian.  .  . . 

Qark 

Qay 

Clinton 

Coles , 

Cook 

Crawford  .  .  . 
Cumberland. 
Dekalb. .... 

Dewitt 

Douglas 

Dupage 

Edgar 

Edwards.  .  .  . 
Effingham.  .  , 
Fayette 


67,058 

19.384 

16,078 

15.791 

11.557 

41.112 

8.917 

18,963 

17,222 

,    47,622 

.    32,790 

24,033 

19,553 

,     19,824 

.    34,146 

1,838,735 

19,240 

16,124 

31,756 

18,972 

19,097 

28,196 

28.273 

10,345 

20,465 

28,065 


Ford 

Franklin.  .  . 

Fulton 

Gallatin. .  .  . 

Greene 

Grundy.  .  .  . 
Hamilton.  . . 
Hancock.  .  . 

Hardin 

Henderson.  . 

Henry 

Iroquois.  .  . . 
Jackson.  . .  . 

Jasper 

Jefferson.  .  . 

Jersey 

Jo  Daviess.  . 
Johnson.  .  .  . 

Kane 

Kankakee.  . 
Kendall.  .  .  . 

Knox 

Lake 

Lasalle 

Lawrence.  . . 
Lee 


18.359 
19,675 
46,201 
15,836 
23,402 
24,136 
20,197 
32,215 
7,448 
10.836 
40.049 
38.014 
33,871 
20,160 
28.133 
14.612 
24.533 
15.667 
78,792 
37.154 
11.467 
43.612 
34,504 
87,776 
16,523 
29,894 


Livingston.  . . 

Logan 

McDonough. . 
McHenry.  .  . 

McLean 

Macon 

Macoupin. .  . . 

Madison 

Marion 

Marshall 

Mason 

Massac 

Menard 

Mercer 

Monroe 

Montgomery . 

Morgan 

Momtrie 

Ogle 

Peoria 

Perry 

Piatt 

Pike 

Pope 

Pulaski 

Putnam .... 


42,035 
28,680 
28,412 
29,759 
67,843 
44,003 
42,256 
64,694 
30,446 
16,370 
17.491 
13.110 
14.336 
20.945 
13,847 
30,836 
35,006 
15,224 
29,129 
88.608 
19,830 
17,706 
31,595 
13,585 
14,554 
4.746 


Randolph.  .  . 
Richland.  .  .  . 
Rock  Island  . 

St.  Clair 

Saline 

Sangamon.  .  . 
Schuyler.  .  .  . 

Scott 

Shelby 

Stark 

Stephenson.  . 
Tazewell.  .  .  . 

Union 

Vermilion.  .  . 

Wabash 

Warren 

Washington. . 

Wayne 

White 

Whiteside.  .  . 

Will 

Williamson.  . 
Winnebago.  . 
Woodford.  .  . 


28,001 
16.391 
55.249 
86,685 
21,685 
71,593 
16,129 
10,455 
32,126 
10,186 
34,933 
33,221 
22,610 
65.635 
12.583 
23.163 
19.526 
27.626 
25.386 
34,710 
74,764 
27,796 
47,845 
21,822 


Total 4.821.550 


INDIANA. 

AREA,    33,809   SQUARE    MILES. 


Adams 

Allen 

Bartholomew 

Benton 

Blackford.  .  . 

Boone 

Brown 

Carroll 

Cass 

Qark 

Qay 

Clinton 

Crawford .... 

Daviess 

Dearborn.  .  . . 

Decatur 

Dekalb 

Delaware.  .  .  . 

Dubois 

Elkhart 

Fayette 

Floyd 

Fountain .... 


22,232 
77,270 
24,594 
13.123 
17.213 
26,321 
9.727 
19.953 
34.545 
31.835 
34.285 
28.202 
13,476 
29,914 
22.194 
19,518 
25.711 
49.624 
20.357 
45,052 
13,495 
30,118 
21,446 


Franklin.  .  .  . 

Fulton 

Gibson 

Grant 

Greene 

Hamilton.  . . 
Hancock.  .  . 
Harrison.  .  . 
Hendricks.  . 

Henry 

Howard .... 
Huntington. 
Jackson.  .  .  . 

Jasper 

Jay 

Jefferson.  .  . 
Jennings.  .  .  . 
Johnson.  .  .  . 

Knox 

Kosciusko.  . 
Lagrange.  .  . 

Lake 

Laporte.  .  .  . 


16,388 
17,453 
30,099 
54,693 
28.530 
29.914 
19,189 
21,702 
21,292 
25,088 
28,575 
28,901 
26,633 
14,292 
26,818 
22,913 
15,757 
20,223 
32.746 
29,109 
15,284 
37,892 
38,386 


Lawrence 

Madison 

Marion 

Marshall 

Martin 

Miami 

Monroe 

Montgomery.  . 

Morgan 

Newton 

Noble 

Ohio 

Orange 

Owen 

Parke 

Perry 

Pike 

Porter 

Posey 

Pulaski 

Putnam 

Randolph.  .  .  . 
Ripley 


25,729 
70.470 
197,227 
25,119 
14,711 
28,344 
20,873 
29,388 
20,457 
10.448 
23.533 
4,724 
16,854 
15,149 
23,000 
18,778 
20,486 
19,175 
22,333 
14,033 
21,478 
28,653 
19,881 


Rush 

St.  Joseph.  . . . 

Scott 

Shelby 

Spencer 

Starke 

Steuben 

Sullivan 

Switzerland.  .  . 
Tippecanoe.  .  . 

Tipton 

Union 

Vanderburg.  . . 
Vermilion  .  . .  . 

Vigo 

Wabash 

Warren 

Warrick 

Washington. .  . 

Wayne 

Wells 

White 

Whitley 


20.148 
58,881 

8.307 
26,491 
22,407 
10,431 
15,219 
26,005 
11,840 
38.659 
19.116 

6.748 
71.769 
15.252 
62.035 
28,235 
11.371 
22,329 
19,409 
38,970 
23,449 
19.138 
17.328 


Total 2,516,492 


Adair 16,192 

Adams 13,601 

Allamakee.  ...  18,711 

Appanoose. .  .  .  25,927 

Audubon 13,626 

Benton 25,177 

Blackhawk.  .  .  32,399 

Boone 28,200 

Bremer 16,305 

Buchanan.  .  .  .  21,427 

Buena  Vista.    .  16,975 

Butler 17,955 


AREA, 

Calhoun 

Carroll 

Cass 

Cedar 

Cerro  Gordo.    . 

Cherokee 

Chickasaw.  .  .  , 

Clarke 

Clay 

Clayton 

Clinton 

Crawford 


IOWA. 

50,914   SQUARE    MILES. 

18,569 
20,319 
21,274 
19,371 
20,672 
16,570 
17,037 
12,440 
13.401 
27,750 
43,832 
21.685 


Dallas 

Davis 

Decatur.  . . 
Delaware.  . 
Des  Moines. 
Dickinson.  . 
Dubuque.  . 
Emmet. .  .  . 
Fayette.  .  . 

Floyd 

Franklin.  .  . 
Fremont.  .  . 


23,058 
15,620 
18,115 
19,185 
35,989 

7.995 
56,403 

9,936 
29.845 
17.754 
14.996 
18,546 


Greene 17,820 

Grundy 13,757 

Guthrie 18,729 

Hamilton 19,514 

Hancock 13,752 

Hardin 22,794 

Harrison 25,597 

Henry 20,022 

Howard 14,512 

Humboldt 12,667 

Ida 12,327 

Iowa 19.544 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


IOWA— CoiU  nwrf 


- ;?« 

liidbiD/.'. 

;:  ir'.lic 

HabukB. . 
HBrioa.  . . . 
liUnlwIL.. 


Honroe I7.t)B5 


546  0 
10,887 
18  227 

2.23    803 


flDiwy 

ftfi 

RlHlk 

SSI™. 

aSk"""*"' 

« 

&^^- 

nSSSS^ 

Sli^'" 

30, 1M 

JSSt;;:;:; 

S^'t,^ 

?.!;s 

OH    W 

Ssar;.;. 

SESU::::: 

a? 

&1rlu» 

" 

ToW.  ,. 

KENTUCKY. 

37,eS0  SQU&BB    HIkEa. 

0061 

Sti'-:::: 

ES^.";;.; 

flIT 

8,902 

•Ai 

s;&-  ■: 

S^Si*" 

SS"'-.:::. 

!?%' 

!=.-;.::: 

1 

C»rWr. 

I2,a65 

T.eclie 

753 

Muhlenb«ig.  .  . 

6% 


146 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


KESTVCKY— Continued. 


Nelson 16,587 

Nicholas 11,952 

Ohio 27,287 

Oldham 7,078 

Owen 17,553 

Owsley 6,874 

Pendleton. .  . .  14,947 

Perry 8,276 

Total 


Pike 

Powell 

Pulaski 

Robertson . . 
Rockcastle. . 

Rowan 

Russell 

Scott 


22,686 
6,443 

31,293 
4,900 

12,416 
8,277 
9,695 

18,076 


Shelby.  ......  18,340 

Simpson 11,624 

Spencer 7,406 

Taylor 11,075 

Todd 17,371 

TrigK 14,073 

Trinable. 7,272 

Union 21,326 


Warren 29,970 

Washington...  14,182 

Wayne 14,892 

Webster. 20j097 

Whitley 25,015 

Wolfe 8,764 

Woodford. .  .  .  13,134 


2,147,174 


LOUISIANA. 

AREA,   41,255  SQUARE   MIIiES. 


Acadia 

Ascension. . . . 
Assumption.  .. 

Avoyelles 

Bienville 

Bossier.  ...... 

Caddo 

Calcasieu 

Caldwell 

Cameron 

Catahoula. .  . . 
Claiborne.  . ..  . 
Concordia.  . .  . 

De  Soto 

East  Baton 
Rouge.  . . 


23,483 
24,142 
21,620 
29,701 
17,588 
24,153 
44,499 
30,428 
6,917 
3,952 
16,351 
23,029 
13,559 
25,063 

31,153 


East  Carroll. .  . 
East  Feliciana. 

Franklin 

Grant 

Iberia 

Iberville 

Jackson 

Jefferson 

Lafayette.  . . . 
Lafourche. .  . . 

Lincoln 

Livingston.  . .  . 

Madison 

Morehouse.  .  . . 
Natchitoches. . 
Orleans.. 


11.373 
20.443 

8,890 
12,902 
29,015 
27,006 

9.119 
15,321 
22,825 
28,882 
15,898 

8.100 

12,322 

16,634 

33,216 

287,104 


Ouachita 20,947 

Plaquemines.  .  13,039 

Pointe  Coupee.  25,777 

Rapides 39.578 

Red  River 11,548 

Richland 11,116 

Sabine 15,421 

St.  Bernard. . .  5,031 

St.  Charles 9,072 

St.  Helena 8,479 

St.  James 20,197 

St.    John    the 

Baptist 12.330 

St.  Landry  . . .  52,906 

St.  Martin.  . .  .  18,940 

St.  Mary.  ....  34,145 


St.  Tammany.  13.335 

Tangipahoa.  .  .  17,625 

Tensas 19,070 

Terrebonne.  .  .  24,464 

Union 18,521 

Vermilion. .  .   .  20,705 

Vernon 10,327 

Washington...  9,628 

Webster 15,125 

West  Baton 

Rouge 10.285 

West  Oirroll. .  3,685 

West  Feliciana  15,994 

Winn 9,648 


Total 1,381.625 


Androscoggin  .  54,242 
Aroostook.  . . .  60,744 
Cumberland.  .  .100.689 
Franklin 18,444 


AREA, 


MAINE. 

31,766  SQUARE   MILES. 


Hancock 37,241 

Kennebec. .  .  .  59,117 

Knox 30,406 

Lincoln 19,669 


Oxford 

Penobscot.  . 
Piscataquis. 
Sagadahoc. . 


32,238 
76,246 
16,949 
20,330 


Total 


Somerset 33,849 

Waldo 24,185 

Washington. . .  45,232 

York 64,885 

694,466 


Allegany 53,694 

Anne  Arundel .  40,018 
Baltimore.  .  .  .  90,755 
Baltimore  City  508,957 

Calvert 10,223 

Caroline.  .....    16,248 

Total 


ItfARYLAND. 

AREA,    11,124  SQUARE  MILES. 


Carroll 33,860 

CecU 24,662 

Charles ;..  18,316 

Dorchester. . . .  27,962 

Frederick 51,920 

Garrett 17,701 


Harford 

Howard 

Kent 

Montgomery. . 
Prince  George . 
Queen  Anne  . . 


28,269 
16,715 
18,786 
30,451 
29,898 
18,364 


St.  Mary 18,136 

Somerset 25,923 

Talbot 20,342 

Washington. . .  45, 1 33 

Wicomico.  . ,  .  22,852 

Worcester. .  . .  20,865 

1,190,050 


Barnstable. . 
Berkshire  . . 

Bristol 

Dukes 


27,826 

95,667 

252,029 

4,561 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

AREA,  7,800   SQUARE   MILES. 


Essex 357.030 

Franklin 41,209 

Hampden ....  175,603 
Hampshire  . . .    58,820 


Middlesex. . .  .  565,696 

Nantucket 3,006 

Norfolk 151,539 

Plymouth. .  . .  113,985 


Suffolk 

Worcester. 


611,417 
346,958 


Total 2,806,346 


Alcona 5,691 

Alger 5,868 

Allegan 38,812 

Alpena 18,254 

Antrim 16,568 

Arenac 9,821 

Baraga 4,320 

Barry 22,514 


AREA, 

Bay 

Benzie,  t 

Berrien 

Branch 

Calhoun 

Cass.  .  . 

Charlevoix. . .  . 
Cheboygan. . . 


MICHIGAN. 

56,243   SQUARE    MILES. 


62,378 
9,685 
49,165 
27,811 
49,315 
20,876 
13,956 
16,516 


Chippewa. 

Clare 

Clinton.  . . 
Crawford . 
Delta.  .  .  . 
Dickinson. 
Eaton.  . .  . 
Emmet. . . 


21,338 
8,360 
25,136 
2,943 
23,881 
17,890 
31,668 
15,931 


Genesee 41,804 

Gladwin 6,564 

Gogebic 16,738 

Grand  Traverse  20,479 

Gratiot 29,889 

Hillsdale 29,866 

Houghton.  .  . .  66,063 

Huron 34,162 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


147 


55 
O 


0 

Oh 

o 

PL4 


QQ 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MICH  IGAN— Continue 


Ingh.m... 

1^:::: 

'.'.    34'32£ 

-  'K 

..    22,781 

OakliaSi. . . 


St.  Joseph.  . . 

SaniUc 

SchoolflTBft.  . 


Total 2,120,982 


Benton 9,912 

Bigstone. ....  8.731 

Blue  Earth  . . .  32,263 

Brown 18,787 

CflTllon. 10,01T 

Carver 17,544 


tS^.'.: 


Dodge..,. 
Faribault!  1 


12.4( 


13,248 


Meeker 

Millelaca 


.  44,464 
ie.524 
8,721 


*HEA 

47,1M 

SQUARE   UlLEB 

^amba.  .  , 

iin.^ii.'^ 

X^;.-:;: 

g^- 

■  ^^ 

[;S!rn'S..'. 

W£ 

IS::::::. 

'^-^i 

iz'.a  9 

:Sr.-.-.: 

.      6,791 

cott 

.5SI.270 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MISSOURI. 

Ad«r. 

Ei,7a 

allUL 

S;.f„i..: 

Sffi,:::-.:: 

i^^^ 

BSffi-.v;: 

8.soa 

gjj^ 

g.sis 

..  w 

JS 

safe- 

SHJT' 

Jaoknn.  .... 

,« 

14.008 
12  145 

■■« 

Ch^i>ii""" 

•!■!!? 

»r,%- 

' 

MONTANA. 

143,776  BQDARE   UILE» 

Deerlodce. . . 

7.B96 

Teton 

Lewia  andCUrliBlB.lTl 

3,086 

NEBRABKA. 

ASIA. 

75,B9S  wriABB  hiles 

Adams 

Dmel 

Johnson 

RsdwiUov.. 

ss5- 

^g- ■ 

T/Lk 

2  708 

^'■-02 

?5S&:::: 

:  11 

filB 

10,542 

TotoL.. 

■m 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


NEVADA. 
,  123.090  squABE  u 
. .      l.OMILyoo.... 

. .      4,403  Nye 

. .      1,534  OnuBby.  . 
. .      3,2S4|  Storey. .  . 


2,36S  Washoe 

1,140   White  Pine.  . 
2,803 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


,     19,526|C00« 29,468!  Merrimi 

.    16,865  GreftoD 40.844.  Rocking 

.    31.321  HiUBboro 112,640  Straftor 


AtUntic 4e,4C 


BuT^n^toD  . 


•erUnd  . .    51,193 


NEW  JERSEY. 

ABBA,   3.320   HQCAItll   111 

Essex 359,0631  Monmout 


[»,747  Warren  .  . 


Hiddlasex. .  . .    79.7621  Soioenet.  . , 


.    28,6301  Graat  .  . 
.    lollEO  UacolD. 


NEW  MEXICO. 


6,429  SuJuui 4.S23  Taos 

4.963  8SD  MiEuel  .. .  22,063  Union 

.    10,304  SaataFe..  ...  14.658  Valenoia  . . 

4.7B1  Sierra 3,168 


CattsrsugUB  . 

Cayuga 

ChsuUuqua  . 


NEW  YORK. 
msiA,  47,800  bquabe  mum 


TiogB, , 27,951 


YaM 20,318 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Ei.    60,704   WJnARB   MILE 

Burke  . . . 

Clay 

.      4,532 

.    44,288 

aSi-b.::; 

SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


151 


€^tner*i§a 


Rio  drande 


Ofin  ceo 


t^iasiaaippi 


\a9,ooo 


^tttarm 


fSS0    -^^jrp-^^ 


OR.  A  me  A 


f*»l*«t^m 


700 


Colorit'do 


/jnitfouri-JhureetA 
•4el*en'  [Vtuaiatifmi^maHih] 


miif 


MHfH9 


Colunvhii* 


\ooo 


.  ,  ,  eT/.  Lawfenee 


LuPlatta. 

nt0AtlA     tt»f0AV 


y**^oip  ATHABASKA.        ftAocenzie    J^fockcHZie 

\x^tom^t,J  ^^0m.iLA„at,      1 


L  ett9  TH 
Jf60  M. 


Euf^p^ 


'^Mmtrm  D.     _  Am.A»tA 

^OSH^t^'  X^O     ■  Z9.009  Jm^i 

^^^'''^nieaiar  m3f.  009 
fas  tt 
■^s**"  Ahamew^  sr.oeo 


Vt-fM. 


l*» 


>"^2"  ^BM*i,eea 


tmttm    _vy-.    'Viatula 
r99m.    r9*^^  W^7i.oao 


\lm*r0  9raM. 


UrtU 

VmOify.aaa 

Fetehera 


»*'••••.•« 


•«««r»  ////  « 


4«««r«    /«»X  M 


Don 

'**,oeo 


Dmepev 

ZOO.C0O 

vkmmmmh 


aJ*.Afi£A    f7^,000 


t-tmcrm 

19  TO   Mttf 


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09f9ifaiH00 

J^a4'ffU'tf 

o/t.AatA  J//,  aaa 

CD 


I  ^lfA0Ar^  fftt/TM  J  ^^SlS* 
\  JLtTO      f„.m*J  ^ 


Indus 


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mHAmrtA^mrmtk 


Granges 


\Q0 


ktifrm   tttr  n. 


ncanff  i/e 


cmtfTM  US  to  M. 


^ianghtse-Xianff 


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ttenvt.  tit 


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Le*frttZ.r*e/*.        OK.AftCA 


2/€ 


•  • 


LKfTM    fZ*CHnas 


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Oranae 

stftOoo  sa.t*. 


A£M0rtf 
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'».mM0TM  JZJa  /*, 


am.  A0CA   .       A 


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T^'*»  . —  OA.A0€A  3/S.aaO  ^    — '"'    rin»04t4ttA 


m 

t.g00rm  frra  /*. 
'P'olffiM' 


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incrotUA      0i.vt  mttt  Le»*9TM   J7JO  fttlMt 


JV0OA 


oil 

DRAHtABt  AA£A        tTAtaAl 


\0»t—M»vTH   troett.J 


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Congo 

ORAIHAOe  A  At  A 

w 

1, 

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t.eM6Tt*  i.rtf  i^n-ts 


RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


NORTH  CAROLINA— Cmfinued, 

?;^t":'.' 

Sxr.  ■.:::: 

ayr-.::: 

I    104!  Pender  . 

north  DAKOTA. 

E/L.  7Z.D00  BQUAne  utLES 

Oliver 

^^r-- 

Sis- 

3  7T0 

319  146 

OHIO. 

29,24e 

fo^o" 

w!ffiamiW 

1ST.S45 

OKLAHOMA. 

SEA.    2.060   WDAEE  MILES. 

Woods 

34.975 

I    3S8  Kay.  .  . . 

Payne 

S89,245 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


158 


Baker 

Benton. . . . 
Clackamas. 
Clatsop. . . . 
Columbia. . 

Coos 

Crook 

Curry 

Douglas.  . . 
Total 


16,5ft7 
6,706 

19.658 

12,765 
6,237 

10,324 
3,964 
1.868 

14,565 


AREA, 

Gilliam 

Grant 

Harney 

Jackson , 

Josephine 

Klamath.  .  . .  . 

Lake 

Lane 

Lincoln 


OREGON. 
102,606 

3.201 

5.948 

2.598 
13.698 

7.517 

3,970 

2.847 
19.604 

3,575 


SQUARE   MILES. 

Linn 

Malheur 

Marion 

Morrow 

Multomah.  . . . 

Polk 

Sherman 

Tillamook.  .  . . 
Umatilla 


18,603 
4.203 

27,713 
4,151 
103.167 
9.923 
3,477 
4,471 

18,049 


Union 16,070 

Wallowa 5,538 

Wasco 13,199 

Washington. .  .  14,467 

Wheeler 2,443 

Yamhill 13.420 


.413,536 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

AREA,    46,000   SQUARE   MILES. 


Adams 34,496 

Allegheny 775,058 

Armstrong. . . .    52.551 

Beaver 56,432 

Bedford 39.468 

Berks 159,615 

Blair 85.099 

Bradford 59.403 

Bucks 71.190 

Butler 56,962 

Cambria 104,837 

Cameron 7,048 

Carbon 44,510 

Center 42,894 

Chester 95,695 

Clarion 34,283 

Qearfield 80,614 

Total 


Clinton 

Columbia. . . 
Crawford. . . 
Cumberland 
Dauphin. . .  , 
Delaware.  .  . 

Elk 

Erie. ...... 

Fayette. .  . . 

Forest. .  .  .•  . 

Franklin.  .  . 

Fulton 

Greene 

Huntingdon 
Indiana. .  .  . 
Jefferson..  . . 
Juniata. .  . . 


29,197 
39,896 
63.343 
50.344 

114,443 
94,762 
32,903 
98,473 

110,412 
11,039 
54.902 
9,924 
28.281 
34.650 
42,556 
59.113 
16,054 


Lackawanna. . 

193,831 

Lancaster. . . . 

159  241 

Lawrence 

57,042 

Lebanon 

53,827 

Lehigh 

93,893 

Lucerne 

257,121 

Lycoming.  .  .  . 

75,663 

McKean 

51,343 

Mercer 

67,387 

Mifflin 

23.160 

Monroe 

21,161 

Montgomery.  . 

138.995 

Montour 

15,526 

Northampton. 
Northumber- 

99,687 

land 

90.911 

Perry 

26,263 

Philadelphia.  1,293,697 

Pike 8,766 

Potter 30,621 

Schuylkill. . .  .  172,927 

Snyder 17,304 

Somerset 49,461 

Sullivan 12,134 

Susquehanna. .    40,043 

Tioga 49,086 

Union 17,592 

Venango 49,648 

Warren 38,946 

Washington...    92,181 

Wayne 30,171 

Westmoreland.  160.175 

Wyoming 17.152 

York 116.413 

6,302,115 


Bristol 13,144 

Kent 29,976 

Total 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

AREA,    1.306  SQUARE   MILES. 

Newport 32,5991  Providence  .  .  .  328,683 


Washington. . 


.    24,154 
.428,556 


AbbeviUe 33,400 

Aiken 39,032 

Anderson 55,728 

Bamberg 17,296 

Barnwell 35,504 

Beaufort 35,495 

Berkeley 30,454 

Charleston 88,006 

Cherokee 21,359 

Chester 28,616 

Total , 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


AREA, 

Chesterfield.  . . 
Clarendon.  .  .  . 

CoUeton 

Darlington. . . . 
Dorchester. . .  . 

Edgefield 

Fairfield 

Florence 

Georgetown. . . 
Greenville. .  . . 


29,385   SQUARE   MILES. 


20,401 
28,184 
33.452 
32,388 
16,294 
25,478 
29,425 
28,474 
22,846 
53.490 


Greenwood. 
Hampton. . . 

Horrv 

Kershaw. . . 
Lancaster  .  . 
Laurens .  . .  . 
Lexington.  . 

Marion 

Marlboro.  . . 
Newberry. . 


28,343 
23,738 
23,364 
24,696 
24,311 
37^382 
27,264 
35,181 
27,639 
30,182 


Oconee 

Orangeburg.  . 

Pickens 

Richland.  . . . 

Saluda 

Spartanburg. 

Sumter 

Union 

Williamsburg 
York 


23,634 
59,663 
19,375 
45,589 
18,966 
65,560 
51,237 
25,501 
31,685 
41,684 
,340,316 


SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

AREA,    78,932   SQUARE   MILES. 


Aurora 4,011 

Beadle. 8,081 

Bonhomme.  .  .  10,379 

Brookings.  .  .  .  12,561 

Brown 15.286 

Brule 5.401 

Buffalo 1,790 

Butte 2,907 

CampbeU 4,527 

Charles  Mix.  .  .  8,498 

Clark 6,942 

Clay 9,316 

Coddington..  .  8,770 

Custer 2,728 

Total 


Davison. ... 

Day 

Deuel 

Douglas.  . .  . 
£klmunds.  . . 
Fall  River.  . 

Faulk 

Grant 

Gregory .... 
Hamlin.  .  .  . 

Hand 

Hanson.  . .  . 
Hughes. . .  . 
Hutchinson. 


7,483 
12,254 
6,656 
5,012 
4,916 
3,541 
3,547 
9,103 
2,211 
5,945 
4.525 
4.947 
3,684 
11,897 


Hyde 

Jerauld. . . . 
Kingsbury. 

Lake 

Lawrence.  . 
Lincoln.  .  .  . 
Lyman.  .  . . 
McCook.  . . 
McPherson 
Marshall. . . 
Meade.  .  .  . 

Miner 

Minnehaha 
Moody.  .  . . 


1,492 

2.798 

9,866 

9,137 

17,897 

12,161 

2,632 

8,689 

6,327 

5,942 

4.907 

5.864 

23,926 

8.326 


Pennington . . . 

Potter 

Roberts 

Sanborn 

Spink 

Stanley 

Sully 

Turner 

Union 

Walworth.  .  .  . 

Yankton 

Indian    Reser- 
vation  


5.610 
2,988 

12.216 
4,644 
9,487 
1,349 
1.715 

13,175 

11,153 
3,839 

12,649 

16.043 
,401,570 


asy 


DekBlb 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TENNESSEE. 


«  Overton  . 
7  Perry.  . .  . 

a  Patnam. . 


^  SS 

.  IJS3.ES7 

SiiUivM  .  . . 

.    27,078 

B«1[«F^ 


CbIUIuui 
CuiwroQ 


Ch  dm 


fi  Coll  nKsworlb 
17  Colorwla 
)1  Comal 

e  Conoho 
15  Cook* 

3  Corydl 

4  Ctmm. 

5  Crookett 
8  Crosby 


IcI^son 
4  Gregg 


&»■ 


9  pSi^r 


&w::;:; 

i'r 

'■S 

\^r^:.: 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


{{frirti      am  erica 


"ma 

® 

£,ttr,. 

^.<9f 

'0SLT 

t.ie^ece 

Cut.   ^ 

n„^  0  iBr,/. 

''%^"' 

*'7'%  ^co' 

9 

''%""' 

■S«;' 

^r 

jf./™j»- 

•:C»£f' 

J'lr'^fi- 

e^iCl,. 

Or^mS'^"'^'-^ 

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li^Ji" 

''Tr^iBs"'- 

Hu^iir^fia 

'ST 

Oceam'u 

POPULATION   OF  THE  1 


SCIBNTIPIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TEXAS— Con(.-n««i. 

4ewtoD. .  . . 

Roberts.  . . 

Sterling. .  . . 

Wilier. . . . 

!ffi'S„,» 

.      1.64] 

.      6,46f 

.    13,678 

Total.  . 

UTAH. 

iL,  84,476  squABE  Mibes 

■  ,s« 

SK--- 

VERMONT. 

ARC 

A,    10,212  WJDAIIE    HILBR 

AddiWD.  . . . 

.     26,660 

riiitlenden  . 

.    38,800  LftmoiUB,  .  . 

Tol.1  .. 

..343.641 

AtSS-T.'.'. 


Buekinsbiun. . 

CumpbeU 

dirdlne. 

Cundl 

Chacin  Ctty  . . 

CbaiJotte 

Cheatorfidd. . . 

CUikg. 

Craig. 


PriDoe.WlUiuD    II. 


RappahaoDocI 
BiobiDoad. . . 

RoElibridge,  . 

RiuwS. .  ™ ; 


Smyth 

Spotteylvania. 
Btafford 

sSSi;. :;::.: 

TsMwdl. .... 

WarwLii'. '.'.'.'.  15,624 

Washington...  33.G74 

WesUnoreland  9,243 

Wise 19,6113 

Wythe. 20,437 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


Chehalis. 1S.124 


WASHINGTON. 


FrinklLn  . . 
GsrHeld.  . . 
leland 


Cowliti  . . . . 
Tot»l  . 


Boone.. ■.'.:! 

C>b«U  .'.'.'.'.'. 
Calhoun .... 

Doddridce.  . 
Grant  '.:'.','.'. 


WEST  VIRGINIA. 

..   23.000   BQCAHE   U  U 

e,e03  M  twral 
.      8.«-  ■' 
.    17,69 
.    22.98 
,    10,93-  - 

.  S4.e9e  n 


S  Lincoln 

7  McDowi 

S  HanhaJI  .....    2^444 
"  ■■ 24,142 


18,747 


Putnam 
Randolph 


9  Hoane 
»  Taylor 


Oaik 

ColDmbia .  . 
Oawford... 

Dodce  '.'..'.'.'. 


.  33.0J7 
.  26.8-18 
.    Bl.iai 


Outawmie  ...    4 

Ouulee I 

Pepin 7,905 


13,0S4|CTaok 3.137]  Nat 


HOW  TbE  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARE  SHELTERED. 


In  the  CenBus  year  1900  there  were 
14,130il45  dwetlinga,  accommodating 
16,187,715  families.  Of  tbia  number 
611,435  dwellings  accommodated  one 


person  eaoh,  10,158,932 

to    sii    persons,    2,999,( 

dated  seven  to  ten  persons  each,  and 

660,091  eleven  persons  and  o 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ABBA   AND  POPULATION  OF  STATE:    1900. 


K«nk 

RRnk 

Torritocy 

TeniWiy 

3r 

tlDiudStaMD.. 

3„W7,5U3 

78,303,387 

MJDhiKiui 

57,43r 

!! 

2.420,982 

75.994.575 

sssv 

68,735 

S 

343,329 

(JAtluiticdiv 

162.103 

4,001,349 

New  York.  .■.■.*.' 

4)) 

156,172 

1.485,053 

38,S30 

276.749 

56,000 

9:iis 

K«™i:::::::: 

2.0M;042 

Louisiana 

S« 

!S 

t^iulm 

"toi^-.-::: 

r^&^'. 

K 

7 

2:so^:!t4a 

Militarv    u>d 

01.219 

POPULATION   LIVING   IN   CITIES   WITHIN   SPECIFIED    LIMITS   OF 
SIZE   AND   IN   COUNTRY   DISTRICTS:    1900. 


«,.,.»™,. 

Diviaions. 

T„„. 

I..L,i,ot- 

r.PnuHr,- 

iS,K 

f«° 

8.000  to 
26,000. 

»•" 

2.600  lo 

districts. 

tlnital  StaUs.  . 

78.212.168 

14.208.347 

6.549.271 

5,286.375 

3,380,183 

2,214,1^6 

45.573.345 

Continental 

75,994.575 

14.208,347 

5.506.965 

5.273,887 

3.380.193 

2,211,019  45,411,164 

N.  Cenlrsl  div. 

21.046.695 
10.443.480 

nsx 

4.091,349 

*Wi 

■■ii 

454,069 

2,226.013 
475,098 

1,957,622 
371.306 
243,848 

1,289.027 

*339;324 
192.241 

20l'598 

isfl 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


159 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  HAVING  AT  LEAST  25,000  INHABITANTS 

IN  1900. 


Cities. 


Akron,  Ohio 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Allegheny,  Pa. 

AUentown,  Pa 

Altoona,  Pa 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

Augusta,  Ga 

Baltimore,  Md 

Bay  City,  Mich 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

Binghamton,  N.  Y 

Birmingham,  Ala 

Boston,  Mass 

Bridgeport,  Conn 

Brockton,  Mass 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Butte,  Mont 

Cambridge;  Mass. 

Camden,  N .  J 

Canton,  Ohio 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 

Chelsea,  Mass 

Chester,  Pa 

Chicago,  111 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 

Covington,  Ky 

Dallas,  Tex 

Davenport,  Iowa 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Denver,  Colo *. . . . 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Detroit,  Mich 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

Easton,  Pa 

East  St.  Louis,  111 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 

Elmira,N.  Y 

Erie,  Pa 

Evansville,  Ind 

Fall  River,  Mass 

Fitchburg,  Mass 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 

Galveston,  Tex 

Gloucester,  Mass 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

Hartford,  Conn 

Haverhill,  Mass 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

Holyoke,  Mass 

Honolulu,  Hawaii 


Bank 
in 

popu- 
la- 

Popula- 
tion. 

tion. 

87 

42,728 

40 

94,151 

27 

129,896 

114 

35,416 

97 

38,973 

43 

89.872 

149 

27,838 

135 

30,345 

94 

39.441 

6 

608,957 

151 

27,628 

125 

32,722 

93 

39,647 

100 

38,415 

5 

560.892 

64 

70,996 

92 

40,063 

8 

352,387 

133 

30,470 

41 

91,886 

52 

76,935 

132 

30,667 

159 

25,656 

68 

55,807 

136 

30,154 

118 

34,072 

119 

33,988 

2 

1,698,575 

10 

325,902 

7 

381,768 

28 

125,560 

158 

25,802 

86 

42,938 

88 

42,638 

115 

35,254 

45 

85,333 

25 

133,869 

59 

62,139 

13 

285,704 

108 

36,297 

72 

62,969 

160 

25,238 

137 

29,655 

74 

52,130 

113 

35,672 

73 

62,733 

64 

69,007 

33 

104,863 

128 

31,531 

83 

45,115 

152 

26.688 

103 

37,789 

154 

26,121 

44 

87,565 

77 

50,167 

49 

79,850 

105 

37,175 

63 

69,364 

82 

45,712 

95 

39,306 

Cities. 


Houston,  Tex 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Jackson,  Miss 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 

Johnstown,  Pa 

Joliet,  111 

Joplin,  Mo 

Kansas  City,  Kans. 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

LaCrosse,  Wis 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Lawrence,  Mass 

Lexington,  Ky 

Lincoln,  Nebr.  . .' 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Los  Anseles,  Cal 

Louisvflle,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Lynn,  Mass 

McKeesport,  Pa 

Maiden,  Mass 

Manchester.  N.  H 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Milwaukee,  Wis , 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

Mobile,  Ala 

Montgomerv,  Ala 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Newark,  N.  J 

New  Bedford,  Mass * 

New  Britain,  Conn 

Newcastle,  Pa 

New  Haven,  Conn 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  Ky 

Newton,  Mass ". . . 

New  York,  N.  Y.* 

Norfolk,  Va 

Oakland,  Cal 

Omaha,  Nebr 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Passaic,  N.  J 

Paterson,  N.  J 

Pawtucket,  R.  I 

Peoria,  111 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

Portland,  Me 

Portland,  Oreg 

Providence,  R.  I 

Pueblo,  Col 

Quincy,  111 

Racine,  Wis 

Reading,  Pa 

Richmond,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Rockford,  111 

Sacramento,  Cal 


Rank 

in 
Popu- 
la- 
tion. 


85 

21 

161 

143 

17 

112 

138 

155 

76 

22 

126 

141 

90 

57 

153 

91 

101 

36 

18 

39 

56 

116 

121 

65 

37 

14 

19 

99 

134 

47 

16 

68 

157 

144 

31 

12 

146 

123 

1 

80 

66 

35 

146 

150 

32 

96 

67 

3 

11 

78 

42 

20 

148 

109 

140 

50 

46 

24 

130 

139 


Popula- 
tion. 


44,633 

169,164 
25,180 
28,429 

206,433 
35,936 
29,353 
26,023 
61,418 

163,752 
32,637 
28,896 
41,459 
62,559 
26,369 
40,169 
38,307 

102,479 

204.731 
94,969 
68,513 
34,227 
33,664 
66,987 

102,320 

285,315 

202,718 
38.469 
30,346 
80.865 

246.070 
62,442 
26,998 
28,339 

108,027 

287,104 
28,301 
33.587 
3,437,202 
46,624 
66,960 

102,565 
28.284 
27,777 

105,171 

39,231 

66,100 

1,293,697 

321,616 
50,146 
90.426 

175,597 
28.157 
36.252 
29,102 
78.961 
85,050 

162.608 
31.051 
29,282 


*  The  estimated  population  of  the  area  now  embraced  in  New  York  city  was  2,507,414  in 
1890  and  1,911,698  in  1880.  Increase  1890  to  1900,  929,788;  1880  to  1890,  595,716,  Per 
eent.  of  increase  1890  to  X900,  37.1;  1880  to  1890,  31.2. 


lao 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES   HAVING    AT    LEAST   25.000   INHABITANTS   IN    1900— 

Continued. 


Cities. 


Saginaw,  Mich 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Salem,  Mass 

Salt  Lake  City.  Utah 
San  Antonio,  Tex. . 
San  Francisco,  Cal. . 

Savannah,  Ga 

Schenectady,  N.  Y. . 

Scranton,  Pa 

Seattle,  Wash 

Sioux  City,  Iowa.  .  . 
Somerville,  Mass. .  . . 
South  Bend.  Ind. .  .  . 
South  Omaha,  Nebr. 

Spokane,  Wash , 

Springfield,  111 

Springfield,  Mass. .  . , 
Sprin^eld,  Ohio. . .  . 
Superior,  Wis 


Rank 

m 
Popu- 
la- 

Popula- 
tion. 

tion. 

89 

42,346 

34 

102,979 

4 

675,238 

23 

163,065 

111 

35,966 

70 

63,631 

71 

53,321 

9 

342,782 

69 

54,244 

127 

31,682 

,38 

102,026 

48 

80,671 

124 

33,111 

61 

61,643 

110 

35,999 

156 

26,001 

106 

36,848 

117 

34,159 

60 

62,059 

102 

38,253 

129 

31,091 

Cities. 


Syracuse,  N.  Y. .  .  . 
Tacoma,  Wash .  . .  . 
Taunton,  Mass. . . . 
Terre  Haute,  Ind . . 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Topeka,  Kans 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Utica^N.Y 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Waterbury,  Conn. . 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.  . 
Wilkesbarre,  Pa. . . 
Williamsport^a.  . 
Wilmington,  Del. . 
Woonsocket,  R.  1. 
Worcester,  Mass.  . 
Yonkers,  N.  Y. . .  . 

York,  Pa 

Youngstown,  Ohio. 


tank 
in 

Popula- 

la- 
tion. 

tion. 

30 

108,374 

104 

37,714 

131 

31,036 

107 

36,673 

26 

131,822 

122 

33,608 

63 

73,307 

62 

60,651 

66 

56,383 

15 

278,718 

81 

46,859 

98 

38,878 

75 

61,721 

142 

28,757 

51 

76,508 

147 

28,204 

29 

118,421 

79 

47,931 

120 

33,708 

84 

44,885 

DEATH  RATES  FROM  CERTAIN  CAUSES,  FOR  THE  REGISTRATION 

AREA,  1900. 


r««««-  Death  rate 

^*"^-  per  100.000. 

Pneumonia 191 . 9 

Consumption* 190 . 5 

Heart  Diseaset 134.0 

Diarrheal  diseases} 85. 1 

Diseases  of  the  kidneysH 83 . 7 

Apoplexy 66. 6 

Cancer 60 . 0 

Oldage 54.0 

Bronchitis 48.3 

Cholera  infantum 47 . 8 

Debility  and  atrophy 45. 5 

Inflammation  of  the  brain  and  menin- 
gitis   41.8 

Diphtheria 35. 4 

Typhoid  fever 33 . 8 

Premature  birth 33 . 7 

Convulsions 33 . 1 

Paralysis^.  . . . " 32 . 8 

Inanition 27 . 3 

Influenza 23 . 9 

Diseases  of  the  livert 22 . 7 


P  Death  rate 

^*"^-  per  100,000. 

Diseases  of  the  stomach** 20.0 

Diseases  of  the  brain 18.6 

Peritonitis 17. 5 

Unknown  causes 16.8 

Measles 13.2 

Railroad  accidents 13 . 2 

Whooping  cough 12.7 

Suicide 11.8 

SciEurlet  fever 11.5 

Hydrocephalus 11 .0 

Drowning 11.0 

Septicemia 10 . 0 

Appendicitis 9.9 

Croup 9.8 

Diabetea 9.4 

Burns  and  scalds 8.8 

Malarial  fever 8.8 

Cerebro-spinal  fever 7.1 

Dropsy 6.9 

Rheumatism 6.8 

Gunshot  wounds 3.8 


*  Including  general  tuberculosis, 
t  Including  pericarditis. 

t  Including  cholera  morbus,  colitis,  diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis> 
!l  Including  Bright's  disease. 
%  Including  general  paralysis  of  the  insane. 
^  Including  jaundice,  and  inflammation  and  abscess  of  the  liver. 
**  Including  gastritis. 


-f 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


161 


FOREIGN  BORN  POPULATION  CLASSIFIED  BY  PRINCIPAL  COUN- 
TRIES OF  BIRTH:  1900. 


Country  of  Birth. 

Austria 275,907 

Bohemia 156,891 

Canada  (English) 784,741 

Canada  (French) 395,066 

China 81,634 

Denmark 153.805 

England 840,513 

France 104,197 

Germany 2,663,418 

Holland 104,931 

Hungary 145,714 

Ireland 1,615,459 


Ck)untry  of  Birth. 

Italy 484,027 

Mexico 103,393 

Norway 336,388 

Poland. 383,407 

Russia 423,726 

Scotland 233,524 

Sweden 572,014 

Switserland 115,593 

Wales 93.586 

Other  countries 273,442 

Total 10,341,276 


POPULATION  AT  LEAST  10  YEARS  OF  AGE  ENGAGED  IN  GAINFUL 
OCCUPATIONS,  CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED 

OCCUPATIONS:  1900. 


Occupation.    • 


All  occupations. 


Agricultural  pursuits 


Agricultural  laborers 

Dairymen  and  dairy  women 

Farmers,  planters,  and  overseers  . .  . 
Gardeners,  florists,  nurserymen,  etc. 

Lumbermen  and  raftsmen 

Stock  raisers,  herders,  and  drovers .  . 
Turpentine  farmers  and  laborers  . .  . 

Wood  choppers 

Other  agricultural  pursuits 


Professional  service 


Actors,  professional  showmen,  etc 

Architects,  designers,  draftsmen,  etc . . . 

Artists  and  teachers  of  art 

Oer^men 

Dentists 

Electricians 

Engineers  (civil,  etc.)  and  surveyors  .  . . 

Journalists 

Lawyers 

Litenury  and  scientific  persons 

Musicians  and  teachers  of  music 

Officials  (government)* 

Physicians  and  surgeons 

Teachers  and  profc»8ors  in  colleges,  etc. 
Other  professional  service 


Domestic  and  personal  service 


Barbws  and  hairdressers 

Bartenders 

Boarding  and  lodging  house  keepers 

Hotel  keepers 

Housekeepers  and  stewards 

Janitors  and  sextons  .  . 

Laborers  (not  specified) 

Launderers  and  laundresses 

Nurses  and  midwivets 

Restaurant  keei>ers 

Saloon  keepers 

Servants  and  waiters 

Soldiers,  sailors^  and  marines  (United  States)  . 

Watchmen,  policemen,  firemen,  etc 

Other  domestic  and  personal  service 


Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

29,074,117 

23,764,206 

5,319.912 

10,381,765 

9,404,429 

977,336 

4,410,877 

3,747,668 

663,209 

10,876 

9,983 

892 

5,674,875 

5.347,169 

307,706 

61,788 

68,928 

2,860 

72,020 

71,920 

100 

84,988 

83,056 

1,932 

24,737 

24,456 

281 

36,075 

36,962 

113 

5.530 

5,287 

243 

1,258,739 

828,163 

430,576 

34,760 

27,903 

6.857 

29,524 

28,483 

1,041 

24,873 

13,852 

11,021 

111.638 

108,265 

3,373 

29,644 

28,858 

786 

60,717 

60,308 

409 

43.239 

43,165 

84 

30,038 

27,846 

2,193 

114,460 

113,450 

1,010 

19,066 

13.082 

5.984 

92,174 

39,816 

62,359 

86,607 

78,488 

8,119 

132,002 

124,616 

7.387 

446,133 

118,619 

327,614 

13,864 

11,525 

2,339 

5,680,667 

3,486,208 

2,096,449 

131,116 

125.542 

6.574 

88,817 

88,377 

440 

71,281 

11,826 

69,455 

64,797 

46,264 

8,533 

156,163 

8,224 

146.929 

66,677 

48,644 

8,033 

2,629,262 

2,605,287 

123,976 

386,966 

50.683 

335,282 

120,956 

12.265 

108,691 

33,844 

28,999 

4,846 

83,746 

81,660 

2,086 

1,560.721 

276,968 

1.283.763 

43,236 

43,236 

130,690 

129.711 

879 

34,697 

27,633 

6,964 

*  Includes  officers  of  United  States  Army  and  Navy. 


162 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION   AT   LEAST   10   YEARS  OF  AGE  ENGAGED  IN  GAINFUL  OCCUPA- 
TIONS, CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS:  IQOO—CorUinued. 


Occupation. 


Trade  and  transportation 


Agents 

Bankers  and  brokers 

Boatmen  and  sailors 

Bookkeepers  and  accountants 

Clerks  and  copyists 

Commercial  travelers 

Draymen,  hackmen,  teamsters,  etc 

Foremen  and  overseers 

Hostlers 

Hucksters  and  peddlers 

Livery  stable  keepers 

Merchants  ahd  dealers  (except  wholesale) 

Merchants  and  dealers  (wholesale) 

Messengers  and  errand  and  office  boys .... 

Officials  of  banks  and  companies 

Packers  and  shippers 

Porters  and  helpers  (in  stores,  etc.)  ....:. 

Salesmen  and  saleswomen 

Steam  railroad  employees. 

Stenographers  and  typewriters 

Street  railway  employees 

Telegraph  and  telephone  linemen 

Telegraph  and  telephone  operators 

Undertakers 

Other  persons  in  trade  and  transportation 


Total. 


4,766,964 


241,162 

73,277 

78,406 

254,880 

630,127 

92,919 

538,933 

55,450 

64,929 

76,649 

33,656 

790,886 

42,293 

71,622 

74,072 

59,545 

54,191 

611,139 

582,150 

112,364 

68.919 

14,757 

75,015 

16,189 

53,434 


Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits 7,085,992 


Building  trades. 

Carpenters  and  joiners 

Masons  (brick  and  stone) 

Painters,  glaziers,  and  varnishers 

Paper  hangers 

Plasterers  

Plumbers  and  gas  and  steam  fitters 

Roofers  and  slaters 

Mechanics  (not  otherwise  specified) 

Chemicals  and  allied  products. 

Oil  well  and  oil  works  employees 

Other  chemical  workers 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products. 

Brick  and  tile  makers,  etc 

Glass  workers 

Marble  and  stone  cutters 

Potters 

Fishing  and  mining. 

Fishermen  and  oystermen 

Miners  and  quarrymen 

Food  and  kindred  products. 

Bakers 

Butchers 

Butter  and  cheese  makers 

Confectioners 

Millers 

Other  food  preparers 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products. 

Blacksmiths 

Iron  and  steel  workers 

Machinists 

Steam  boiler  makers 

Stove,  furnace,  and  grate  makers 

Tool  and  cutlery  makers 

Wheelwrights 

Wire  workers 


600,252 

160,805 

277,541 

21,990 

35.694 

97,785 

9,067 

9,392 

24,626 
14,814 

49,933 
49.998 
54.460 
16,140 

68,177 
563,866 

79,188 
113,956 
19,241 
31,194 
40,548 
28,782 

226,477 
290.611 
283,145 
33,046 
12,473 
28,122 
13,505 
18,487 


Male. 


Female. 


4,263,617 


230,606 
72,984 
78,253 

180.727 

544,881 
91,973 

538,029 
54,032 
64,850 
73,734 
33,466 

756.802 
42,032 
64,959 
72,801 
39,657 
53.625 

461,909 

580,462 
26,246 
68,873 
14,757 
52.459 
15,866 
49,734 


5,772,788 


599,707 

160,638 

275,782 

21,749 

35,649 

97,659 

9,065 

9,351 

24,573 
12,035 

49,455 

.47,377 

54,317 

13,200 

67,715 
562,501 

74,860 
113,578 
18.593 
21,980 
40,362 
23,640 

226,284 
287.241 
282,574 
33,038 
12,430 
27,376 
13,495 
16,701 


503,347 


10,556 

293 

153 

74,153 

85,246 

946 

904 

1,418 

79 

2,915 

190 

34,084 

261 

6,663 

1,271 

19,988 

566 

149,230 

1,688 

86,118 

46 


22,556 

323 

3,700 


1,313,204 


545 

167 

1,769 

241 

45 

126 

2 

41 

63 
2,779 

478 
2,621 

143 
2,940 

462 
1,365 

4.328 
378 
648 

9,214 
186 

5,142 

193 

3,370 

571 

8 

43 

746 

10 

1,786 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


163 


POPULATION   AT   LEAST    10   YEARS  OF  AGE  ENGAGED   IN  GAINFUL  OCCUPA- 
TIONS, CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS:  L900— Continued. 


Occupation. 


Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits. — (Contimted). 
Leather  and  its  finiahed  products. 

Boot  and  shoe  makers  and  repairers 

Harness  and  saddle  makers  and  repairers 

Leather  curriers  and  tanners 

Trunk  and  leather-case  makers,  etc 

Liquors  and  beverages. 

Bottlers  and  soda  water  makers,  etc 

Brewers  and  maltsters 

Distillers  and  rectifiers 

Lumber  and  its  remanufactures. 

Cabinetmakers 

Coopers 

Saw  and  planing  mill  employees 

Other  woodworkers 

Metals  and  metal  products  other  than  iron  and  steel. 

Brass  workers 

Clock  and  watch  makers  and  repairers 

Gold  and  silver  workers 

Tinplate  and  tinware  makers 

Other  metal  workers 

Paper  and  printing. 

Bookbinders 

Box  makers  (paper). 

Engravers _ 

Paper  and  pulp  mill  operatives 

Printers,  lithographers,  and  pressmen 

Textiles. 

Bleachery  and  dye  works  operatives 

Carpet  factory  operatives 

Cotton  mill  operatives 

Hosiery  and  knitting  mill  operatives 

Silk  mill  operatives 

Woolen  mill  oi>eratives 

Other  textile  mill  operatives 

Dressmakers 

Hat  and  cap  makers 

Milliners 

Seamstresses 

Shirt,  collar,  and  cuff  makers 

Tailors  and  tailoresses 

Other  textile  workers 

Miscellaneous  industries. 

Broom  and  brush  makers 

Charcoal,  coke,  and  lime  burners 

Engineers  and  firemen  (not  locomotive) 

Glove  makers 

Manufacturers  and  ofiicials,  etc 

Model  and  pattern  makers 

Photographers ? 

Rubber  factory  operatives 

Tobacco  and  cigar  factory  operatives 

Upholsterers 

Other  miscellaneous  industries 


Total. 


208,912 

40,101 

42,671 

7,051 

10,519 

20,962 

3,144 

35,619 

37,200 

161,624 

111,273 

26,760 
24,120 
26,112 
70,505 
56,602 

30,278 
21,098 
11,151 
36,328 
155,147 

22,278 
19,388 

246,004 
47,120 
54,460 
73,196 

104,619 

346.884 
22,733 
87,859 

150,942 
39,432 

229,649 
29,967 

10,220 
14,448 

223,495 
12.271 

243,082 
15,073 
26,941 
21,866 

131,452 
30,821 

471,300 


Male. 


169,393 

39,506 

40,917 

5,472 

9,725 

20,687 

3,114 

35,552 

37,087 

161,251 

104.468 

26,870 
19,305 
19,732 
68,730 
54,282 

14,646 

3,796 

10,698 

26,904 

139,166 

20,493 

10,371 

125,788 

12,630 

22,023 

42,566 

53,437 

2,090 

15,110 

1,739 

4,837 

8,491 

160,714 

8.925 

8,643 
14,405 

223,318 
4,503 

239,649 
14,869 
23,361 
14,492 
87,955 
28,663 

380,490 


Female. 


39,519 

595 

1,754 

1,579 

794 

276 

30 

67 

113 

373 

6,806 

890 
4,815 
6,380 
1,775 
2,320 

15,632 

17,302 

453 

9,424 

15,981 

1,785 

9,017 

120,216 

34,490 

32,437 

30,630 

51,182 

344,794 

7,623 

86,120 

146,105 

30,941 

68,936 

21,042 

1,577 

43 

177 

7,768 

3,433 

204 

3,580 

7,374 

43,497 

2,158 

90,810 


— From  Reports  of  the  Twelfth  Census. 


The  annals  of  the  Pasteur  Institute  state 
that  during  the  year  1902  the  number  of  per- 
sons under  treatment  for  hydrophobia  in  Paris 
was  1,106,  of  whom  only  three  died,  one  cf 
whom  had  not  completed  the  treatment  when 
he  succumbed  to  hydrophobia;  so  that  in 
reality  there  were  only  two  deaths.  Of  the 
1,106  persons  under  treatment,  nine  were 
English,  two  Spaniards,  two  Russians,  and 


one  each  Greek,  Dutch,  and  Swiss — making 
16  foreigners  to  1,089  French.  The  diminu- 
tion in  the  niunber  of  French  patients,  as 
compared  with  several  preceding  years,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  opening  of  anti-rabic  institutes 
at  L4l9,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Lyons,  and 
Bordeaux,  to  one  or  other  of  which  persons 
residing  in  the  neighborhood  of  those  towns 
have  been  sent  instead  of  going  to  Paris. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


In  1902  the  area  of  Indian  reBer- 
fations  in  the  United  States  was  75,- 
148,643  acres  or  117,420  square  miles, 
ind  the  population  in  1900  was  270,- 
M4,  but  fa  1903  the  number  bad 
Jwindled  to  283.233.  Indian  TerritoiT 
ia  occupied   by   7S,8S6  Indian   lahabi- 


tanta,  while  43,746  live  In  Arizona 
and  13,799  in  Oklahoma,  and  10,477  in 
South  Dakota.  The  cenam  givw  the 
Indian  population  in  Indian  Territory 
in  1900  as  302.060,  and  the  Indian 
population  elsewhere  is  included  in  the 
census  of  the  States. 


NUMBER  OF  PENSIONERS  ON  THE  ROLLS,  FIRST  PAYMENTS,  AND 

AMOUNTS  OF  DISBURSEMENTS  FOR  PENSIONS 

PROM  1861  TO  1903. 


87,521 
122,689 
14S,410 


106,463.800 .  10 


635,027.28 
3,SZfl,3S2.I3 
3,841,706.71 


dependent  relatives  on  sccouDt  of  military  and  naval  service  durina  the  wars  in   which  the 
United  States  has  been  engaged; 

Revolutionary  war  (eatimaled) 170,000,000.00 

Wwof  1812  (an  account  o(  service,  without  recu^todiMbility) «fi,lS6,197.22 

Indian  wars  (on  account  of  service,  without  regard  to  disability) 0.234,414. U 

War  nith  Mexico  (on  account  of  Mrvicc.  without  regard  to  disability) 33,483,309 .  61 

WaroftherebeUion 2,878,240,400.17 

War  with  Spain 5,476.208.31 

Actual  total  disbureemeatu  in  pensions S3.03S.623.690. 10 

—Staliitital  AbitratU  o/  Ike  Untied  SUtlei. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


im 


IMMIGRATION. 

NUMBER   And    NATIONALITY    OF    IMMIGRANTS    ARRIVED    IN    THE    UNITED 
STATES  DURING  THE  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1889,  1899.  AND  1903. 


Countries. 


Austria-Hungary  : 

Bohemia 

Hungary 

Other  Austria 
(except  Poland) 

Total 


Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Italy,  continental . 

Sicily   and   Sar- 
dinia  

Malta 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Poland. 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia  (except 
Poland) 

Finland 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe* 
United  Kingdom : 

England 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Wales 

Total    United 
Kingdom.  . 


1889. 

1899. 

1903. 

3,085 

10,967 
20,122 

62,491 

206,011 

34.174 

2,562 

8,699 

5,918 

99,538 

13 

158 

24,848 

459 


6,460 

13,390 

4,922 

.      57 

893 

31,889 

2,027 

526 

35.415 

7,070 

252 

68,503 

65,557 

18,296 

1.181 


62,491 

1,101 

2,690 

1,694 

17,476 


I 


2,333 
77,419 


206,011 

3,450 

7,158 

5,578 

40,086 


14,090 
230,622 


1,029 
6,705 


2,054 
1,606 

60,982 

385 

12,797 

1,326 

132 

10,402 

31.673 

1,724 

1,324 


3,998 
24,461 


9,317 
9,310 

136,093 

2,080 

46,028 

3,983 

3,290 

26,219 

35,310 

6,143 

1,275 


153,537 


45,123     68,947 


Countries. 

1889. 

Aisores 

1,967 

Greenland,  Iceland 
and  the  Faroe 
Islands 

Europe  not  speci- 

4 
12 

Total  Europe. 

434,790 

British  North 

America 

Mexico 

Central  America  .  . 

Bermuda.  . 

West    Indies    and 

Miquelon 

South  America  . .  . 


I 


88 
21 

4,923 
427 


Total  America!    t5,459 


China.  ... 
Japan.  ... 
Otner.Asia. 


118 
640 
967 


Total  Asia  . .  . 

Total  Oceania.  .  .  . 

Total  Africa 

All  other  countries 

Total  immigrants 


1,725 


2,196 

187 

70 


444,427 


1899. 


1903. 


6 


297,349 


1,322 
161 
159 


814,507 


1,058 
528 
678 


2,585 
89 


8,170 
589 


4,316 


1,660 
2,844 
4,468 


8,972 


51 
1,027 


311,715 


11,023 


2,209 

19,968 

7,789 


29,966 


1,349 

176 

25 


857,046 


*  Includes  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Montenegro- 

t  Immigrants  from  British  North  America 
and  Mexico  not  reported. 

— Statistical  Abstract  of  United  States. 


LABOR'S    DEATH    ROLL. 


No  less  than  4,513  lives  were  lost  in  1902 
while  in  the  ordinary  pursuit  of  their  calling 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  112,133  persons 
were  injured  in  the  same  period.  The  per- 
centage of  deaths  from  different  causes  in 
coal  mining  was  ( 1 )  On  the  surface,  11.3;  (2) 
Miscellaneous  underground,  28.3;  (3)  In  the 
shafts,  9.9;  (4)  By  falls  of  ground,  44.1 ;  (5) 
By  explosions,  6.4. 


Factories 

Mines 

Quarries 

Snipping  (Merchant  Vessels) 

Railway  service 

Workshops 

Laundries 

Docks,  wharves,  and  quays, 

Warehouses 

Buildings 

Railway  service  (contractors'  servants). 
Under  notice  of  Accidents  Act,  1894. . . . 
Shipping  (Fishing  vessels,  etc.) 


Total. . . 


Number 
Employed 
According 
to  Latest 

Returns. 


3,929,213 

855,603 

97,108 

230,161 

575,834 


1 


\ 


J 


r 


Killed. 


1898. 


676 
941 
134 
1,139 
522 
2 

■ '  89" 
16 
45 
20 
56 
271 


3,810 


1902. 


837 

1,053 

119 

1,397 

468 

9 

1 

129 

42 

89 

17 

62 

290 


Injured. 


1898. 


49,290 

4,408 

1,434 

2,354 

12,826 

135 

217 

4,070 

2,507 

616 

153 

1,491 

132 


4,513         79,633       112,133 


1902. 


77,118 

3.999 

1,190 

2,228 

13,735 

224 

355 
4,906 
4,235 
2,412 

123 
1,451 

157 


—*' Daily  Mail"  Year  Book. 


166 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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aCIBNTIPIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.  167 


108  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


169 


gE        CENTER   OF    POPULATION,    1790-1900. 
ol        population  at  different  periods. 


170 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TERRITORIAL  EXPANSION. 


There  have  been  sixteen  additions  to 
the  original  territory  of  the  Union,  in- 
cluding Alaska,  the  Hawaiian,  Philip- 
pine and  Samoan  Islands  and  Guam, 
in  the  Pacific,  and  Porto  Rico,  in  the 
West  Indies ;  and  the  Panama  strip ; 
and  the  total  area  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  noncontiguous  territory, 


is  now  fully  five  times  that  of  the  orig- 
inal thirteen  colonies. 

The  additions  to  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  subsequent  to  the  peace 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  of  1783,  are 
shown  by  the  following  table,  prepared 
by  the  General  Land  Office  of  the  In- 
terior Department : 


ADDITIONS    TO    THE    TERRITORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

FROM     1800    TO    1904. 


Territorial  Division. 


Louisiana  purchase  .  . 

Florida 

Texas 

Oregon  Territory  .... 

Mexican  cession 

Purchase  from  Texas.  . 
Gadsden  purchase  .  .  .  . 

Alaska 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Guam 

Philippine  Islands  .  .  . , 

Samoan  Islands 

Additional  Philippines . 

Panama  Canal  .* 

Panama  Canal  strip  .  . . 


Total 


Year. 


1803 
1819 
1845 
1846 
1848 
1850 
1853 
1867 
1897 
1808 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1901 
1903 
1904 


Area  added. 


Square  miles. 
875,025 
70,107 
389.795 
288,689 
523,802 

(t) 

36,211 

599,446 

6,740 

3,600 

175 

143,000 

73 

68 


2,936,731 


Purchase 
price. 


Dollars. 
15,000,000 
•6.489,768 


tl8,250,000 

10,000,000 

10,000,000 

7,200,000 


20,000,000 


100,000 
40,000,000 
10,000,000 


137,039,768 


*  Includes  interest  payment. 

t  Of  which  $3,250,000  was  in  payment  of  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Mexico. 

i  Area  purchased  from  Texas  amounting  to  123,784  square  miles  is  not  included  in  the  column 
of  area  added,  because  it  became  a  part  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  with  the  admission  of 
Texas. 


AREA   AND   POPULATION    OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


Tlie  following  table,  published  by 
the  United  States  Census  Office,  shows 
the  gross  area  and  population  of  the 


United  States  at  each  of  the  decennial 
censuses  from  1790  to  1900,  exclusive 
of  all  noncontiguous  territory. 


Year. 

Area. 

Population. 

Year. 

Area. 

Population. 

1790 

Square  miles. 
827,844 
827,844 
1,999,775 
2,059,043 
2,059,043 
2,059,043 

3,929,214 
5,308.483 
7.239,881 
9,633,822 
12,866,020 
17,069,453 

1850 

Square  miles. 
2,980,959 
3,025,600 
3,025,600 
3,025,600 
3,025,600 
3,025,600 

23,191,876 
31.443.321 

1800 

I860 

1810 

1870 

38.558.371 

1820 

1880 

50  155.783 

1830 

1890 

62.622.250 

1840 

1900 

75,994,575 

CHAPTER    Vn. 


SDUCATIOK,  TiTBRARrKS,  PRINTING  AN1>  PUBUSHIN^G. 


THE  VALUE  OF  AN  EDUCATION. 


In  the  annual  report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education 
appears  a  sheet  of  statistics  showing 
to  what  extent  higher  education,  af- 
fects success  in  life.  Particularly  it 
shows  the  pre-eminence  of  the  A.B. 
degree  man  among  the  successful,  and 
the  inconspicuousness  of  the  self-edu- 
cated. 

The  standard  of  success  to  which 
the  educational  statistics  are  applied 
is  that  which  constitutes  eligibility  to 
the  ranks  of  the  10,000  or  so  persons 
included  in  "Who's  Who  in  America" 
— that  is,  according  to  the  editors,  "the 
most  notable  in  all  departments  of 
usefulness  and  reputable  endeavor." 
Tliese  men  have  all  reported  the  scope 
and  method  of  their  education. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation divides  the  14,794,403  males 
over  30  years  old  in  the  United  States 
according  to  the  last  census  into  four 
educational  classes,  as  follows : 

Class  I.     Without  education  1,757,023 

Class  II.  With  only  com- 
mon school  training  or 
trained  outside  of  organ- 
ized schools 12,054,335 

Class  III.  With  regular 
high  school  training  add- 
ed         657,432 

Class  IV.     With  college  or 

higher  education  added . .      325,613 

Omitting  those  few  who  are  under 
30  years  old,  says  this  report,  the 
statements  from  10,704  notables  show 
that  they  include :  Without  educa- 
tion, none :  self-taught,  24 ;  home 
taught,  278;  with  common  school 
training  only,  1,066;  with  high  school 


Professor  Ramsay,  of  University 
College,  London,  in  a  letter  to  th? 
"Times,"  points  out  the  remarkable 
part  which  Technical  Education  plays 
in  German  trade. 

"A  German  company  employs  no 
fewer  than  70  chemists  ;  it  is  one  which 
manufactures  no  product  of  which  it 
sells  less  than  one  hundred  tons  a  year. 


training,  1,627;  with  college  training, 
7,709,  of  whom  6,129  were  graduates. 
That  is : 

From*  1800  to  1870  the  uneducated 
boy  in  the  United  States  failed  en- 
tirely to  become  so  notable  in  any  de- 
partment of  usefulness  and  reputable 
endeavor  as  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  "Who's  Who"  editors,  and  that 
only  24  self-taught  men  succeeded. 

A  boy  with  only  a  common  school 
education  had,  in  round  numbers,  one 
chance  in  9,000. 

A  high  school  training  increased  this 
chance  nearly  twenty- two  times. 

College  education  added  gave  the 
young  man  about  ten  times  the  chance 
of  a  high  school  boy  and  200  times  the 
chance  of  the  boy  whose  training 
stopped  with  the  common  school. 

The  A.B.  graduate  was  pre-emi- 
nently successful,  and  the  self-educa- 
ted man  was  inconspicuous. 

"From  the  nature  of  the  case,"  con- 
cludes the  compiler,  "it  cannot  be 
claimed  that  these  classifications  are 
exact,  but  they  are  based  upon  the 
fullest  statistics  ever  obtained,  and  the 
necessary  estimates  have  been  made  by 
government  experts.  It  is  also  doubt- 
less true  that  other  circumstances  con- 
tributed to  the  success  of  these  trained 
men,  but  after  all  reasonable  allow- 
ances are  made  the  figures  force  the 
conclusion  that  the  more  school  train- 
ing the  American  boy  of  that  period 
had,  the  greater  were  his  chances  of 
distinction. 

"It  is  unnecessary  to  extend  this 
inquiiT  to  woman,"  he  says,  in  conclu- 
sion. "Education  is  practically  her 
only  door  to  eminence. 


Of  the  seventy  chemists  required,  20 
are  employed  in  analyzing  the  raw  ma- 
terials and  intermediate  and  finished 
products ;  25  are  engaged  in  superin- 
tending the  processes  of  manufacture, 
and  the  remaining  25  are  exclusively 
employed  in  scientific  work  to  improve 
the  present  processes  of  manufacture." 
— Daily  Mail  Year  Book, 


171 


SCIBNTIPIC    AMERICAN   REPBRBNCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


173 


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'«    to    «0    r»    «o 


174 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION,     ENROLLMENT,     AVERAGE     DAILY     ATTENDANCE, 

NUMBER,  AND  SEX  OF  TEACHERS. 


Estimated 

Total 

Popular 

tion  in 

1902. 

Pupils  En- 
rolled in 
the  Ele- 
mentary 
and  Sec- 
ondary 
Common 
Schools. 

Per 
Cent, 
of  the 
Popu- 
Ution 

En- 
rolled 

Average 
Daily 

Attend- 
ance. 

Number  of  Teachers. 

Division. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

The  United  States 

78,544  816 

15,925,887 

20.28 

10,999,273 

122,392 

317,204 

439,596 

North  Atlantic  Division  . 
South  Atlantic  Division. . 
South  Central  Division.  . 
North  Central  Division.  . 
Western  Division 

21,802,750 
10,696,435 
14,715,700 
26,912,400 
4.417,531 

3.733,683 
2,279,290 
3,156,590 

5,866,396 
889,928 

17.12 
21.31 
21.45 
21.80 
20.15 

2,741,360 
1,445,797 
2,097,819 
4,101,022 
613,275 

18,069 
19,567 
30,652 
48,152 
5,952 

90,003 
31,818 
34,848 
139,691 
20,844 

108.072 
51.385 
65.500 

187,843 
26,796 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  DAYS  TAUGHT,  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS, 

VALUE  OF  SCHOOL  PROPERTY,  AND  STATE  AND 

LOCAL   TAXATION.   1901-2. 


Division. 

Aver- 
age 
Num- 
ber of 
Dajrs 
the 
Schools 
were 
Kept. 

Average 
Monthly  Sal- 
aries of 
Teachers. 

Value  of 
Public 
School  Prop- 
erty. 

Raised 

from  State 

Taxes. 

Raised 

from  Local 

Taxes. 

Raised 

from  Other 

Sources, 

State  and 

Local,  etc. 

Males. 

Fe- 
males. 

The  United  States.  . 

145 

$49.05 

$39.77 

$601,571,307 

$38,330,589 

$170,779,586 

$29,742,141 

North  Atlantic  Div. 

S.  Atlantic  Div 

S.  Central  Division. . 
N.  Central  Division.. 
Western  Division.  . . 

177.3 
115.8 
100.6 
)56.5 
143.9 

59.01 
30.50 
44.28 
50.85 
65.90 

40.17 
28.60 
36.88 
39.60 
53.73 

243,150,033 
25,109,903 
29,875,383 

250,303,396 
53,132.592 

12,831,775 
5,148.670 
6,398.383 
8,374.009 
5.577,752 

69,984,121 

7,842,256 

6,869,991 

74,215,693 

11,867.525 

10.847.513 
1.150.494 
1.147.567 

14,781.748 
1.814,819 

Statistics  of  City  School  Systems,  1901-2. 

ENROLLMENT,    AVERAGE     ATTENDANCE,     LENGTH     OF    SCHOOL 

TERM,  NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS,  AND  EXPENDITURES 

IN  CITIES  OF  8,000  INHABITANTS  AND  OVER. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber of 

City 
School 

Sys- 
tems. 

Enroll- 
ment in 

Public 

Day 

Schools. 

Average 
Daily 

Attend- 
ance. 

Aver- 
age 
Length 

School 
Term. 

Numi 
Teache 
Super 

Male. 

t>er  of 
irs  and 
dsors. 

Fe- 
male. 

Expendi- 
ture for 
Supervi- 
sion and 

Teaching. 

Expendi- 
ture for  all 
Purposes 
(Payment 
of  Loans 
and  Bonds 
Excepted). 

United  States . . . 

580 

4,174,812 

2,046,001 
292,143 
223,538 

1,371,398 
241.732 

3,159.441 

187.3 

9,461 

86,308 

$66,561,505 

$111,159,665 

N.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Central  Div.  . . 
N.  Central  Div.  . 
Western  Div.  . . . 

242 
44 
51 

205 
38 

1,537,500 
205,948 
167,816 

1,066,804 
181,373 

188.4 
181.7 
181.5 
187.6 
186.5 

4,343 

809 

628 

3,135 

546 

42,626 
5,492 
4,149 

28,909 
5,132 

35,543,105 
3,436,613 
2,483,299 

20,729,416 
4,369,072 

59.950,666 
5.398.312 
3,539,463 

35.112.492 
7,168,732 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


175 


Statistics  of  Secondaby  Education,  1901-2. 

INSTRUCTORS   AND   STUDENTS   IN   PUBLIC   HIGH   SCHOOLS   AND 
IN  PRIVATE  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 


Num- 
ber. 

PubUc  High  Schools. 

Num- 
ber. 

Private  Secondary  Schools. 

Division. 

Secondary 
Teachers. 

Secondary 
Students. 

Secondary 
Teachers. 

Secondary 
Students. 

Male. 
10,958 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States . . . 

6,292 

11,457 

226,914 

323,697 

1,835 

4.073  i  5.830  ,51,536 

1 

53,154 

N.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Central  Div.  . . 
N.  Central  Div. .  . 
Western  Div.  . .  . 

1,476 
436 
702 

3,333 
345 

2,960 

691 

1,037 

5,535 

736 

4,333 
568 
755 

5,084 
717 

75,888 
11,024 
16.450 
109,736 
13,816 

105,143 
16,937 
24,004 

156,714 
20,899 

650 
350 
364 
343 
128 

1,885 
629 
589 
704 
266 

2,529 
852 
735 

i,295 
419 

20,900 
9,098 
9,8a'> 
8,680 
3,053 

18.893 
9,610 
9,541 

11,248 
3,862 

Statistics  of  Higheb  Education,  1901-2. 

INSTRUCTORS  AND  STUDENTS  IN  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  NORMAL 

SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


Num- 
ber. 

Public  Normal  Schools. 

•Num- 
ber. 

Private  Normal  Schools. 

Division. 

Teachers  of 

Normal 

Students. 

Students  in 
Normal 
Course. 

Teachers  of 

Normal 

Students. 

Students  in 
Normal 
Course. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States 

173 

1,024 

1,463 

12,209 

37,194 

109 

445 

345 

7,484 

8,181 

N.  Atlantic  Div..  . . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  . . . 
S.  Central  Division 
N.  Central  Division 
Western  Division .  . 

62 
25 
24 
40 
22 

325 
124 
132 
315 

128 

661 
197 
110 
366 
129 

3,256 
1,013 
1,868 
6,341 
732 

13,987 
3,070 
3,393 

13,566 
3,178 

7 

28 
27 
46 

1 

60 

53 

83 

245 

4 

88 

79 

64 

107 

7 

307 

603 

1,129 

5,431 

14 

961 

955 

1,148 

5,054 

63 

INSTRUCTORS    AND    STUDENTS    IN    COEDUCATIONAL    COLLEGES 

AND  UNIVERSITIES  AND  IN  COLLEGES 
FOR  MEN  ONLY,  1901-2. 


Num- 
ber of 
Insti- 
tu- 
tions. 

Professors 

Students. 

Division. 

and 
Instructors. 

Preparatory. 

Collegiate. 

Resident 
Graduate. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Total 
Income. 

United  States. 

464 

9,329 

1.907    32,094  ^  14,508 

62,430 

21,051 

3,895 

1,456 

444 

36 

69 

700 

207 

$25,112,169 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Central  Div 
N.  Central  Div 
Western  Div. . 

85 
73 
77 
190 
39 

3,000 

1.050 

878 

3.583 

818 

164 

169 

305 

1,085 

184 

6,408 
3,465 
5,761 
13,871 
2.589 

960 
1,532 
3,026 
7,188 
1,802 

22,903 
6,629 
6,467 

21,993 
4.438 

2,629 
1,081 
2,472 
12,043 
2,826 

1,696 
452 
155 

1,376 
216 

9,382,226 
2.115,295 
2,172,238 
.  8,944,906 
2,497,504 

176 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INSTRUCTORS  AND  STUDENTS  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  TECHNOLOGY  AND 

INSTITUTIONS   CONFERRING  ONLY  THE 
B.  S.  DEGREE,  1901-2. 


Num- 
ber 
of  In- 
stitu- 
tions. 

Professors 

Students. 

and 
Instructors. 

Preparatory. 

Collegiate 

Resident 
Graduate. 

Total 

Division. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

132 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

1,148 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Income. 

United  States . 

43 

1,292 

385 
250 
112 
362 
183 

3,058 

673 

11,667 

141 

54 

$4,796,613 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Atlan.  Div.  . 
S.  Cent.  Div  .. 
N.  Cent.  Div.  . 
Western  Div.  . 

10 
8 
5 

11 
9 

13 
0 
4 

74 
41 

267 
291 
804 
1023 
673 

8 

0 

129 

230 

306 

3,022 
2,255 
1,258 
4,115 
1,017 

91 
1 

57 
683 
316 

22 
30 
25 
51 
13 

5 

0 

4 

37 

8 

1.645,180 
796,580 
425,642 

1,275,480 
653,731 

INSTRUCTORS   AND   STUDENTS   IN   COLLEGES   AND   SEMINARIES 
FOR  WOMEN  WHICH  CONFER  DEGREES,  1901-2. 


Division. 

Number 
of  Insti- 
tutions. 

Professors  and 
Instructors. 

Female  Students. 

Total 

Male. 

Female. 

Prepar- 
atory. 

Collegi-      Gradu- 
ate,           ate. 

Income. 

United  States 

131 

670 

1,767 

7,610 

16.534 

326 

$3,954,462 

North  Atlantic  Div.  .  .  , 
South  Atlantic  Div.  . . . 

South  Central  Div 

North  Central  Div 

Western  Division 

19 
45 
46 
19 
2 

295 

203 

107 

57 

8 

459 
517 
472 
269 
50 

1,281 
2,006 
2,675 
1,423 
225 

5,376 
5,236 
4,377 
1,493 
52 

157 

77 
65 
26 

1 

1,888,799 

906,852 

646,048 

467,763 

47,000 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PROFESSIONAL    SCHOOLS 

FOR   1901-2. 


Theological. 

T-aw. 

Medical. 

Division. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

United  States 

148 

1,034 

*7,343 

102 

1,155 

tl3,912 

154 

5,029 

26,821 

N.  Atlantic  Division.  .  . 
S  Atlantic  Division.  . .  . 
S.  Central  Division  .... 
N.  Central  Division .... 
Western  Division 

52 
19 
14 
58 
5 

448 
128 

75 
357 

26 

2,915 
903 
534 

2,910 
81 

18 
21 
17 
39 

7 

275 
159 
126 
537 

58 

4,598 
2,138 

796 
5.851 

529 

26 
23 
26 
67 
12 

1,136 
574 
544 

2,412 
363 

6,514 
3,609 
4,905 
10,693 
1,100 

*  108  of  these  were  women . 


1 165  of  these  were  women. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


177 


GENERAL    SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PROFESSIONAL    AND 

ALLIED  SCHOOLS  FOR  1901-2. 


Class. 


Schools. 


Instruct- 
ors. 


Students. 


Theological 

Law 

Medical 

Dental 

Pharmaceutical 

Veterinary 

Nurse  training 

Total 

Medical  schools  included  above: 

Regular 

Homeopathic 

Eclectic  and  physio-medical 

Total. .  .  . '. 


148 

102 

154 

56 

59 

11 

545 


1,075 


123 
20 
11 


154 


1,034 
1,155 
5,029 
1.197 
590 
174 


9,179 


4.084 
649 
296 


5,029 


7,343 

13,912 

26,821 

8,420 

4,427 

576 

13,252 


74,751 


24,447 

1.551 

823 


Graduates. 


1,656 
3,524 
5,069 
2.288 
1,379 
141 
4,015 


26,821 


18,072 


4,576 
342 
151 


5.069 


ENROLLMENT    IN    SPECIAL    SCHOOLS    IN    1901-2. 

City  evening  schools  (estimated) 207.162 

Business  schools 137,247 

Schools  for  defectives 28,827 

Reform  schools 35,247 

Government  Indian  schools 24,120 

Indian  schools  (five  civilized  tribes) 13,864 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  the  Government 1,741 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  incorporated  municipalities  (partly  estimated) 1,700 

Orphan  asylums  and  other  benevolent  institutions 15,000 

Private  kindergartens 105,932 

Miscellaneous  (including  schools  of  music,  oratory,  elocution,  cookery,  and  various 

special  arts 50,000 

Total 620.840 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

VOLUMES  AND  PAMPHLETS  ADDED  AND  BOOKS  ISSUED. 


Periodicals. 

Volumes  Added 

During  the 

Year. 

Pamphlets 

Added  During 

the  Year. 

Books  Issued  for 
Home  Use. 

Books  Issued 

for  Use  in 

Library. 

Division. 

6 

-2  ^ 
3,036 

Num- 
ber. 

3,684 

Num- 
ber. 

It 
II 

1,455 

Num- 
ber. 

II 

2,405 

Num- 
ber. 

2  2 

783 

386 
48 
44 

243 

62 

Num- 
ber. 

United  States.  . 

209.412 

2,156,992 

549,326 

269,322 
67,117 
29,914 

139,820 
43,153 

48.410.128 

9,609,632 

N.  Atlantic  Div. 
S.Atlantic  Div. . 
S.  Central  Div.. 
N.  Central  Div. . 
Western  Div. .  . 

1,352 
245 
191 

1,010 
238 

118,731 

19.639 

0.034 

51.258 

13,750 

1,787 
265 
202 

1,161 
269 

1,128,085 

175.323 

73,320 

630.959 

194,305 

580 
122 
118 
508 
127 

1.347 

117 

75 

711 

155 

27.105.291 

1,726.203 

420.470 

15,358.070 
3,800,088 

3,979,467 
802,769 
165,555 

3,754.728 
907,113 

178 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

SOURCES  OF  SUPPORT. CLASSIFICATION. 


Own  or  Rent 
Buildings. 

Supported  by 

Taxation  or  by 

Corporation. 

Free  or  Subscrip- 
tion. 

Circulating  or 
Reference. 

Division. 

■ 

a 
O 

• 

s 

« 

592 

286 
23 
19 

203 
61 

i 

o 
a 

O'" 

55 

PQ 

h 

PQ 
2,870 

• 

0 

>> 

PQ 

1 

Mi. 

& 

1,735 

gg 

cs 
914 

• 

a 

1 

o 

447 

251 
21 
14 

141 
20 

• 

i 

• 

1      ■ 

United  States 

1,040 

612 
54 
44 

293 
37 

3,751 

2,375 

138 

2,734 

1,148 

3,788 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Cent.  Div.  . 
N.  Cent.  Div. 
Western  Div. 

1,575 
344 
311 

1,232 
289 

1,029 

113 

94 

931 

208 

1,329 
302 
269 
793 
177 

115 

6 

11 

4 

2 

1,417 

88 

85 

946 

198 

701 
233 
191 
486 
124 

355 
100 

98 

296 

65 

459 
128 
124 
341 

96 

1,763 
272 
236 

1,246 
271 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

GENERAL    CLASSIFICATION    OF    LIBRARIES. 


« 

>> 

Chris- 
Bition. 

Order 
ows. 

• 

9 

• 

• 

"•3 

-w»'3 

>> 

■1^ 

Division. 

• 

2 

9 

i 

• 

1 

• 

S 

9 
9 

s 

1 

-3 

9 

1 

1 

9 

9 

B 

e 
% 

o 

i 

9 

a 
1 

Young  Men 
tian  Asso 

• 

1^ 

Independen 
of  Odd  F< 

Other  Socie 

• 

s 

1 

• 

g 

■c 

w 

• 

O 

9 

United  States 

1,979 

1,725 
696 

689 
117 

53 
23 

162 
74 

120 

63 

35 

43 

6 

65 
34 

82 
53 

19 
3 

15 
2 

160 

83 
41 

63 
39 

11 
5 

16 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 

1,172 

57 

31 

2 

107 

11 

S.  Atlan.  Div. 

67 

120 

112 

10 

17 

13 

8 

28 

5 

3 

8 

4 

2 

10 

8 

5 

1 

•    • 

S.  Cent.  Div. . 

50 

137 

133 

8 

8 

6 

3 

1 

8 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

1 

1 

N.  Cent.  Div,. 

576 

634 

276 

12 

37 

38 

17 

3 

18 

22 

13 

4 

5 

28 

25 

i5 

2 

3 

West.  Div.... 

114 

138 

51 

•    • 

26 

6 

4 

1 

6 

3 

4 

4 

4 

10 

8 

4 

2 

2 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

CLASSIFICATION    ACCORDING    TO    SIZE. 


Division. 


United  States .  . 

N.  Atlantic  Div. 
S.  Atlantic  Div . 
8.  Central  Div.  . 
N.  Central  Div. . 
Western  Div.... 


Number  of  Volumes  to  a  Library. 


500,000 

and 

over. 


3 
1 


300.000 

to 
499,999. 


2 
l" 


100,000 

50,000 

25,000 

to 

to 

to 

299,999. 

99,999. 

49,999. 

47 

90 

193 

24 

53 

100 

5 

11 

23 

1 

3 

11 

13 

18 

46 

4 

5 

13 

10,000 

to 
24,999. 


526 


242 
60 
26 

162 
36 


5,000 

to 

9,999. 


866 


429 
73 
46 

262 
56 


1,000 

to 
4,999. 


3,654 


1,620 
248 
287 

1,226 
273 


SCrBNTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.  179 


180 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF   LIBBABIES    AND   VOLUMES. 


Division. 

Libraries. 

Volumes. 

Population, 

Census  of 

1900. 

Number  of 

People  per 

Library. 

Books  per 
100  of  Pop- 
ulation. 

United  States 

5,383 

44.591,851 

75,997,687 

14,118 

59 

North  Atlantic  Div 

South  Atlantic  Div 

South  Central  Div 

North  Central  Div.  .  .  . 
Western  Division 

2,473 
421 
374 

1,728 

387 

23,410,577 
5,303,237 
1,886,731 

11,211,710 
2,779,596 

21,045,748 
10,445.486 
14.079,861 
26.335,243 
4,091,349 

8,510 
24,811 
37,647 
15,240 
10,572 

111 
51 
13 
43 

68 

— From  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 


1 

1 

1 

1 

\ 

1 

mffcoLOoo. 

/ 

tOMHOM. 

/ 

/ 

SAOOAMOl 

• 

/ 

/ 

4aoMMa 

/ 

/ 

/ 

JttMaMA 

/ 

/ 

/ 

XLoaoMa 

/ 

/ 

fcooacee. 



/ 

^ 

n.S3SL3TS  rofumtt 
l8$St9tS00. 


7,074.i29  ¥9lom€» 
•tfJ9^/890hf895. 


6.576.444  IMum—- 
*d^9&t88Sf»/890. 


6,689,706  l^ofumt» 
•Jdttt  tW>  to  I69S. 


I.2i3.7f5  ¥olum«$  ^<itd  l»7S  to  fSM. 


11.497.776  Volvmts  in  1675. 


THE  RELATION   OF  LIBRARIES   TO 
POPULATION. 


in  5,383  libraries  there  were  in 
1900,  44,591,851  volumes. 


PRINTING    AND    PUBLISHING. 


There  were  18,226  publications  re- 
ported to  the  census  authorities,  while 
3,046  publications  failed  to  report. 
This  would  give  a  remarkable  total  of 
21.272  periodicals,  and  the  aggregate 
circulation  of  those  reporting  was  114,- 
229,334  per  issue,  while  the  aggregate 
number  of  copies  issued  during  the 
census  year  was  8,168,148,749. 


The  average  capital  of  those  en- 
gaged in  the  printing  business  is  $12,- 
574 ;  the  average  value  of  their  prod- 
ucts is  $14,569.  These  figures  compared 
with  those  of  a  previous  decade  show 
that  in  a  period  of  ten  years  an  in- 
creased capital  is  required  to  produce 
the  same  or  even  a  smaller  value  of 
products;  this  is  largely  caused  by  an 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


182 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


increase  in  wages  and  a  decrease  in 
working  hours.  In  1850  a  compositor 
in  New  York  received  $9  per  week ; 
ordinary  job  compositors  now  receive 
$19.50  per  week,  and  operators  on  ma- 
chines from  $24  to  $27,  depending  on 
the  time  of  day  or  night  they  take 
their  shift.  In  the  opinion  of  many 
large  operators,  the  number  of  wage 
earners  has  actually  increased  rather 
than  diminished.  The  introduction  of 
machine  composition  has  been  of  decid- 
ed benefit  to  the  employee,  offering  a 
new  field  for  endeavor.  There  are  few 
unemployed  men  in  the  printing  trade, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  in 
1900    the    Typographical    Union    was 


Character  of  publication : 
News,  politics,  and  family  read- 
ing    14,867 

Religion 952 

Agriculture,  horticulture,  dairy- 
ing, and  stock-raising 307 

Commerce,  finance,    insurance, 

railroads,  and  trade 710 

General     literature,     including 

magazines 239 

Medicine  and  surgery Ill 

Law    62 

Science  and  mechanics 66 

Fraternal    organizations 200 

Education  and  history 259 

Society,  art,  music  and  fashion  88 

Miscellaneous    365 


DIAGRAM       SHOWING      CLASSIFICATION 
OF    PAPERS. 


PROPORTION  WHICH  ADVERTISING,  SUB- 
SCRIPTION AND  SALES,  AND  BOOK 
AND  JOB  PRINTING  FORM  OF  THE 
TOTAL  VALUE  OF  ALL  PRODUCTS. 


called  upon  to  supply  150  men  for  a 
special  job  of  city  printing,  only  100 
could  be  obtained,  and  these  with  diffi- 
culty. 

A  classified  list  of  periodicals  is  giv- 
en below,  showing  how  the  list  is  di- 
vided : 

Period  of  issue : 

Daily 2,22G 

Tri-weekly    62 

Semi-weekly   037 

Weekly 12,970 

Monthly   1,817 

Quarterly 237 

All  other  classes 268 

Total 18,226 


Out  of  the  18,226  publications, 
2,226  are  dailies,  with  a  circulation  of 
15,102,156;  62  are  tri-weekly,  with  a 
circulation  of  228,610;  637  are  semi- 
weekly,  with  a  circulation  of  2,832,- 
868 ;  12,979  papers  are  issued  weekly, 
with  a  circulation  of  39,852,052. 
There  are  1,817  monthly  publications, 
whose  circulation  is  39,519,897.  The 
quarterly  publications  are  mostly  de- 
voted to  special  subjects,  and  only 
number  237,  but  their  circulation  is 
very  respectable,  as  they  issue  11,217- 
422  per  number.  Semi-monthly,  semi- 
annual and  yearly  publications  num- 
ber 268,  and  have  a  circulation  of  5,- 
.^»41,32t).  Out  of  18,226  publications, 
17,194  were  printed  in  English. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


184 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


In  1900,  cities  of  201,000  inhabi- 
tants and  over  contained  79  per  cent 
of  the  separate  job-printing  establish- 
ments of  the  country,  and  97.7  per 
cent  of  the  total  job  product  ema- 
nated from  them. 


Ayer's  Newspaper  Directory  for 
1904  gives  later  figures,  viz. :  Daily, 
2,457 ;  tri-weekly,  56 ;  semi-weekly, 
034;  weekly,  16,935;  fortnightly,  65; 
semi-monthly,  285 ;  monthly,  2,698 ;  bi- 
monthly, 53 ;  quarterly,  192 ;  miscel- 
laneous, 10.    Total,  23,385. 


QUANTITY  AND  COST  OF  PAPER  USED. 


Kinds. 


News 

Book  and  periodical. 
Job  printing 


Total 


Our  figures  show  the  quantity  and 
cost  of  paper  used  and  the  average  cost 
per  pound  in  1900. 

In  this  table  is  presented  a  division 
of  the  paper  used  in  1900,  according 
to  the  several  classes  of  products 
which,    combined,    produced    the    total 


Pounds 

Cost. 

Average 
cost  per 

pound. 

cents. 

956,335,921 

202,196,263 

74,510,064 

$22.197,0.0 
9,356,490 
6.270,306 

2.3 
4.5 

8.4 

1,233,142,248 

$37,823,856 

3.1 

value  of  products  of  newspaper  and 
periodical  establishments.  About  one 
and  a  quarter  billions  of  pounds  was 
used  during  the  year  in  which  the  cen- 
sus was  undertaken.  This  large  quan- 
tity was  utilized  in  the  following  pro- 
portions : 


Per  cent. 

News 77.6 

Book  and  periodical 16.4 

Job  printing 6.0 


LIBRARIES    OF    THE    WORLD. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Libraries  of  the  world: 


Library. 


City. 


No.  of  Vols. 


Bibliothfeque  nationale 

British  Museum 

Imper.  publicnaja  biblioteka 

Konigliche  bibliothek 

Library  of  Congress 

Kon.  Hof-  u.  Staatsbibliothek 

K.  u.  k.  Hofbibliothek 

Universitats-  u.  landesbibliothek 

Public  Library 

Publicnyj  i  Rumjancovskij  musej 

Public  Library — Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden  Foundation. 

Biblioteca  nacional 

Bodleian  Library 

K.  k,  Universitats-bibliothek 

Harvard  University  Library 

Cambridge  University  Library 

Det  store  kongelige  bibliothek 

Universitats-bibliothek 

Universiteit  bibliotheek 

Kon.  bibliotheek 


Paris 2,602,000 

London 2,003,000 

St.  Petersburg 1,329,000 

Berlin 1,200,000 

Washington 1,000,000 

Munich 1,000.000 

Vienna 900,000 

Strasburg 814,000 

Boston 812.260 

Moscow 800,000 

New  York  City 787,700 

Madrid 600.000 

Oxford 600,000 

Vienna 596,526 

Cambridge  (U.  S.) 575,889 

Cambridge  (Eng.) 550,000 

Copenhagen 550,000 

Gottingen 506,814 

Amsterdam 500,000 

The  Hague 500,000 


THE   RAPID   EXTENSION   IN   THE   GATHERING   OF   NEWS. 


In  1886  the  New  York  World  re- 
ported the  battle  of  Majuba  Hill  in  six 
lines,  but  so  rapid  was  the  extension 
of  news  gathering  that,  fourteen  years 
later,  events  in  the  same  quarter  of 
the  globe  were  reported  to  the  great 
American  dailies  by  cable  as  fully  as 
though  close  at  hand.  The  destruction 
of  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  in  1902,  by 


an  eruption  of  Mont  PelC'e,  may  be 
mentioned  as  an  illustration  of  this 
tendency. 

The  cablegrams  which  detailed  that 
great  disaster  reached  American  news- 
papers by  w^ay  of  Brazil,  the  Azores 
and  Great  Britain,  costing  the  recipi- 
ents from  $2  to  $4  per  word,  with  fees 
for  precedence. 


CHAPTER  vra. 


TELEGRAPHS,    TELEPHONES,    SUBMARINE    CABLES, 
WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY,   AND    SIGNALING. 


LAND  LINES  OP  THE  WORLD. 


;taphs  throughout  the  worid,  correc 


I  SB  we  have  been  i 


Unglh 

Under- 

n  Mile». 
Total. 

Length 

"is,".:'-'""'- 

Pneu- 

Aerisl. 

Si 

Total. 

(y'^. 

African  Tmnscont'ntsl  Td.  Co, . 

1.MS 

"•5 

MM 

li 

Hi? 

is 

IS 
'■ffi 

11 

23.<m 
tm 

M.370 

104' 
28 

4.0S0 
u!s77 

B 
Ji 

4.tGI 

Sill 
.!:S 

B93 

B9;«M 

i;S79 

I.MS 
70.983 

21,S18 

3.352 

1,234  ■'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
1SI,£83  , 

27:870 

1,234 
181,883 

British  India  (India  Office).    !  . 

,7M 

■1 

28.7eS 

;:■* 

4.7«B 
30|SSS 

,131 

££a'T.rtE";:;: 

'■" 

1.3S0 

tel^e,.;: ;::::: ::;:;: 

■IS 

47! 

13.010 

10.7SS 

•5S 

13,42 

117. 1S4 
2.079 

104,012 

10.TM 

™f 

13,490 
303,800 

is 

288.828 

French     Indo-China    (Cc^h  in- 
China.     Cambodia.    Annam. 

Holland 

..te,irf.ssi.'.B.-- 

jfc';; -- 

1.004 

SCIENTIFIC   AMBEICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


LAND   LINES    OF  THE    W0RLD-^<»i/u>ua1. 


Length  of  Line,  in  Mil«. 

L„«h 

"Si* 

ictotBin 

Paeu- 

AeriiJ. 

Under- 
ground 

Total. 

A.M, 

Undcr- 

Total. 

<?ft. 

2S9 

;f:i 

llilM 

l;i 

i^.i;J9 
r-'.hs 

il 

■*-2« 
27.497 

ii 

E08 

508 

•1 

Malay  SUMii  (FeijeraMd). .... 

1 

! 

722 
130 

»l' 
179 

i 
i 

1 

699 
907 
T78 

as 

;i 

"■a 
"S 

■i 

48.7W 

'1 

3>96 
9.118 

4.948 

427 

■ " ■  '323 

M 

L74S 

7,829 
18,211 

SB 

IS 

2o,Hoa 

177!576 

11 

1,782 

i.mb:^ 

9.932 
3.795 

s;ii8 

192 

"m 

58 

NorthiSiri™!  Tei.  Co 

'•a 

IS 

:i=^IS^v:: 

4.900 

■•■3.097 

Total 

922.342 

11.367   i  933,70S 

3,387,7  Ifl 

184,438 

3.572.154 

879,835 

CorpotaUon. 

<  Exclunve  of  811  milea  of  m 
•  Eidueive  of  404.8  aautical 


MILEAGE  OF  LINES  AND  WIRES,  NUMBICR  OF  OFFICES.  AND 
TRAFFIC   OF   THE   WESTERN   UNION  TELEGRAPH   COMPANY. 


Year 
Ending 

Uil»of 

"fc' 

Nuin- 

Number  of 

^&rsir 

Officea. 

ToU. 

Coet. 

*m- 

198.517 

Lost 

23.120 

•No 

t  includ 

mgn 

g«(pro 

bably  1 

0.000 

000)  K 

nt 

oTe 

leaaec 

wirM 

or 

under 

-ailnnd 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


187 


The  greatly  increased  mileage  since 
1880  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that 
in  1881  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  absorbed  by  purchase  all  the 
lines  of  the  American  Union  and  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Telegraph   Com- 


cable  companies,  operating  eight  At- 
lantic cables,  and  guarantees  5  per  cent 
annual  dividends  on  the  stock  of  the 
American  Telegraph  and  Cable  Com- 
pany ;  amount  $14,000,000. 
Besides   the   above,   there   are   new 


A  -  —  tf  —  -  *  -    c  -  -    • 
w-  —  —  jr- K- 


THE    MORSE    TELEGRAPH     CODE. 
(Used  in  the  United  States.) 

*     />.te....     0...—  .    /(..•     f---      r— 


(/-  - 


I 

r 


z 


^. 


COMMA- 


-  —     COLON  (fC.O.J- 


SEMICOLON^  —  -  ^—  - 

OR  (s.  /._;--- 


Fefttoo  -  .  —  _-  . 

/HTEHnOSATIOM'—^  -  -  —  -      eXCLAMATION^—  ^-.  — ^  -  FARAOKAPH  *—  —  ^—  ^— 

PAt*£MTHeSl9^  ^—  •  —  —      Of*  AT  BE0IMMIN9  ^if?  /K^  •  •  -  •  «       .—  »     Of*  AT  CMO  (Pi  Y.)  "  ^  ""  "       — >     •>- 

WOTATMtt  -  -^  -  —  «  —  .  .^      O/^  AT  BeOIMMHB  (O-l*)-  -—  —       —  ^    Oft  AT    END  (Q-JJ 

OVtiTATIOM  WlTHfm  9UOTATI9H  (Q.X.J-  —  —  —        —  —  —  —       OA9$4  (o.  »-)^^  ""  •  ^—  ""  — 

4/w0CM4/«c<— •  -  -  -  — ^  i*  OM  AT  rnfmuma.  (y-*)"  -  — — '     —  ^— -  —   oa  at  emo  (v.j.J^^  ^^    ^.^^m^.^ 
Mrrtte/tfff.x.)"  -.  -  -      .  .^  •.  »  dollar  si9n(s.x.)  —  -  -      -  ^—  —  —   occimal  poimt—^  -  —  — — 

THE    INTERNATIONAL     TELEGRAPH     CODE. 

(The  Cable  Code.) 


d 


nt 


Bar  ^r  ^rm*ti»r%     —^  ••••»      —^  .^m.      ^...  .»^.  '  ^tmioo^  —    —  —     -  —       stMieoLOM^r^  »  —  —  —  ^^  . 

eonHA  —  —  —  — ^  —  ^—       gol6n  ^-^  —  — ^  —  —  —       mTemnoBATtoM  —  —  —  ^—  —  —         k^ual  ^—  »  —  -  — 

tMCLAMATlOM  ^—  ^—  —  -  ^—  — i—  MYPtteN  OA  OASM  ^—  -  -  —  —  —  ^AAtMTMtata  ^—  -  — ^  ^—  —  ^— 

^uoTATiom^  — ^  —  -  — ».—       uNOKALiMe  "  —  — —  —  —  —        eAAOtf  —  —  —  —  —  —  —         cmoss  —  "^—  —  ^^  - 

IMVITATtOH  TO    TmAM»Mtr  ^^  —  ^—  tVA/r  —  —   -  —  - 

J%ort    ei»tt0    Mseti    only  in    rtpmliticns   mn*i  t'»  tejct   ^t^rifien   •t^tirely   tt*  figures 

/w— -    Z--~^   J---  ^ s 4' 7 r 9 

<?—      UAmrom  rm ACTIO**  ^^  —' 


panies,  the  former  having  previously 
in  operation  over  12,000  miles  of  line 
and  the  latter  8,706  miles.  Capital 
stock  of  the  Western  Union,  $100,000,- 
000. 

The   Western   Union   has   exclusive 
contracts    with    several    international 


lines  of  telegraph  which  have  complied 
with  the  United  States  telegraph  act 
of  1866,  and  are  operating  wires  with 
or  without  connection  with  railway 
companies  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try.— Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United 
States. 


188 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MILEAGE   OF   LINES   AND   WIRES,    NUMBER   OF   OFFICES,    AND 
MESSAGES    SENT,   OF   THE   POSTAL   TELEGRAPH 

CABLE   COMPANY. 


Miles  of 

Poles  and 

Miles  of 

Year. 

Cable 

Operated 

but  not 

Owned. 

Poles  and 

Cable 

Owned. 

Miles  of 
Wires. 

Offices. 

Messages. 

1335 

2,811 
21.098 

23,587 
178,438 

260 
9,875 

1,428.690 

1897 

ie.bii 

13,628.064 

1903 

21,319 

27,482 

276,245 

19,977 

21,600,577 

The  aggregate  mileage  of  telegraph 
lines  which  carry  varying  numbers  of 
wires,  according  to  the  business  re- 
quirements of  the  localities  through 
which  they  run,  in  the  United  States 


open  for  public  business  exceeds  210,- 
000  miles,  besides  railways,  Govern- 
ment, private  and  telephonic  lines ; 
the  length  of  the  latter  not  being  ascer- 
tainable. 


STATISTICS    OF   THE   AMERICAN    TELEPHONE   AND   TELEGRAPH 

COMPANY   AND    OPERATING    COMPANIES    ASSOCIATED 

WITH  IT  ON  JANUARY  1,  FROM  1897  TO  1903. 


Data. 


Exchanges 

Branch  offices 

Miles  of  wire: 

On  poles 

On  buildings 

Underground 

Submarine-. 

Total  miles  of  exchange  service  wire 

Total  circuits 

Total  employees 

Total  subscribers 

Length  of  wire  operated miles.  , 

Instruments  in  hands  of  licensees  under  rental  at 

beginning  of  year No. .  . 

Daily  exchange  connections * '    .  . 

Average  daily  calls  per  subscriber "    ,  , 

Received  in  rentals  of  telephones dollars. , 

Dividends  paid  stockholders " 

Capital " 

Gross  earnings " 

Net  earnings .  ^^._ .  .  ._ " 

1  Information  not  collected  separately. 


1897. 


967 
832 

286,632 

12,594 

234,801 

2,818 

536,845 

264,645 

14,425 

325.244 

805,711 

772,627 
2,630.071 

8.3 
1,597,959 
3,682,949 


5,130,845 
4,169,675 


1900. 


1,239 
1,187 

609,036 

15,087 

489,250 

3,404 

1,016,777 

422,620 

25,741 

632,946 

1,518,609 

1,580,101 
5,173,803 

8.2 
2,427,038 
4,078,601 
89,100,500 
9,534,499 
5,486,058 


1903. 


1,514 
1,861 

1,109,017 

1,328,685 

6,048 

2,443,750 

742,654 

50,350 

1,277,983 

3,281.662 

3,150,320 

9,322,951 

7.3 


TELEGRAPHIC   TIME   SIGNALS    SENT    OUT   AT   NOON   DAILY, 
EXCEPT   SUNDAYS   AND   HOLIDAYS,   BY   THE  U.   S. 

NAVAL   OBSERVATORY. 


The  time  service  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Observatory  has  continued  regularly  to 
send  out  daily  telegraphic  time  signals 
at  noon,  seventy-fifth  meridian  time, 
with  an  average  error  for  the  year  of 
only   Os   15.     The   widespread   impor- 


tance of  this  service  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  it  furnishes  absolute  standard 
time  not  only  for  navigators  at  all  the 
principal  seaports,  but  for  the  entire 
country  except  the  Pacific  Coast,  which 
gets  a  similar  signal  from  the  Naval 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


189 


Observatory  at  the  Mare  Island  Yard. 
Moreover,  all  of  this  invaluable  ser- 
vice is  rendered  to  the  country  at  no 
expense  whatever  to  the  Government, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  merely  incidental  to 
the  work  and  facilities  required  for 
the  rating  of  chronometers  for  naval 
vessels. 

To  illustrate  the  wide  distribution 
of  this  time  signal,  it  is  of  interest  to 
record  the  fact  that  it  goes  out  daily 
over  the  wires  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company,  the  Postal  Tele- 
graph Company,  the  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company,  the 
electrical  department  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  the  National  Electric 
Supply  Company.  There  are  now  18 
Government  time-balls  and  some  40,- 
000  public  and  private  clocks  corrected 
daily  by  naval  time  signals. 

The  entire  series  of  noon  signals 
sent  out  daily  over  the  wires  is  shown 
graphically  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram. This  represents  the  signals  as 
they  would  be  recorded  on  a  chrono- 
graph, where  a  pen  draws  a  line  upon 
a  sheet  of  paper  moving  along  at  a 
uniform  rate  beneath  it,  and  is  actuat- 
ed by  an  electro-magnet  so  as  to  make 
a  jog  at  every  tick  of  the  transmitting 
clock.  The  electric  connections  of  the 
clock  are  such  as  to  omit  certain  sec- 
onds, as  shown  by  the  breaks  in  the 
record.  These  breaks  enable  anyone 
who  is  listening  to  a  sounder  in  a  tele- 
graph or  telephone  oflSce  to  recognize 
the  middle  and  end  of  each  minute, 
especially  the  end  of  the  last  minute, 
when  there  is  a  longer  interval  that  is 
followed  by  the  noon  signal.  During 
this  last  long  interval,  or  10-second 
break,  those  who  are  in  charge  of  time 
balls  and  of  clocks  that  are  corrected 
electrically  at  noon  throw  their  local 
lines  into  circuit  so  that  the  noon  sig- 
nal drops  the  time  balls  and  corrects 
the  clocks. 

This  series  of  noon  signals  is  sent 
continuously  over  the  wires  all  over 
the  United  States  for  an  interval  of 
five  minutes  immediately  preceding 
noon.  For  the  country  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  the  signals  are  sent 
out  by  the  Observatory  at  Washing- 
ton and  end  at  noon  of  the  75th  meri- 
dian, standard  time,  corresponding  to 
11  a.  m.  of  the  90th  meridian  and  10 
a.  m.  of  the  105th  meridian.  For  the 
country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
they  are  sent  out  by  the  Observatory  at 
the  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  Califor- 
nia, and  end  at  noon  of  the  120th  meri- 
dian, the  standard  time  meridian  of  the 
Pacific  Coast.    The  transmitting  clock 


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190 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


that  sends  out  the  signals  is  corrected 
very  accurately,  shortly  before  noon, 
from  the  mean  of  three  standard  clocks 
that  are  rated  by  star  sights  with  a 
meridian  transit  instrument.  The 
noon  signal  is  seldom  in  error  to  an 
amount  greater  than  one  or  two  tenths 
of  a  second,   although   a  tenth   more 


may  be  added  by  the  relays  in  use  on 
long  telegraph  lines.  Electric  trans- 
mission over  a  continuous  wire  is 
practically  instantaneous.  For  time 
signals  at  other  times  than  noon,  simi- 
lar signals  can  be  sent  out  by  telegraph 
or  telephone  from  the  same  clock  that 
sends  out  the  noon  signal. 


STANDARD  TIME 


The  desirability  of  using  a  uniform 
standard  of  time,  independent  of  local 
time,  was  recognized  at  a  very  early 
date.  The  differences  of  local  time 
arise  from  the  use  of  solar  motion  as 
a  time-measurer.  We  call  the  time  noon 
when  the  sun  is  opposite  the  meridian 
of  the  place  where  we  are  living,  and 
in  consequence  of  ±he  sun's  motion 
from  east  to  west,  the  more  easterly 
of  two  places  will  have  the  earlier 
time,  the  difference  in  hours  being  ex- 
actly l-15th  of  the  longitudinal  differ- 
ence in  degrees.  In  other  words,  15 
degrees  of  longitude  correspond  to  a 
time  difference  of  one  hour.  Peculiar 
difficulties  were  encountered  in  this 
country  on  account  of  its  vast  longi- 
tudinal extent,  and  the  inconvenience 
became  very  serious  with  the  exten- 
sion of  the  railroad  and  telegraph  sys- 
tems. 

The  movement  which  resulted  in  the 
adaption  of  the  present  time  system 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  in  a 
report  on  the  subject  by  the  Ameri- 
can Meteorological  Society,  which  was 
submitted  at  a  meeting  of  the  General 
Time  Convention  held  on  Oct.  13, 
1881,  proposing  a  single  standard  for 
the  whole  country  and  suggesting  the 
hour  theory  as  an  alternative  proposi- 
tion. The  matter  was  referred  to  the 
secretary,  Mr.  W.  T.  Allen,  and  com- 
munications were  invited  from  parties 
interested.  The  proposal  to  fix  one 
standard  of  time  for  the  whole  country 
was  supported  by  many  competent  au- 
thorities ;  but,  although  there  was 
much  to  recommend  it  from  a  scien- 
tific point  of  view,  it  was  found  to  be 
impracticable  on  account  of  the  many 
discrepancies  which  would  occur  be- 
tween time  by  the  clock  and  solar 
time.  The  system  which  found  most 
favor,  and  was  finally  adopted,  pro- 
posed the  division  of  the  country  into 
four  time  sections,  each  of  15  degrees 
longitude  (7%  degrees  or  30  minutes 
on  each  side  of  the  meridian),  com- 
mencing with  the  75th  meridian.  In- 
side each  of  these  sections  time  was  to 


be  uniform,  the  timie  of  each  section 
differing  from  that  next  to  it  by  ex- 
actly one  hour.  A  scheme  was  drawn 
up  in  accordance  with  these  principles, 
and  at  a  meeting  of  the  convention 
held  in  April,  1883,  the  following*  reso- 
lutions were  adopted : 

(1.)  That  all  roads  now  using  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Toronto,  Hamilton,  or  Wash- 
ington time  as  standard,  based  upon 
meridians  east  of  those  points  or  ad- 
jacent thereto,  shall  be  governed  by  the 
75th  meridian  or  Eastern  time  (4  min- 
utes slower  than  New  York  time.) 

(2.)  That  all  roads  now  using  Co- 
lumbus, Savannah,  Atlanta,  Cincin- 
nati, Louisville,  Indianapolis,  Chicago, 
Jefferson  City,  St.  Paul,  or  Kansas 
City  time,  or  standards  based  upon 
meridians  adjacent  thereto,  shall  be 
run  by  the  90th  meridian  time,  to  be 
called  Central  time,  one  hour  slower 
than  Eastern  time  and  9  minutes  slow- 
er than  Chicago  time. 

(3.)  That  west  of  the  above-named 
sections  the  roads  shall  be  run  by  the 
105th  and  the  120th  meridian  times 
respectively,  two  and  three  hours 
slower  than  Eastern  time. 

(4.)  That  all  changes  from  one  hour 
standard  to  another  shall  be  made  at 
the  termini  of  roads  or  at  the  ends  of 
divisions. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of 
reckoning  time  are  obvious.  Every 
town,  instead  of  regulating  its  business 
by  its  own  local  time,  uses  the  time  of 
the  nearest  of  the  standard  meridians, 
and  the  difference  in  time  in  actual  use 
in  any  two  cities  will  be  an  exact  num- 
ber of  hours,  instead  of  a  number  of 
hours,  minutes  and  seconds.  A  trav- 
eler, therefore,  wishing  to  reset  his 
watch,  need  only  change  the  hour, 
without  paying  any  attention  to  the 
minutes.  Having  proceeded^  e.  gr., 
from  New  York  to  any  town  within 
the  Central  time  zone,  he  has  simply 
to  set  his  watch  one  hour  slow  of.  New 
York  time,  and  need  not  compare .  it 
with  any  of  the  local  clocks. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


198 


SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPHS.* 


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The  submarine  telegraphs  of  the 
world  number  1,815.  Their  aggregate 
length  is  nearly  221J292.441  miles; 
their  total  cost  is  estimatea  at  $300.- 
000.000.  and  the  number  of  messages 
ahkiually  transmitted  over  them  at 
more  than  6,000,000.  All  the  grand  di- 
visions of  the  earth  are  now  connected 
by  their  wires,  and  from  country  to 
country  and  island  to  island  the 
thoughts  and  words  of  mankind  are 
instantaneously  transmitted.  Darkest 
Africa  now  converses  daily  with  en- 
lightened Europe  or  America,  and  the 
great  events  of  the  morning  are  known 
in  the  evening  throughout  the  inhabi- 
ted world.  In  August,  1902,  authority 
was  granted  to  the  Commercial  Pacific 
Cable  Company  of  the  United.  States 
to  construct  a  cable  line  from  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  the  United  States  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  Guam,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  the  Asiatic 
coast,  with  a  branch  line  to  Japan. 
The  first  message  was  sent  over  it 
July  4,  1903. 

The  British  Pacific  cable  was  com- 
pleted on  October  31st  and  was  opened 
for  traffic  on  December  8th,  1902.  The 
cable  is  "all  British,"  and  runs  from 
Vancouver,  on  the  west  coast  of  Can- 
ada, to  Fanning  Island,  Fiji,  and  Nor- 
folk Island  in  the  Pacific,  and  thence 
by  means  of  two  cables  to  New  Zea- 
land and  Queensland  respectively.  Its 
total  length  is  about  7,800  miles. 

The  developments  in  the  construc- 
tion, laying  and  operating  of  subma- 
rine cables  and  in  their  availability  for 
general  public  use  have  quite  kept  pace 
with  their  extension  throughout  the 
civilized  world.  From  a  mere  gutta- 
percha coated  wire  the  submarine  con- 
ductor of  electricity  has  developed  in  a 
half  century  into  a  great  cable  having 
a  central  copper  core  surrounded  by 
numerous  layers  of  non-conducting 
material  and  protected  by  a  steel  wire 
wound  spirally  about  it,  and  in  turn 
further  protected  by  waterproof  and 
insect-proof  wrappings.  From  a  steam- 
er-towed ocean  barge  the  facilities  for 
laying  have  developed  to  a  flfeet  of 
nearly  fifty  steam  vessels,  with  every 
facility  for  laying,  picking-up,  splicing, 
and  repairing  the  cable  lines.  From  a 
speed  rate  of  three  words  per  minute, 
which  was  made  on  the  first  trans-At- 
lantic cables,  the  speed  of  transmission 
has  been  accelerated  to  fifty  words  per 
minute,  and  even  more  than  that,  with 


the  automatic  transmitters  now  coming 
into  use  with  cable  lines,  while  by  the 
duplexing  of  the  cables  their  carrying 
capacity  is  doubled.  From  a  cost  to 
the  sender  of  $100  per  message,  which 
was  originally  charged  on  the  first 
trans- Atlantic  cables,  the  rate'  from 
New  York  to  London  and  the  great 
cities  on  the  continent  of  Europe  has 
fallen  to  25  cents  per  word.  From 
several  hours  required  for  the  trans- 
mission of  a  message  and  receipt 
of  a  response,  the  time  has  been  so  re- 
duced that  messages  from  the  Execu- 
tive Mansion  to  the  battlefield  at  San- 
tiago were  sent  and  a  response  received 
within  twelve  minutes,  while  a  message 
sent  from  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  Washington  to  the  House  of 
Parliament  in  London  in  the  chess 
match  of  1898  was  transmitted  and  the 
reply  received  in  thirteen  and  one-half 
seconds. 

The  effect  of  this  ready  and  inexpen- 
sive method  of  transmitting  thoughts 
and  words  from  continent  to  continent 
throughout  the  civilized  world  is  ap- 
parent in  the  rapid  development  of  in- 
ternational commerce  since  it  began. 
The  first  successful  cable  line  between 
the  United  States  and  Europe  was 
put  into  operation  in  1866.  In  that 
year  our  commerce  with  Europe 
amounted  to  $652,232,289 ;  in  1876,  to 
$728,959,053:  in  1886,  to  $898,911,- 
504;  in  1896,  to  $1,091,682,874,  and 
in  11898,  to  $1,279,739,936,  while  our 
commerce  with  the  whole  world,  which 
in  1866  amounted  to  $783,671,588,  had 
by  1902  reached  the  enormous  sum  of 
$2,285,000,000. 

During  the  last  seven  years  Ger- 
many has  laid  7,375  miles  of  ocean 
cables,  at  a  cost  of  about  $6,- 
000,000.  In  1898  a  cable,  73  miles 
long,  was  laid  between  Sassnitz  and 
Trelleborg,  and  German  Southwest 
Africa  was  connected  with  the  exist- 
ing cable  system  by  a  line  154  miles 
long;  and  in  1900  the  first  German- 
American  cable  was  laid  between  Em- 
den  and  New  York,  by  the  Azores,  a 
distance  of  4,813  miles.  About  the 
same  time  the  first  German  cables 
along  the  Chinese  coast  were  laid ;  one 
of  these  was  from  Tsin-tau  (Kiao- 
chau)  to  Chifu,  285  miles  long,  and 
the  second  connected  the  former  place 
with  Shanghai  and  is  438  miles.  In 
1901  a  fifth  cable  connecting  Germany 
and  England  was  laid,  as  well  as  a 


*  From  the  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for  July,  1902,     The  figures  are  now  some- 
what larger. 


194 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


telephone  cable  from  Fehmarn  to  La- 
land.  A  second  German  cable  to  New 
York  by  the  Azores  has  been  com- 
menced and  will  be  completed  before 
the  end  of  1904,  while  a  line  to  Vigo, 
1,300  miles  in  length,  has  been  made. 
Germany  is  contemplating  an  extension 
of  her  cables  by  constructing  lines  be- 
tween Alenado  and  Guam,  in  the  Car- 
oline Islands,  and  the  Pelew  Islands 
and  Shanghai. 

An  International  Telegraph  Con- 
ference opened  in  London,  May  26th, 
1903,  all  the  States  adhering  to  the 
International  Telegraph  Convention 
being  represented.    The  Conference  re- 


vised the  rules  as  to  the  use  of  code 
and  cipher  language  in  international 
telegraphy.  The  decision  of  the  last 
Conference,  that  code  telegraphy 
should,  after  a  certain  date,  be  limited 
to  the  words  contained  in  the  official 
vocabulary  prepared  by  the  Interna- 
tional Telegraph  Bureau,  has  been  re- 
scinded. In  future,  any  combination 
of  letters  not  exceeding  ten  in  number 
will  be  passed  as  a  code  word,  provided 
that  it  is  pronounceable  according  to 
the  usage  of  any  of  the  languages  to 
which  code  words  have  hitherto  been 
limited — namely,  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portu- 


SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT  ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Partly  extracted  from  the  Official  Documents  issued  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
Telegraphic  Administrations,  Berne.  With  **The  Electrician's"  corrections  to  date  and 
additions. 


No.  of 

Cables 

with  One 

or  More 

Cores. 

Length  in  Nautical  Miles. 

Country. 

Of 
Cables. 

Of 
Conductors. 

Argentine  Republic ' . . 

13 

47 

1 

12 

23 

5 

157 

1 

26 

2 

1 

156 

7 

156 

3 

2 

189 

1177 

46 

32 

5 

36 

103 

1 

1 

147 

16 

322 

4 

19 

12 

1 

1 

3 

15 

1  17 

2 

4 

21 

1 

1 

59.824 
224.250 
211.000 
54.514 
37.779 
84.000 

2,168.013 

0.538 

334.750 

66.300 

113.000 

171.100 

891.490 

4,913.824 

1,567.238 

1,697.326 

2,796.695 

2.265.830 

54.931 

241.543 

7,837.770 

1,063.088 

2<  154. 883 

1.930 

1.000 

51.789 

285.682 

291.489 

115.050 

52.100 

328.282 

70.157 

3.000 

49.360 

1,771.346 

208.488 

9.827 

4.750 

346.558 

4.500 

3.750 

138.544 

Austria 

235.339 

Bahamas 

211.000 

Belgium 

Brazil 

279.856 
66.414 

British  Guiana 

95.000 

British  India,  Indo-European  Telegraph  Department 
Government  Administration 

1,711.885 

Bulgaria 

0.538 

Canada , 

Ceylon  and  India  (Joint) 

334.750 
66.300 

China 

113.000 

Denmark 

880.300 

Dutch  Indies 

France  and  Algeria 

891.490 
5,847.200 

France  (West  Africa) 

1,567.238 

French  Indo-China  (Cochin  China,  Tonquin,  and  Amoy) 
Germany 

1,697.326 
5,654.977 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  .  , ! 

7,551.994 

Greece 

54.931 

Holland 

780.449 

Tnter-Colonial  System 

7,837.770 

Italy 

1,112.458 

Japan - 

2,851 .  173 

Macao 

1.930 

New  Caledonia 

1.000 

New  South  Wales 

108.459 

New  Zealand 

290.466    • 

Norway 

375.787 

Portugal 

115.050 

Queensland 

67.520 

Russia  in  Europe,  and  the  Caucasus 

408.387 

Russia  in  Asia 

70.157 

Senegal 

3.000 

South  Australia 

49.360 

Spain 

1,771.346 

Sweden 

368.431 

Switzerland 

13.400 

Tasmania 

19.000 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 

368.734 

Victoria 

4.500 

Western  Australia 

3.750 

1,378 

32,609.748 

44,006.813 

Including  half  of  Cables  owned  jointly  with  other  Administrations. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


195 


guese,  and  Latin.  Other  combinations 
of  letters  will  be  counted  at  five  let- 
ters to  the  word;  the  prohibition  of  let- 
ter cipher  which  has  hitherto  prevailed 
being  removed.  These  alterations,  to- 
gether with  a  number  of  other  changes 


in  the  detailed  regulations,  take  effect 
on  July  1st,  1904.  The  above  informa- 
tion is  taken  from  Reports  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Statistics,  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor,  and  Hazel I's 
Annual. 


SUMMARY     OF    CABLES    OWNED     BY    PRIVATE    COMPANIES. 


Private  Companies. 


African  Direct  Telegraph  Company , 

Amazon  Telegraph  Company , 

Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company 

Black  Sea  Tel»^aph  Company , 

Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  Company , 

Central  and  South  American  Telegraph  Company 

Commercial  Cable  Company 

Commercial  Pacific 

Compagnie  Fran^aise  des  C&bles  T(^ldgraphiques 

Cuba  Submarine  Tel^raph  Company 

Deutsch  Atlantische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft.  . 

Deutsche  See-TelMfraphen-Gesellschaft 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Company 

Direct  United  States  Cable  Company 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Company 

Eastern  Telegraph  Company 

Eastern  Extension,  Australasia  and  China  Telegraph  Company. 

Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company 

Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph  Company 

Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company , 

Halifax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Company. , 

India  Rubber,  Gutta  Percha  and  Telegraph  Works  Company . , 

Indo-European  Telegraph  Company 

Mexican  Telegraph  Company 

Pacific  and  European  Telegraph  Company 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Company 

South  American  Cable  Company 

Spanish  National  Submarine  Telegraph  Company 

United  States  and  Hayti  Telegrapn  and  Cable  Company 

West  African  Telegraph  Company 

West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Company 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Company 

1  Western  Telegraph  Company 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 


Total. 


No.  of 

Cables 

with  One 

or  More 

Cores. 


10 

15 

14 

1 

9 

15 

11 

4 

32 

10 

3 

1 

3 

2 

2 

139 

34 

2 

14 

28 

1 

2 

3 

3 


3 
2 
1 
1 
6 
7 

24 

27 

8 


437 


Length  of 

Cables 

in  Nautical 

Miles. 


3,031.000 

1.^26.000 

9.507.660 

337 

53 

7,500 

13,212 

7,846 

12,102 

1,162 

6,057 

1,111 

723 

3,099 

1,265.300 

39,749.360 

24,802.240 

1,053.150 

9,068.052 

7,003.000 

849.960 

137.678 

22.000 

1,529.000 


147 
940 
500 
310 
747 
423 
000 
868 
979 
460 
958 


138.000 
2,065.224 

927.770 
1,389.000 
1,470.867 
1,975 
4,639 
17,283 
7,351 


100 
000 
000 
000 


188,682.693 


^  Including  London  Piatino-Brazilian  and  Montevidean  and  Brazilian  Companies. 


GENERAL    SUMMARY. 


Ownership. 


Government  Administrations. 
Private  Companies 

Total 


No.  of 

Cables 

with  One 

or  More 

Cores. 


Length  of 

Cables  in 

Nautical 

Miles. 


32.609.748 
188,682.693 


221,292.441 


-Electrical  Trades  Directory. 


196 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SUBMARINE     CABLES     AND 
^For  explanation  of  letters  and  numbers 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


197 


INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE, 
shown   on    the   above  map,  see  page    199.} 


198 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFORMATION    PERTAINING    TO    SUBMARINE    TELEGRAPH 
LINES.   THEIR   CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.    1902. 


LoB^h  of  first  successful  cable, 
miles 

Length  of  first  successful  Atlan- 
tic cable,  miles 

Length  of  direct  United  States 
cable  ( Ballinskelligs  Bay,  Ire- 
land, to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia), 
miles 

Length  of  French  cable  (Brest. 
France,  to  Cape  Cod,  Massa- 
chusetts), miles 

Distance  from  San  Francisco  to 
Hawaii,  miles 

Distance  from  Hawaii  to  Wake 
Island,  miles 

Distance  from  Wake  Island  to 
Guam,  miles 

Distance  from  Guam  to  Manila, 
miles. 

Distance  from  Manila  to  Asiatic 
Coast,  miles 

Depth  of  water  in  which  first  suc- 
cessful cable  was  laid,  feet .... 

Depth  of  Atlantic  cable  lines, feet. 

Greatest  depth  at  which  cable 
has  been  laid  between  Haiti 
and  Windward  Islands,  f^et  . . 

Greatest  depth  between  San 
Francisco  and  Hawaii,  feet. . . 

Greatest  depth  between  Hawaii 
and  Manila  (estimated),  feet.  . 

Capital  of  first  Atlantic  cable 
company 

Contract  price  of-  cable  for  first 
Atlantic  line 

Contract  price  of  cable  for  first 
successful  Atlantic  cable  line . . 

Present  cost  per  mile  of  cable 
(estimate  by  Bright) 

Cost  of  lajdng  per  mile,  average . . 

Number  of  words  per  minute  sent 
on  first  line 

Number  of  words  per  minute  on 
first  successful  Atlantic  cable 
line  at  beginning. 

Ntmiber  of  words  per  minute  on 
first  successful  Atlantic  cable 
line  after  experimental  stage . . 

Present  rate  of  speed  (without 
duplex) 


25 
2.134 

2.564 

3.250 
2.089 
2,040 
1.290 
1,520 

•630 

120 
14,000 

18,000 

18.300 

19.600 

$1,750,000 

$1,125,000 

$3,000,000 

$750 
$375 


8 

15 
25 


50 

90 

16 
13 
25 


$100 

$50 

$1 

$0.25 

193,000 


Present  rate  by  automatic  sys- 
tem (without  duplex) 

Increased  use  of  wire  by  duplex- 
ing, per  cent 

Number  of  cables  laid  across  the 
North  Atlantic 

Number  now  working. 

Average  life  of  cable,  years 

Original  rates  for  messages,  first 
Atlantic  lines  (minimum  20 
words  or  less) 

On  first  reduction  (minimum,  20 
words  or  less) 

Original  word  rate,  without  mini- 
mum  

Present  word  rate,  without  mini- 
mum  

Length  of  telegraph  cables  of  the 
world,  miles 

Length  of  land  lines  of  the  world 
(1898)  (estimate  by  Bright), 
miles See  page  185 

Cost  of  cable  lines  of  the  world 

(estimate  by  Bright) $250,000,000 

Cost  of  land  lines  of  the  world 

(estimate  by  Bright) $310,000,000 

Total  length  of  telegraph  wires, 
land  and  cable  (estimate  by 
Bright),  miles 

Nimiber  of  cable  messages  sent 
annually  (estimate  by  Bright) . 

Per  cent  of  world's  lines  built  by 
governments 

Per  cent  built  by  private  enter- 
prise  

Time  of  message  and  answer. 
Washington  to  Santiago  battle- 
field and  return,  minutes 

Time  of  message,  Washington  to 
London  and  reply  in  chess 
match  of  1898,  seconds 

Number  of  cables  owned  by 
nations 

Length  of  cables  owned  by 
nations,  miles 

Number  of  cables  owned  by  pri- 
vate companies 

Length  of  cables  owned  by  pri- 
vate companies,  miles. 

Longest  single  line  without  inter- 
mediate landing,  miles 3,250 


2.300,000 

6,000,000 

10 

90 


12 


1,380 

21,528 

370 

171,679 


a         h       c       d      e      J 


THE   CABLE   ALPHABET. 

n       I       J         A         ''      m     n      a        p 


The  cut  above  shows  the  Morse  Code  as  recorded  by  a  syphon  recorder.  Ssrphon 
recorders  are  used  for  receiving  cable  messages.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  spaces  are 
represented  by  horizontal  lines,  dots  by  loops  above  the  space  lines,  and  dashes  by  loops 
below  the  space  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


199 


SUBMARINE  CABLES   AND  INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE. 


The  International  Date  Line  is  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  irregularly,  but  trending 
generally  in  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion. The  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
are  separated  in  such  a  way  that  all 
those  which  lie  to  the  east  of  it  carry 
the  same  date  as  the  United  States, 
while  all  those  on  the  west  of  it  use 
the  same  date  as  Japan  and  Australia. 
Our  map  on  pages  19G  and  197  shows 
this  date  line. 


The  submarine  cable  connections 
that  are  marked  with  letters  represent 
the  telegraph  cables  that  are  owned 
and  operated*  by  sovereign  states. 
Those  that  are  marked  with  numbers 
represent  telegraph  cables  that  are 
owned  and  operated  by  private  com- 
panies. The  explanation  of  the  names 
of  the  countries  that  the  letters  rep- 
resent and  of  the  names  of  the  com- 
panies that  the  numbers  stand  for  is 
subjoined : 


GOVERNMENTS. 

A. 

Austria. 

G. 

Germany. 

Sw. 

Sweden. 

B. 

Belgium. 

Gr. 

Greece. 

T. 

Turkey. 
United  States 

Br. 

Great  Britain. 

I. 

Italy. 

U.S. 

C. 

China. 

J. 

Japan. 

P. 

Portugal. 

C.C. 

Cochin  China. 

M. 

Mexico. 

R. 

Russia. 

D. 

Denmark. 

N. 

Netherlands. 

S. 

Spain. 

F. 

France. 

PRIVATE    COMPANIES. 


1.  Liirect  Spanish  Telegraph  Company. 

2.  Halifax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Company. 

3.  Spanish  National  Submarine  Telegraph 

Comi>any. 

4.  Wcist  African  Telegraph  Company. 

5.  Black  Sea  Telegraph  Company. 

6.  Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company. 

7.  Eastern  Telegraph  Company. 

8.  Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph 

Comi>any. 

9.  Eastern     Extension,    Australasia,     and 

China  Telegraph  Company. 

10.  Ans^o-American  Telegraph  Company. 

11.  Direct  United  States  Cable  Company. 

12.  Compagnie  Fran^aise  des  C&bles  T^l<5- 

graphiques. 

13.  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. 

14.  The  Commercial  Cable  Company. 

15.  Brazilian   Submarine  Telegraph  Com- 

pany. 


16.  African  Direct  Telegraph  Company. 

17.  Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company. 

18.  West    India    and    Panama    Telegraph 

Company. 

19.  Deutsche  See-Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 

20.  Western    and    Brazil   Telegraph   Com- 

pany. 

21.  River  Plate  Telegraph  Company. 

22.  Mexican  Telegraph  Company. 

23.  Central  and  South  American  Telegraph 

Company. 

24.  West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Com- 

pany. 

25.  South  American  Cable  Company. 

26.  Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company. 

27.  United  States  and  Hayti  Telegraph  and 

Cable  Company. 

28.  Direct  West  India  Cable  Company. 

29.  The   Pacific    Commercial  Cable  Com- 

pany. 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY. 


Wireless  telegraphy  is,  in  theory, 
closely  allied  to  heliography,  or  signal- 
ing with  flashes  of  light.  The  light 
used,  however,  is  produced  electrically 
and  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  up  of  very 
long  waves,  called  Hertzian  waves, 
which  vibrate  too  slowly  to  affect  the 
retina.  The  eye  can  only  discern 
waves  which  make  from  4,000  billions 
to  7,000  billions  vibrations  per  min- 
ute. However,  the  Hertzian  ray  re- 
sembles light  in  that  it  can  be  reflected 
by  a  metallic  plate  and  can  be  refract- 
ed by  a  prism  of  pitch,  can  be  brought 
to  a  focus  with  a  pitch  lens,  and  may 
be  polarized.  Owing  to  the  great 
length  of  the  Hertzian  waves,  almost 
all  substances  are  transparent  to  them. 
The  Hertzian  waves  were  discovered 
by  Professor  Heinrich  Hertz,  a  young 


German  philosopher,  during  his  ex- 
periments with  the  spark  discharge  of 
Leyden  jars  and  of  the  Ruhmkorff  coil 
in  1886  and  1887. 

He  found  that  when  a  spark  leaped 
the  gap  between  the  terminals,  electric 
oscillations  took  place  in  these  termi- 
nals which  set  up  magnetic  waves  in 
the  surrounding  space,  capable  in  turn 
of  setting  up  similar  oscillations  in 
any  adjacent  conductor  lying  at  an 
angle  to  them.  The  waves  were  detect- 
ed by  using  a  "resonator,"  which  was 
merely  a  circle  or  a  rectangle  of  cop- 
per wire  formed  with  a  gap  in  one  side. 
When  the  induction  coil  was  in  opera- 
tion and  the  resonator .  was  held,  near 
the  coil,  a  tiny  stream  of  sparks  would 
leap  across  the  resonator  gap.  To  bet- 
ter understand  this  phenomenon  take 
as  a  crude  example  two  vertical  rods 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  a  pool  of  water  and  on  each  a  float 
free  to  aiide  vertkally  on  the  rod. 
Now,  if  ooe  of  these  floats  be  moved 
up  and  down  upon  its  rod,  It  produces 


A    TYPICAL    WIRELESS    TELEORAPH 
STATION. 

waves  ID  the  water  just  as  the  electric 
oscillat'on  produce  a  waves  in  the 
ether.  These  spread  out  in  all  directions 
and  on  reaching  the  other  float  cause 


cillatio. 


n  the 


electric    i 


Without  going  Into  a  detailed  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  wireless 
telegraphy  from  Hertz's  experiments,  it 
maj  be  stated  that  the  essential  diSer- 
ence  between  the  apparatus  used  bj 
Hertz  in  his  experiments  and  the  sev- 

■      the    I 


The 


practically  thi 
called  the  antL_ 
terminal  o(  the 
minal  is  connected 
purpose  being  to  in 
capacity  of  the  ten 

ing  the  oscillatioos  uy 
they  are 


vertical  wire 
9  connected  to  one 
and  the  other  ter- 
vith  the  earth,  the 
rease  the  electrical 
lioal  rods  and  pm- 
lustead  of  p 


od 


.  jf  an  ... 
ordinarily 
a  oynamo  ana  a  step-up 
except    for    telegraphing 
distances.     But  even  with 
we  would  not  be  able  to 
r  any  appreciable  distance 
upon  the  Mertz  resonator 
g  a  message,  for,  owing  to 
the  waves  spread  out  in 
3   from    the    transmitting 
receiving  antenna  is  acted 
very   small   proportion   of 
pended  by  the  transmitter, 
decreases  very  rap- 
between  the  trans- 


i  the  r 


In 


idl}  as  the  di 

mitter  and  11 ._   ._ 

order  then  to  detect  the  rays  a 
distances,  a  very  sensitive  instrument 
called  the  "coherer"  has  been  invent- 
ed. The  coherer  in  its  usual  form 
consists  of  a  glass  tube  with  two  metal 
pistons  fitted  therein  between  which  a 
quantity  of  nickel  fliings  is  placed. 
The  latter  forms  an  imperfect  electri- 
cal contact  between  the  pistons,  and 
taltes  the  place  of  the  spark  gap  in 
the  receiving  antenna.  When  the  ob- 
cillations  are  set  up  in  the  antenna  by 
the  Hertzian  waves,  due  to  their  high 
pressure  or  voltage,  they  break  through 
the  imperfect  contact  of  the  coherer, 
causing  the  filinga  therein  to  cohere  or 
string  together  and  thus  produce  a 
much  better  electric  path  through  the 
coherer.  The  action  is  microscopic 
and  cannot  be  detected  with  the  naked 
eye.  However,  the  coherer,  aside  from 
being  a  part  of  the  antenna  circuit,  is 
also  made  a  part  of  a  local  battery  cir- 
cuit, which  contains  a  telegraph  re- 
reiver,  and  whenever  the  electric  os- 
cillations open  a  good  path  through 
the  filings  for  the  local  circuit,  the 
telegraph  instrument  will  be  energized 
by  the  local  battery  only.  In  order 
to  break  this  path  after  the  osciliationB 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


201 


have  ceased,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
cause  the  filings  to  decohere,  they  are 
constantly-  jarred  apart  by  means  of 
the  *'tapper,"  which  is  in  reality  an 
electric  bell  with  the  gong  removed 
and  the  clapper  striking  the  coherer 
tube  instead.  Carbon  granules  may  be 
substituted  for  metallic  filings,  and  in 
this  case  no  tapper  is  necessary,  the 
coherer  being  self-restoring. 

In  transmitting  messages  a  tele- 
graph key  in  the  primary  circuit  of  the 
induction  coil  is  operated  according  to 
the  usual  Morse  code,  and  this  causes 
sparks  to  leap  the  spark  gap  at  corre- 
sponding intervals.  These  signals  will 
then  be  transmitted  by  the  Hertzian 
waves  to  the  receiving  station,  where 
they  will  be  recorded  by  the  telegraph 


SPARK 
6AP 


TRANSMITTING  HEY 


GROUND 


TRANSMITTER. 

receiver.  The  coherer  is  not  by  any 
means  the  only  wave  detector  in  use. 
Every  wireless  telegraph  company  has 
one  or  more  different  types  of  detect- 
ors, but  for  the  most  part  they  are  all 
based  on  the  principle  of  the  imperfect 
contact.  Marconi's  "magnetic  detect- 
or" is  a  ^notable  exception.  The  pres- 
ent efforts  of  inventors  in  the  field  of 
wireless  telegraphy  are  directed  mainly 
to  the  development  of  a  system  which 
will  not  allow  one  equipment  to  inter- 
fere with  or  sufiHer  interference  from 
any  other  equipment.  This  is  essential 
in  order  to  prevent  unauthorized  per- 
sons from  intercepting  and  reading  the 
messages.  They  aim  to  effect  this  re- 
sult by  synchronizing  or  tuning  the 
transmitting  and  receiving  stations  so 
that  they  will  give  oscillations  and  re- 
spond to  oscillations  of  a  certain  pe^ 


riodicity  only.  Up  to  the  present  time 
these  efforts  have  met  with  only  par- 
tial success. 


PRINCIPAL 


SYSTEMS   OF 
TELEGRAPHY. 


WIRELESS 


The  best  known  systems  of  wireless 
telegraphy  in  the  United  States  are  the 
Marconi,  the  De  Forest  and  the  Fes- 
senden  systems,  and  one  or  two  sys- 


I 


COHERER 

-QIB— 


LOCAL 
CIRCUIT 


BATTERY 


TELEPHONE 


GROUND"^ 

RECEIVER. 

tems  used  by  the  Government.  In 
England,  aside  from  the  Marconi  sys- 
tem, are  the  Lodge-Muirhead  and  the 
Orling-Armstrong  systems.  The  Slaby- 
Arco  and  the  Braun-Siemens-Halske 
systems  are  used  in  Germany.  In 
France,  Bran  ley,  Rochefort,  Tissot 
and  Captain  Ferrie  have  made  impor- 
tant developments,  and  in  Russia  Po- 
poff  early  invented  a  system  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Marconi. 

THE   MARCONI  SYSTEM. 

The  Marconi  system,   developed   by 
Signor    Guglielmo    Marconi,    a   young 


202 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Italian  inventor,  is  the  pioneer  sys- 
tem of  Hertzian  wave  telegraphy.  In 
1896  Marconi  accepted  an  invitation 
from  the  British  Telegraph  Depart- 
ment to  make  experiments  with  his 
system  in  England.     In  the  spring  of 

1899  the  first  wireless  message  was 
transmitted  across  the  English  channel. 
On  November  15,  1899,  the  first  daily 
newspaper  ever  published  on  an  At- 
lantic liner  was  issued  on  the  steamer 
St.  Paul,  containing  news  transmitted 
from  shore  by  wireless  telegraphy.    In 

1900  the  system  was  adopted  by  the 
British  Admiralty  and  installed  on 
their  battleships  and  cruisers.  On  De- 
cember 12,  1901,  Marconi  succeeded  in 
sending  the  signal  for  the  letter  "S" 
across  the  Atlantic  from  Poldhu,  Corn- 
wall, to  St.  John's,  Newfoundland. 
But  his  experiments  were  interrupted 
by  a  cable  company  which  owned  a 
monopoly  of  all  telegraph  communica- 
tions with  Newfoundland.     In  March, 


1902,  Marconi  crossed  the  Atlantic  on 
the  "Philadelphia,"  which  had  been 
equipped  with  his  instruments,  and 
was  able  to  receive  intelligible  mes- 
sages at  a  distance  of  1,551  miles  from 
the  Poldhu  station.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  Marconi  sailed  from  Eng- 
land to  Nova  Scotia,  and  received 
messages  from  his  Poldhu  station 
throughout  the  voyage.  On  January 
18,  1903,  the  first  wireless  message 
from  the  United  States  to  England 
was  sent  by  President  Roosevelt  to 
King  Edward.  In  March,  1903,  the 
Marconi  Company  undertook  to  fur- 
nish the  London  "Times"  w;ith  daily 
wireless  despatches  from  the  United 
States,  but  they  were  discontinued 
after  a  couple  of  despatches  had  been 
sent.      The    Italian    Government,    in 

1903,  voted  $160,000  for  the  erection 
of  a  Marconi  station' in  Italy  to  com- 
municate with  this  country. 


STATIONS     EQUIPPED     WITH     MARCONI     APPARATUS. 


Country. 


Belgium. 
Canada. 


China. 


Germany. 


Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land (List  incom- 
plete)  


Holland. 


Italy  (List  incomplete) 


Montenegro.  . 
United  States. 


Location. 


Nieuport 

Table  Head,  Cape  Breton. 

Pekin 

Tientsin 


Hongkong 

Borkum  Isle 

Borkum  Riff 

Caister 

Chelmsford 

Fraserburgh 

Frinton 

Haven,  Poole  Harbor.  .  . 

Holyhead 

Poldhu 

Withernsea 

Fastnet  Rock 

Malin  Head 

Inishtrahull 

Culver  Cliff 

Dover 

Plymouth 

Portland 

Portsmouth 

Rane  Head 

Roches  Point 

Scilly  Islands 

Sheerness 

Amsterdam 

Darignano 

Genoa 

Gulf  of  Aranci 

Maddalena 

Monte  Mario 

Palmaria 

Pisa 

Punta  di  Bela 

Rome 

San  Vito 

Bari 

Antivari 

Great  Neck,  Long  Island. 


Operated  by 


Belgian  Government 

Marconi  W.  T.  Co.  of  Canada 

Italian  Government 
it  t  < 

British  Government 

North  German  Lloyd  S.  S.  Co. 
tt  it  it  ti 

Marconi  W.  T.  Co.,  Limited 


•  i 


Lloyds 
1 1 

1 1 
British  Government 


1 1 

•  t 

•  t 
t  • 
<  t 
t  f 


Marconi  W.  T.  Co.,  Limited 
Italian  Government 


1 1 
t  < 
i  < 
< « 
•  • 
1 1 
1 1 


Marconi  W.  T.  Co.,  Limited 
Marconi  W.  T.  Co.,  Limited 
Private 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


203 


On  the  preceding  page  is  a  list  of 
stations  equipped  with  Marconi  ap- 
paratus and  operated  under  arrange- 
ment with  stations  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph 
Company  of  America  and  affiliated 
Marconi  companies. 

There  are  also  wireless  telegraph 
stations  equipped  with  Marconi  appa- 
ratus and  operated  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment at  Bermuda,  Gibraltar  and 
Malta. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  wireless 
telegraph  offices  on  shore  owned  and 
controlled  by  Marconi  Wireless  Tele- 
graph Company  of  America  and  af- 
filiated Marconi  companies : 

Babylon Long    Island,    New    York, 

U.  S.  A. 

Belle  Isle Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.Canada. 

Chateau  Bay  .  .  .Canadian  Labrador. 
Crookhaven  . .. .  County  Cork,  Ireland. 

Fame  Point Province  Quebec,  Canada. 

Heath  Point Province  Quebec,  Canada. 

Liverpool Lancashire,  England. 

Lizard  Point.  . .  .Cornwall,  England. 
New  York  City.  .Pier  14,  North  River,  New 

York  City,  U.  S.  A. 

Niton Isle  of  Wight,  England. 

North  Foreland.  Kent,  England. 

Rosslare County  Wexford,  Ireland. 

Sagaponack Long    Island,    New    York, 

U.  S.  A. 
Siasconset Nantucket    Island,    Massa- 
chusetts, U.  S.  A. 
South  Wellfleet.  .Cape    Cod,     Massachusetts, 

tJ.  S.  A. 

The  following  points  are  in  course 
of  construction : 

Canso Nova  Scotia. 

Cape  Race Newfoundland. 

Point  Amour.  .    .Canadian  Labrador. 
Sable  Island. .  .  .Canada. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Transat- 
lantic liners  equipped  with  Marconi 
apparatus : 

Allan  Line. — Bavarian,PBrisian,  Tunisian. 

American  Line. — New  Yoric,  Philadel- 
phia, St.  Louis,  St.  Paul. 

Atlantic  Transport  Line. — Minneapolis, 
Minnehaha,  Minnetonka. 

CoMPAGNiE  Generals  Transatlantique. 
— La  Bretagne,  La  Champagne,  La  Lorraine, 
La  Savoie,  La  Touraine. 

CuNARD  Line. — Aurania,  Campania,  Car- 

gathia,  Etruria,  Ivemia,  Lucania,  Pannonia, 
axonia,  Umbria. 

Hamburg-American  Ijne. — Auguste  Vic- 
toria, Bliicher,  DeutschLand,  Furst  Bis- 
marck, Moltke. 

Holland-American  Line.* — Amsterdam, 
Maasdam,  Noordam,  Potsdam,  Rhyndam, 
Rotterdam,  Statendam. 

.  Italian  Rotal  Mail  Line. — Lombardia, 
Sardegna. 

North  German  Llotd  Line. — Grosser 
Kurfurst,  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  II,  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia,  Kron- 
prinz  Wilhelm. 

Red  Star  Line. — Finland,  KIroonland, 
Vaderiand,  Zeeland. 

*In  course  of  equipment. 


All  commissioned  ships  of  British 
and  Italian  Royal  Navies  are  equipped 
with  the  Marconi  apparatus. 


THE  DE   FOEEST   SYSTEM. 

The  American  De  Forest  Wireless 
Telegraph  Company  has  developed 
from  the  inventions  of  Dr.  Lee  de  For- 
est, a  young  Yale  graduate.  His  system 
differs  from  that  of  Marconi  chiefly 
in  the  receiver.  At  first  an  instrument 
called  the  "anti-coherer,"  or  "respond- 
er,"  was  used  in  place  of  the  coherer. 
The  action  of  this  instrument  was  just 
the  reverse  of  the  coherer,  that  is,  a 
good  path  was  normally  provided  for 
the  local  circuit,  but  this  path  was 
broken  by  the  electric  oscillations  in 
the  antenna.  The  anti-coherer  was 
later  replaced  by  another  instrument, 
which  acts  electrolytically  to  a  large 
extent.  This  instrument,  like  the  co- 
herer, normally  offers  a  resistance  to 
the  current  in  the  local  circuit,  but  this 
resistance  is  broken  down  by  the  elec- 
tric oscillations  in  the  antenna.  An- 
other difference  between  the  systems 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  De  Forest  com- 
pany uses  a  telephone  receiver  in  the 
local  circuit  instead  of  the  telegraph 
receiver  for  receiving  the  signals.  Sig- 
nals by  the  De  Forest  system  can  be 
transmitted  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five 
to  thirty  words  per  minute.  The  De 
Forest  Company  has  established  a 
score  of  stations  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  several  along  the  Great 
Lakes.  Late  in  1903  the  De  Forest 
Company  entered  into  a  contract  with 
the  London  "Times"  to  furnish  news 
of  the  Russo-Japanese  war.  The 
steamer  "Haimun"  was  equipped  wFth 
wireless  telegraph  apparatus,  and  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  reporting 
naval  operations  and  engagements. 
These  reports  were  sent  by  wireless 
telegraphy  to  Wei-hai-Wei  and  thence 
by  cable  to  London.  In  July,  1904, 
the  United  States  Government  closed 
a  contract  with  the  De  Forest  Com- 
pany for  a  series  of  stations  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Panama.  These,  it 
is  stated,  are  to  form  links  in  a  chain 
of  De  Forest  stations  which  will  con- 
nect New  England  with  Japan,  China 
and  the  Philippines.  The  chain  is  to 
follow  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Key  West, 
and  thence  run  via  Porto  Rico  to 
Panama.  From  Panama  it  will  follow 
the  Pacific  coast  to  Seattle,  thence  via 
the  Aleutian  Islands  to  Japan,  Wei- 
hai-Wei,  China  and  the  Philippines,  re- 
turning to  San  Francisco  through 
Guam  and  Hawaii.     Under  the  terms 


204 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cf  the  contract,  commercial  messages 
are  to  be  interchangeable  between  all 
stations  equipped  with  the  De  Forest 
system,  whether  operated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment or  the  De  Forest  Company. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  wireless 
telegraph  stations,  equipped  with  De 
Forest  apparatus,  and  now  complete 
and  in  operation  for  the  transmission 
of  wireless  messages : 


Station. 


Location. 


Buffalo 

Cape  Hatteras 

Chicago 

Cleveland 

Dallas 

Fort  Worth 

Havana 

Highlands  of  Navesink 

Key  West 

New  York 

Providence 

Quogue 

Louisiana   Purchase    Ex- 1 
position     Tower     (and  V  | 
9  other  stations) ) 

Springfield 

Toronto 

Washington 

Block  Island. 

Point  Judith 

Bocas  del  Toro 

Port  Limon 

Cape  Nome 

St.  Michael's 

Four  stations 

Farraione  Islands  (4  sta-  ( 
tions) ) 

Wei-hai-wei 


New  York 

North  Carolina 

Illinois  (3  stations) 

Ohio 

Texas 

Texas 

Cuba 

New  Jersey 

Florida 

New  York  City,  42  Broadway . 

Rhode  Islan<i 

Long  Island,  N.  Y , 


Operated  by 


De  Forest  Company 


<  4 

t  • 

4  t 

4  t 

•  4 

•  4 
4  4 
4  4 
t  4 
4  4 


<  t 

4  4 

4  4 

4  4 

4  4 

t  t 

4  t 

4  4 

4  4 

t  4 


St.  Louis,  Mo. 


Illinois 

Canada 

District  of  Columbia. 
Rhode  Island 


•  •        « > 


Panama.  .  . 
Costa  Rica. 
Alaska.  .  .  . 


Providence  Journal  Company 
it  •  t  t  • 

United  Fruit  Company 
Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army 


Artillery  Districts. 


1 1 
1 1 


1 1 


1 1 
I  < 


Pacific  Coast 
China 


U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 
London  Times. 


The  foHowing  steamers  are  equipped  with  De  Forest  apparatus: 


Steamer. 


Location. 


Operated  by 


Str.  Wolvin Great  Lakes U.  S.  Steel  Corporation 

*  *    Haimun China  Sea.  .     i   London  Times 

Tug  Savage North  Atlantic  ports I   B.  &  O.  Rv. 


The  following  De  Forest  stations  have  been  erected  or  are  in  course  of 
erection : 


Station. 


Atlantic  City . 
Baltimore.  .  .. 

Boston 

Cape  Flattery. 
Cape  May.  .  . . 

Detroit 

Kansas  City.  . 

Lewes 

Mobile 

Newburgh  .  .  . 
New  Haven.  . 
Port  Huron.  . 
Poughkeepsie. 
Seattle 


Location. 


Operated  by 


Sedalia 

Guantanamo I  Cuba 

Panama '   Panama.  .  . 

Pensacola Florida.  . .  . 

Porto  Rico j   West  Coast 

Azores  Islands  (5  stations")  .1    


New  Jersey De  Forest  Comoany 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Washington 

New  Jersey 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Delaware 

Alabama 

New  York 

Connecticut 

Michigan 

New  York 

Washington 

Missouri 


U.  S.  Government 


Eastern  Telegraph  and  Cable  Co. 


Steamers. — Six  vessels  of  the  United  States  Navy. 


FLAGS  AND   PENNANTS  TO   BE   USED   IN  THE  INTERNATIONAL  CODE. 


CJ 


B 


^ 


■^ 


C        r 


<^' 


v — — - 


1 


K 


M 


U 


i> 


■'Code  Flag"  and 
'Answering  Pennant." 


When  used  as  the  "Code 
Flag  "  it  is  to  be  hoisted  under 
the  ensiiirn. 


When  used  as  the  "An- 
swering Pennant"  it  is  to  be 
hoisted  al  the  masthead  or 
where  beet  seen. 


N 


W 


To  open  coniniunioHtion  by  tb«  old  Code, 
show  the  ensign  with  the  pennant  under  it. 


9 


H 


T 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


205 


INTERNATIONAL  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  CONFERENCE. 


On  account  of  the  rival  systems  in  use 
in  this  country  and  the  different  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  it  was  decided  to  hold 
an  international  conference,  at  which 
rules  could  be  formulated  to  control 
them.  The  conference  met  at  Berlin 
in  August,  1903.  The  following  rules 
were  adopted,  applying  to  the  exchange 
of  messages  between  vessels  at  sea  and 
coast  stations : 

Any  fixed  station  whose  field  of  ac- 
tion extends  to  the  sea  is  styled  a 
coast  station. 

Coast  stations  are  bound  to  receive 
and  transmit  telegrams  originating 
from  or  intended  for  vessels  at  sea 
without  any  distinction  of  wireless 
telegraph  system  used  by  the  latter. 

Contracting    parties    shall    publish 


any  technical  information  likely  to  fa- 
cilitate or  expedite  communication  be- 
tween coast  stations  and  ships  at  sea. 

The  wireless  station  must,  unless  it 
should  be  absolutely  impossible,  accept 
in  preference  requests  for  help  that 
may  come  from  vessels. 

The  service  of  wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions must  be  organized  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
service  of  other  stations. 

The  protocol  was  signed  by  the 
United  States,  Germany,  Austria, 
Spain,  France  and  Russia.  Great 
Britain  and  Italy  were  unable  to  sign. 
The  general  feeling  of  the  conference 
was  decidedly  against  monopolization 
of  the  wireless  telegraph  business  by 
any  one  company. 


NEW  INTERNATIONAL  CODE  OF  SIGNALS. 


The  new  International  Code  of  Sig- 
nals came  into  use  on  January  1,  1901, 
and  its  distinguishing  sign  will  hence- 
forward be  the  code  pennant  hoisted  in 
the  ordinary  way. 

Illustrations  of  the  new  signals  are 
given  in  the  plate,  together  with  rules 
for  signals  of  distress  in  the  text. 

It  is  not  now  necessary  to  tie  the 
fly  of  the  Code  Pennant  to  the  hal- 
yards, as  was  previously  required  when 
beginning  to  signal.  When  hoisted 
under  the  ensign,  it  denotes  a  signal 
taken  from  the  International  Code. 
When  hoisted  by  itself  at  the  mast- 
head it  is  the  Answering  Pennant. 


Communication  may  then  be  com- 
menced, and  any  message  following  in 
this  page,  or  found  under  the  heading 
"Danger  or  Distress"  in  the  Interna- 
tional Code  Signal  Book,  may  be  ex- 
changed, strictly  following  the  Inter- 
national Commercial  Code  and  the  in- 
structions given  above. 

The  International  Code  Signal  de- 
scribed above,  asking  to  open  com- 
munication, should  be  shown  in  every 
casiB  of  distress  by  the  shore  sta- 
tion, for  it  may  be  that  the  vessel  has 
the  International  Code,  but,  until  see- 
ing this  signal,  will  not  know  that  she 
can  use  it. 


SIGNALS    ADOPTED    FROM    AND    TO 
MERCIAL  CODE  SIGNAL  BOOK 

Q   >  In  distress ;  want  immediate  assistance. 

Q    y  We  are  coming  to  your  assistance. 

E  J  Do    not  attempt    to  land  in   your  own 
Y  S      boats. 

J  >  Damaged  rudder;  can  not  steer. 

J  >  Engines  broken  down ;  I  am  disabled. 

•^  y  You  are  standing  into  danger. 

2  r  Heavy  weather  coming;  look  sharp. 

P  j-  Bar  is  impassable. 

E  tCflst  oft. 
D  i 

^  I 

I    VMake  fast — to — 

F  S 


BE    FOUND    IN    INTERNATIONAL    COM- 
OF   1899.  REFERRED  TO  ABOVE. 

W  I 

F  V  Slack  away. 

Q  S 

K  I 

rp  >  Shift  your  berth.    Your  berth  is  not  safe. 

p  >  Hold  on  until  high  water. 

pj  y  Remain  by  the  ship. 

A  i 

■D  j-  Abandon  the  vessel  as  fast  as  possible. 

j^  >  Landing  is  impossible. 

Y  y  Look  out  for  rocket  line  (or,  line). 

K  I  Endeavor  to  send  a  line  by  boat  (cask, 
A  f     kite,  raft,  etc.). 

C   I  No  assistance  can  be  rendered ;    do  the 
X  )      best  you  can  for  yourselves. 

K  (  Lookout  will  be  kept  on  the  beach  all 
G  (■     night. 


206 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCIAL  CODE  SIGNALS—CotKtnued. 


K 
E 

K 
C 

A 
D 

N 
M 

N 
O  f 

Y 

¥ 

Y 
L 

Y 

G 

Y 
P 


j.  Lights,  or  Fires  will  be  kept  at  the  best 
)      place  fnr  coining  on  shore. 

j-  Keep  a  light  burning. 

Do  not  abandon  the  vessel  until  the  tide 
has  ebbed. 


I  am  on  fire.  • 

I  am  sinking  (or,  on  fire) ;  send  all  avail- 
able boats  to  save  passengers  and  crew. 

ji  j-Want  assistance;  mutiny. 

j-  Want  immediate  medical  assistance. 

I  Want  a  boat  immediately  (if  more  than 
)      one,  number  to  foUow). 

\  Want  a  tug  (if  more  than  one,  number  to 
)      follow). 


A 

G 

P 
T 

V 
G 

D 
U 

W 

C 

X 

N 
C 
X 

C 

D 


!■  I  must  abandon  the  vessel. 

!■  Want  a  pilot. 

)  What  is  name  of  ship  or  Signal  Station 
)      in  sight? 

I  Repeat  ship's  name ;  your  flags  were  not 
f     made  out. 

I  Signal  not  understood,  though  the  flags 
r     are  distinguished. 


1 


I  can  not  make  out  the  flags  (or,  signals). 

Assent — Yes. 
Negative — No. 


DISTRESS  SIGNALS. 
(Article  31  of  International  Rules.) 


When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires 
assistance  from  other  vessels  or  from  the 
shore  the  following  shall  be  the  signals  to  be 
used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or 
separately,  namely  : 

In  the  daytime — 

(1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at 
intervals  of  about  a  minute 

(2)  The  International  Code  signal  of  dis- 
tress indicated  by  N  C. 

(3)  The  distance  signal,  consisting  of  a 
square  flag,  having  either  above  or  below  it  a 
ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

(4)  The  distant  signal,  consisting  of  a  cone, 


point  upward,  haying  either  above  it  or  below 
it  a  ball  or  an;y'thlng  resembling  a  ball. 

(5)  A  contmuous  sounding  with  any  fog- 
signal  apparatus. 

At  night — 

(1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at 
intervals  of  about  a  minute. 

(2)  Flames  on  the  vessel  (as  from  a  burn- 
ing tar  barrel,  oil  barrel,  and  so  forth). 

(3)  Rockets  or  shells  throwing  stars  of  any 
color  or  description,  fired  one  at  a  time,  at 
short  intervals. 

^  (4)  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog- 
signal  apparatus. 


LIST  OF  WEATHER  BUREAU  STATIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES 

SEACOAST  TELEGRAPHIC   LINES. 


Atlantic  Coast. 

Nantucket,  Massachusetts. 

Narragansett  Pier,  Rhode  Island. 

Block  Island,  Rhode  Island. 

Norfolk,  Virginia.^ 

Cape  Henry,  Virginia. 

Currituck  Inlet,  North  Carolina. 

Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina. 

Hatteras,  North  Carolina. 

Sand  Key,  Florida. 
Pacific  Coast. 

Tatoosh  Island,  Washington. 

Neah  Bay,  Washington. 

East  CSaUam,  Washington. 

Twin  Rivers,  Washington. 

Port  Crescent,  Wa.shington. 

North  Head,  Washington. 

Point  Reyes  Light,  California. 

San  Francisco,  California. 

Southeast  Farallone,  California. 
L\KE  Huron. 

Thunder  Bay  Island.  Michigan. 

Middle  Island.  Michigan. 

Alpena,  Michigan.  ^ 

Of  the  above  stations  the  following,  and 
also  Juoiter,  Florida,  are  supplied  with  Inter- 
national Code  Signals,  and  communication 
can  be  had  therewith  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 


taining information  concerning  the  approach 
of  storms,  weather  conditions  in  gene''al.  and 
for  the  purpose  of  sending  telegrams  to  points 
on  commercial  lines. 

Nantucket,  Massachusetts. 
Block  Island,  Rhode  Island. 
Cape  Henry,  Virginia. 
Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina. 
Sand  Key,  Florida. 
Tatoosh  Island,  Washington. 
Hatteras,  North  Carolina. 
Neah  Bay,  Washington. 
Point  Reyes  Light,  California. 
Southeast  FaraQone,  California. 

Any  message  signaled  by  the  International 
C!ode,  as  adopted  or  used  by  England,  France, 
America,  Denmark,  Holland,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  Russia,  Grreese,  Italv,  Germany, 
Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  and.  Brazil,  re- 
ceived at  these  telegraphi'^  signal  stations, 
will  ba  transmitted  and  delivered  to  the  ad- 
dress on  payment  at  the  station  of  the  tele- 
gran  li;  cha'*ge.  All  m*»saa<?fts  re^'eived  from 
or  aid'-esaed  to  the  War,  Navy,  Treasury, 
State,  Interior,  or  other  official  department 
at  Washington,  are  telegraphed  without 
charge  over  the  Weather  Bureau  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


207 


SPECIAL  DISTANT  SIGNALS. 

Made  by  a  single  hoist  followed  by  the  STOP  signal.     Arranged 

numerically  for  reading  off  a  signal. 


9 


-a 
g 

GQ 


i 

n 

a 
« 

9 
O 

o 

M 
QQ 


CO 


04 


CO 

eo 


eo 


GQ  .. 

c.S 

'S  ^  3 


w 


e>i 


o 


a 

O 

o 


w 


eo 


«8 

jsa 
sa 


C4 

eo 


s 

« 

04 

CO 


eo 

eo 


•I 

C 

.3 
>. 

I 

04 

CO 


a 


S 


^ 

•  VN 

^ 


€ 

<; 


04 
04 


% 


9 


O 

CO 
CM 


eS 
O 

I 


C4 


I 

I 

••J 
o  • 

eo 


O  n  « 


!3 


04 


a 

a 

o 
o 

.a 
« 

i 

•♦a 

OQ 
OQ 


04 


0) 


a 

.a 


J 


C4 


04 


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04 


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C4 


208 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


3  3  2  Enemy  is  closing  with  you, 
or,  You  are  closing  with 
the  enemy. 

3  4  2  Keep  a  good  look-out,  as  it 
is  reported  that_  enemy's 
men-of-war  are  going  about 
disguised  as  merchantmen. 


4  12  Proceed  on  your  voyage. 


The  information  relative  to  the  In- 
ternational Code  is  taken  from  the 
thirty-fifth  annual  list  of  the  merchant 
vessels  of  the  United  States  and  is 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Naviga- 
tion, Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor. 


THE   POLLOWINQ   DISTANT  SIGNALS   MADE   WITH    FLAG   AND   BALL.  OR   PENNANT    AND 
BALL,  HAVE  THE  SPECIAL  SIGNIFICATION  INDICATED  BENEATH  THEM. 


> 

Yoa  are  running  into 
dai^er. 

> 

Fire,  or,  Leak;  want  im- 
mediate  aasistanoe. 

r 

Short  of  proviaiona. 
Starving. 

r 

Aground;  want  immedi- 
ate aenatance. 

SEMAPHORES. 

There  are  many  semaphores  established  on 
the  French,  Italian,  Portuguese,  and  some  on 
the  Spanish  and  Austrian  coasts,  where  only 
the  international  Code  of  Signals  is  now  used. 
Where  practicable  these  semaphores  have 
means  of  communicating  by  telegraph  with 
eash  other  and  with  the  chief  metropolitan 
lines  and  foreign  stations. 

Passing  ships  are  able  to  exchange  commu- 
nication with  the  semaphores,  and  when  re- 
auired  their  messages  are  forwarded  to  their 
destination  according  to  the  fixed  tariff.  On 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  there  are  signal 
stations  which  offer  the  same  facilities  to 
passing  vessels. 

BOAT  SIGNALS. 

The  Symbols  for  Boat  Signals  are — 

1.  Two  square  flags,  or  handkerchiefs,  or 
pieces  of  cloth. 

2.  Two  long  strips  of  cloth,  or  parts  of  a 
plank,  or  pieces  of  wood  longer  than  broad. 


3.  Two  balls  or  hats,  or  round  bundles,  or 
buckets. 

With  these  any  of  the  Distance  Signals  can 
be  made — holdmg  the  Symbol  at  arm's 
length:  and  the  Signal  is  to  be  made  from 
right  to  left  and  read  from  left  to  right,  thus: 


Equivalent  to 
Ball  above  Pen- 
nant, or,  "You 
are  running  into 
danger.'* 


In  making  Boat  Signals  it  is  important  to 
use  only  the  proper  means  to  attract  atten- 
tion, and  to  avoid  those  that  may  occasion 
confusion  or  misinterpretation. 


CYCLONES. 


[Pilot  Chart,  Hyd 

"Rule  1. — //  the  squalls  freshen  without  any 
shift  of  tvind,  you  are  on  or  near  the  storm 
track:  heave  to  on  the  starboard  tack  and 
watch  for  some  indications  of  a  shift,  observ- 
ing the  low  clouds  particularly ;  if  the  barom- 
eter fall  decidedly  (say  half  an  inch)  without 
any  shift,  and  if  wind  and  sea  permit,  run  off 
with  the  wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and 
keep  your  compass  course. 

"Rule  2.—//  t?ie  wind  shift  to  the  right,  you 
are  to  the  right  of  the  storm  track,  put  the 
ship  on  the  starboard  tack  and  make  as  much 
headway  as  possible  until  obliged  to  lie-to 
(starboard  tack). 


rographic  Office.] 

"Rule  3. — //  the  wind  shift  to  the  left,  you 
are  to  the  left  of  the  storm  track:  bring  the 
wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and  keep  your 
compass  course  if  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 
the  port  tack. 

"General  Rules,  Good  for  all  North- 
ern Hemisphere  Storms. — In  scudding 
always  keep  the  wind  well  on  the  starboard 
quarter,  in  order  to  run  out  of  the  storm. 
Always  lie- to  on  the  coming-up  tack.  Use  oil 
to  prevent  heavy  seas  from  breaking  on 
board." 


LIFE-SAVING  SIGNALS. 


The  following  signals  recommended  by  the 
lat«  International  Marine  Conference  for 
adoption  by  all  institutions  for  saving  life 
from  wrecked  vessels,  have  been  adopted  by 
the  Life-saving  Service  of  the  Unitefl  States. 

1.  Upon  the  discovery  of  a  wreck  by  night, 
the  life-saving  force  will  bum  a  red  pyro- 


technic light  or  a  red  rocket  to  signify,  "You 
are  seen;  assistance  will  be  given  as  soon  as 
possible." 

2.  A  red  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a 
red  light,  red  rocket,  or  red  Roman  candle 
displayed  by  night,  will  signify,  "Haul  away." 

3.  A  white  flag  wftved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


209 


white  light  slowly  swung  back  and  forth,  or  a 
white  rocket  or  white  Roman  candle  fired  by 
night,  will  signify,  "Slack  away." 

4.  Two  flags,  a  white  and  a  red,  waved  at 
the  same  time  on  shore  by  day,  or  two  lights, 
a  white  and  a  red,  slowly  swung  at  the  same 


time,  or  a  blue  pyrotechnic  light  burned  by 
night,  will  signify,  "Do  not  attempt  to  land 
in  your  own  boats;  it  is  impossible." 

5.  A  man  on  shore  beckoning  by  da]^,  or 
two  torches  burning  near  together  by  night, 
will  signify,  "This  is  the  best  place  to  land." 


THE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 


The  Weather  Bureau  furnishes, 
when  practicable,  for  the  benefit  of  all 
interests  dependent  upon  weather  con- 
ditions, the  "Forecasts"  which  are  pre- 
pared daily  at  the  Central  Office  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  certain  des- 
ignated stations.     These  forecasts  are 


telegraphed  to  stations  of  the  Weather 
Bureau,,  railway  officials,  postmasters 
and  many  others,  to  be  communicated 
to  the  public  by  means  of  flags  or 
steam  whistles.  The  flags  adopted  for 
this  purpose  are  five  in  number,  and  of 
the  forms  and  colors  indicated  below : 


iitt.1. 

WMta  Flag. 


CtMrorfUr 
wHAlMr. 


EXPLANATION    OF   WEATHER   FLAGS. 

No.  2.-  No.  3.  No.  4. 

BiM  Flag.  White  and  BIm  Black  Triangular 


,MiM^ 


Raia  or 
Snow. 


Local  Rain 
or  Snow. 


Tomparatarib 


No.  5. 

WUto  Flag  wlHi  biadi 

t^aaro  m  cantor. 


ColdWavt. 


When  number  4  is  placed  above 
number  1,  2  or  3  it  indicates  warmer ; 
when  below,  colder ;  when  not  dis- 
played, the  temperature  is  expected  to 


remain  about  stationary.  During  the 
late  spring  and  early  fall  the  cold- 
wave  flag  is  also  used  to  indicate  an- 
ticipated frosts. 


EXPLANATION   OF   WHISTLE   SIGNALS. 


A  warning  blast  of  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  seconds  duration  is  sounded  to 
attract  attention.  After  this  warning 
the  longer  blasts  (of  from  four  to  six 
seconds  duration)  refer  to  weather, 
and  shorter  blasts  (of  from  one  to 
three  seconds  duration)  refer  to  tem- 
perature ;  those  for  weather  are  sound- 
ed first. 

BlaaU.  Inditale. 

One  long Fair  weather. 

Two  long Rain  or  snow. 

Three  long Local  rain  or  snow. 

One  short Lower  temperature. 

Two  short. Higher  temperature. 

Three  short Cold  wave. 

By  repeating  each  combination  a 
few  times,  with  intervals  of  ten  sec- 
onds, liability  to  error  in  reading  the 
signals  may  be  avoided. 

As  far  as  practicable  the  forecast 
messages  will  be  telegraphed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Weather  Bureau ;  but 
if  this  is  impracticable,  they  will  be 
furnished  at  the  regular  commercial 
rates  and  sent  "collect."  In  no  case 
will  the  forecasts  be  sent  to  a  second 
address  in  any  place  except  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  applicant. 

Persons  desiring  to  display  the  flags 
or  sound  the  whistle  signals  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public  should  communi- 


cate with  the  Weather  Bureau  offi- 
cials in  charge  of  the  climate  and  crop 
service  of  their  respective  States,  the 
central  stations  of  which  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Montgomery,  Ala. ;  Phoenix,  Ariz. ; 
Little  Rook,  Ark. ;  San  Francisco, 
Cal. ;  Denver,  Colo. ;  Jacksonville, 
Fla. ;  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Boise,  Idaho ; 
Springfield,  111. ;  Indianapolis,  Ind. ; 
I)es  Moines,  Iowa ;  Topeka,  Kan. ; 
Ix)uisville,  Ky. ;  New  Orleans,  La. ; 
Baltimore,  Md.  (for  Delaware  and 
Maryland)  ;  Boston,  Mass.  (for  New 
England)  ;  Lansing,  Mich.;  Minneapo- 
lis, Minn. ;  Vicksburg,  Miss. ;  Colum- 
bia, Mo. :  Helena,  Mont. ;  Lincoln, 
Nebr. ;  Carson  CJity,  Nev. ;  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J. ;  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex. ; 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  Raleigh,  N.  C. ;  Bis- 
marck, N.  Dak. ;  Columbus,  Ohio ; 
Oklahoma,  Okla.  (for  Oklahoma  and 
Indian  Territories)  ;  Portland,  Oreg. ; 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Columbia,  S.  C. ; 
Huron,  S.  Dak. ;  Na^ville,  Tenn. ; 
Galveston,  Tex. ;  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah ;  Richmond,  Va. ;  Seattle, 
Wash. ;  Parkersburg,  W.  Va. ;  •  Mil- 
waukee, Wis. ;  Cheyenne,  Wyo. 

Willis  L.  Moore, 
Chief  II.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


PATENTS,    TRADE   MARKS,   COPYRIGHTS. 


PATENTS   IN  RELATION  TO  MANUFACTURES. 


The  value  of  our  patent  system  is 
eloquently  outlined  by  Senator  Piatt, 
of  Connecticut.  In  speaking  on  a  bill 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Patent 
OfiSce,  he  said : 

'*To  my  mind,  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  1836  creating  the  Patent  Office 
marks  the  most  important  epoch  in  the 
history  of  our  development — I  think 
the  most  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  Government  from  the  Con- 
stitution until  the  Civil  War.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  Patent  Office 
marked  the  commencement  of  that 
marvelous  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  which  is  the  ad- 
miration and  wonder  of  the  world,  a 
development  which  challenges  all  his- 
tory for  a  parallel ;  and  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  this  unexampled 
progress  has  been  not  only  dependent 
upon,  but  has  been  coincident  with,  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  patent 
system  of  this  country.  Words  fail  in 
attempt.ng  to  portray  the  advance- 
ment of  this  country  for  the  last  fifty 
years.  We  have  had  fifty  years  of 
progress,  fifty  years  of  inventions  ap- 
plied to  the  e very-day  wants  of  life, 
fifty  years  of  patent  encouragement, 
and  nfty  years  of  a  development  in 
wealth,  resources,  grandeur,  culture, 
power  which  is  little  short  of  miracu- 
lous. Population,  production,  business, 
wealth,  comfort,  culture,  power,  gran- 
deur, these  have  all  kept  step  with  the 
expansion  of  the  inventive  genius  of 
the  country ;  and  this  progress  has 
been  made  possible  only  by  the  inven- 
tions of  its  citizens.  All  history  con- 
firms us  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
the  development  by  the  mechanical  arts 
of  the  industries  of  a  country  which 
brings  to  it  greatness  and  power  and 
glory.  No  purely  agricultural,  pas- 
toral people  ever  achieved  any  high 
standing  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  It  is  only  when  the  brain 
evolves  and  the  cunning  hand  fashions 
labor-saving  machines  that  a  nation 
begins  to  throb  with  new  energy  and 


life  and  expands  with  a  new  growth. 
It  is  only  when  thought  wrings  from 
nature  her  untold  secret  treasures  that 
solid  wealth  and  strength  are  accumu- 
lated by  a  people." 

When  the  Japanese  Government  was 
considering  the  establishment  of  a  pat- 
ent system,  they  sent  a  commissioner 
to  the  United  States  and  he  spent 
several  months  in  Washington,  every 
facility  being  given  him  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents.  One  of  the  ex- 
aminers said :  *'I  would  like  to  know 
why  it  is  that  the  people  of  Japan 
desire  to  have  a  patent  system." 

"I  will  tell  you,"  said  Mr.  Taka- 
hashi.  *'You  know  it  is  only  since 
Commodore  Perry,  in  1854,  opened  the 
ports  of  Japan  to  foreign  commerce 
that  the  Japanese  have  been  trying  to 
become  a  great  nation,  like  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  we  have  looked 
about  us  to  see  what  nations  are  the 
greatest,  so  that  we  could  be  like 
them ;  and  we  said,  'There  is  the 
United  States,  not  much  more  than  a 
hundred  years  old,  and  America  was 
not  discovered  by  Columbus  yet  four 
hundred  years  ago' ;  and  we  said, 
*What  is  it  that  makes  the  United 
States  such  a  great  nation?'  And  we 
investigated,  and  we  found  it  was  pat- 
ents, and  we  will  have  patents." 

The  examiner,  in  reporting  this  in- 
terview, added :  "Not  in  all  history 
is  there  an  instance  of  such  unbiased 
testimony  to  the  value  and  worth  of 
the  patent  system  as  practiced  in  the 
United  States." 

The  demonstration  thus  given  the 
commercial  world  during  the  last  half 
century  of  the  effect  of  beneficent 
patent  laws  has  led  to  their  modifica- 
tion in  all  the  chief  industrial  coun- 
tries, and  the  salient  feature  of  our 
system — ^a  preliminary  examination  as 
to  novelty  and  patentability  prior  to 
the  grant  of  a  patent — has  in  late 
years  been  incorporated  into  the  pat- 
ent systems  of  many  foreign  countries, 
as,  for  instance,  Austria,  Canada,  Den- 


211 


212 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


mark,  Germany,  Japan,  Norway,  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  and  Switzerland. 

The  discoverer  of  new  products  of 
value  in  the  arts  and  the  inventor  of 
new  processes,  or  improved  machines, 
adds  to  public  wealth,  and  his  right  to 
the  product  of  his  brain  is  now  recog- 
nized by  the  laws  of  all  civilized  na- 
tions. The  word  "patent"  had  its 
origin  in  royal  grants  to  favored  sub- 
jects of  monopolies  in  trade  or  manu- 
facture; but  now  the  word  is  used  in 
a  restricted  sense  to  cover  improve- 
ments in  inventions.  A  few  patents 
for  inventions  were  granted  by  the 
provincial  governments  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  and  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  States,  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the 


PRINCIPAL  FIELDS   OF  INVENTIVE 
ENDEAVOR. 

Federal  Constitution.  On  the  5th  of 
September,  1787,  it  was  proposed  to 
incorporate  in  a  constitution  a  patent 
and  copyright  clause.  The  germinat- 
ing principle  of  this  clause  of  the 
Constitution  has  vitalized  the  nation, 
expanded  its  powers  beyond  the  wild- 
est dreams  of  its  fathers,  and  from  it 
more  than  from  any  other  cause,  has 
grown  the  magnificent  manufacturing 
and  industrial  development  which  we 
to-day  present  to  the  world. 

In  the  early  days  the  granting  of  a 
patent  was  quite  an  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  State  Department,  where 
the  clerical  part  of  the  work  was  then 
performed.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
see  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  Secretary  of 
War,  and  the  Attorney-General,  criti- 
cally examining  the  application  and 
scrutinizing  each  point  carefully  and 
rigorously.     The  first  year  the  major 


ity  of  the  applications  failed  to  pass 
the  ordeal,  and  only  three  patents  were 
granted.  In  those  days  ev-^ry  step  in 
the  issuing  of  a  patent  was  taken  with 
great  care  and  caution,  Mr.  Jefferson 
always  seeking  to  impress  upon  the 
minds  of  his  officers  and  the  public 
that  the  granting  of  a  patent  was  a 
matter  of  no  ordinary  importance. 
Prior  to  1836  there  was  no  critical 
examination  of  the  state  of  the  art 
preliminary  to  the  allowance  of  a 
patent  application.  Since  the  act  of 
1836  there  have  been  various  enact- 
ments modifying  and  improving  the 
law  in  matters  of  detail.  In  1861  the 
term  for  a  patent  was  increased  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen  years,  and  in 
1870  the  patent  law  was  revised,  con- 
solidated and  amended ;  but  in  its  sa- 
lient features  the  patent  system  of  to- 
day is  that  of  the  law  of  1836.  The 
subject  of  patents  is  admirably  treat- 
ed by  Mr.  Story  B.  Ladd,  of  the  Cen- 
sus Office,  and  we  are  indebted  to 
Bulletin  No.  242  for  most  interesting 
matter  herewith  presented. 

The  growth  of  the  number  of  pat- 
ents granted  in  the  United  States  to 
citizens  of  foreign  countries,  is  a  strik- 
ing feature,  and  shows  the  high  es- 
teem in  which  this  country  is  held  by 
the  world  at  large  as  a  field  for  the 
exploitation  of  invention.  The  per 
cent,  of  patents  to  foreign  inventors 
has  more  than  doubled  during  each 
period  of  twenty  years  since  1860. 

The  majority  of  these  foreign  pat- 
entees are  citizens  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing countries ;  four-fifths  of 
them  are  from  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Canada;  the  number  from 
the  latter  country  being  largely  aug- 
mented by  reason  of  her  proximity  to 
the  United  States.  The  patents  to 
foreign  inventors,  1890-1900,  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows : 


Country. 


Canada 

England 

France 

Germany 

All  other  countries. 


Total  to  citizens  of 
foreign  countries.  . 


Number 

of 
Patents. 


3,135 
7,436 
2.163 
6,788 
4,561 


Per  Cent. 


23,083 


14.0 
32.0 
9.0 
25.0 
20.0 


100.0 


This  marked  growth  in  the  number 
of  patents  to  aliens  is  explained  by  the 
very  liberal  features  of  our  patent 
system.  Foreigners  stand  here  on  an 
equal  footing  with  citizens  of  this 
country,    and    they    are    neither    sub- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


213 


jected  to  restrictions  in  the  matter  of 
annuities  or  taxes  payable  after  the 
grant  of  a  patent,  nor  required  to 
work  an  invention  in  this  country  to 
maintain  it  in  force,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  foreign  countries. 

Moreover,  the  thorough  examination 
made  by  our  Patent  OflSce  as  to  the 
novelty  of  an  invention  prior  to  the 
allowance  of  an  application  for  a  pat- 
ent— an  examination  that  includes  not 
only  the  patents  and  literature  of  our 
own  country  bearing  on  the  art  or  in- 
dustry to  which  the  invention  relates, 
but  the  patents  of  all  patent-granting 
countries  and  the  technical  literature 
of  the  world — and  the  care  exercised 
in  criticising  the  framing  of  the  claims 
have  come  to  be  recognized  as  of  great 
value  in  the  case  of  inventions  of 
merit^  and  hence  the  majority  of  for- 
eign inventors  patenting  in  this  coun- 
try take  advantage  of  this  feature  of 
our  patent  system,  and  secure  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Patent  OflSce  on  an  appli- 
cation for  a  patent  before  perfecting 
their  pateiU;s  in  their  own  and  other 
foreign  countries,  taking  due  precau- 
tion to  have  their  patents  in  the  dif 
ferent  countries  so  issued  as  to  se- 
cure the  maximum  term  in  each,  so  far 
as  possible.  This  practice  holds  now 
in  the  case  of  probably  nine-tenths  of 
the  alien  inventions  patented  in  this 
country. 

The  working  of  an  invention  has 
never  been  required  under  our  patent 
laws,  though  in  most  foreign  coun- 
tries, with  the  exception  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, an  invention  must  be  put  into 
commercial  use  in  the  country 
within  a  specified  period  or  the  pat- 
ent may  be  declared  void.  In  the  case 
of  patents  for  fine  chemicals  and  like 
products,  which  require  a  high  order 
of  technical  knowledge  and  n.bility  for 
their  inception,  and  skilled,  workmen 
for  their  manufacture,  the  effect  of  this 
requirement,  that  the  industry  must  be 
established  within  the  country,  has 
been  most  salutary  in  building  up 
chemical  industries  within  the  home 
country,  to  some  extent  at  the  ex- 
pense of  other  countries  where  the 
working  of  a  patent  is  not  obligatory. 
This  shows  most  strongly  in  the  case 
of  carbon  dyes  and  in  the  patents  for 
chemicals  of  the  class  known  as  car- 
bon compounds,  which  includes  nu- 
merous pharmaceutical  and  medicinal 
compounds  of  recent  origin,  aldehydes, 
alcohols,  phenols,  ethers,  etc.,  and 
many  synthetic  compounds,  as  vanil- 
lin, artificial  musk,  etc. 

There  are  many  extensive  industries 


which  are  entirely  the  creation  of  pat- 
ents, and  can  be  readily  differentiated 
from  the  great  mass  of  manufactures ; 
for  example,  certain  industries  based 
upon  chemical  inventions  and  discov- 
eries, as  oleomargarine,  which  now  em- 
ploys $3,023,046  of  capital,  and  sup- 
plies products  to  the  value  of  $12,499,- 
812;  glucose,  which  uses  $41,011,345 
of  capital,  and  gives  products  to  the 
value  of  $21,693,656;  wood  pulp, 
which,  starting  with  the  ground-wood 
pulp  patent  of  Voulter,  in  1858,  and 
following  with  the  soda  fiber  and  sul- 
phite fiber  processes,  is  now  the  chief 
material  employed  in  paper  manufac- 
ture, with  products  aggregating  $18,- 
497,701 ;  high  explosives,  which,  start- 
ing with  the  nitroglycerin  patent  of 
Nobel,  in  1865,  now  includes  dynamite, 
the  pyroxylin  explosives,  and  smoke- 
less powder,  with  products  aggregating 
$11,233,396 ;  while  the  electrical  indus- 
tries, which  now  touch  all  fields  of  in- 
dustrial activity,  power  and  transpor- 
tation, lighting  and  heating,  electro- 
chemical processes,  telegraphy  and 
telephony,  employ  directly  and  indi 
rectly  capital  extending  into  the  bil- 
lions, and  are  the  creation  of  patents. 
The  rubber  industry  was  insignifi- 
cant prior  to  the  discovery  by  Charles 
Goodyear  of  the  process  of  vulcaniza- 
tion, while  now  the  products  in  the 
shape  of  rubber  and  elastic  goods  and 
rubber  boots  and  shoes  amount  to  $93, 
716,849.  Bicycles  and  tricycles  em- 
ploy $29,783,659  of  capital,  with  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $31,915,908.  Manu- 
factured ice  employs  $38,204,054  of 
capital,  with  a  return  in  products  of 
$13,874,513. 

Phonographs  and  graphophones, 
starting  in  1877,  now  show  the  use  of 
$3,348,282  of  capital,  and  products  to 
the  value  of  $2,246,274.  Photography, 
including  the  manufacture  of  materi- 
als and  apparatus  as  well  as  the  prac- 
tice of  the  art — all  the  outcome  of  in- 
vention— is  now  represented  by  7,706 
establishments,  with  a  combined  capi- 
tal of  $18,711  339,  and  products  to  the 
value  of  $31,038,107.  The  manufac- 
ture of  sewing  machines  employs  $18,- 
739,450  of  capital,  and  supplies  prod- 
ucts to  the  value  of  $18,314,490.  The 
manufacture  of  typewriters  and  sup- 
plies, within  three  decades,  has  be- 
come an  industry  that  employs  $8.- 
400,431  of  capital,  and  gives  products 
to  the  value  of  $6,932,029.  These  are 
but  examples  of  what  may  be  consid- 
ered as  patent-created  industries. 

If  we  attempt  to  enumerate  the  in- 
dustries which,   existing  prior   to   the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


period  of  patent  growth  have  been 
rerolutioDJzed  b;  inventioDS  a  cala 
logue  of  Hll  of  the  old  lodUBtneB  is 
virtuaHy  required,  Tte  returns  for 
the  mauufacture  of  agricultural  im 
piementB  for  the  present  fpiisns 
show  715  establish  met]  ts,  i^iCh 
t«i     «f     riKT  TUT  OKI      -:,Tm«.    . 


a  patented  improTemeiit  which  has 
produced  a  nen  or  better  article  or 
cheapened  the  cost  of  manufacture 

The  great  iron  and  steel  industry 
aa  It  eiLstB  to-da\  is  the  product  of 
countless  inventions  whic  h  permeate 
eiery  branch  thereof  and  include 
many  revolutionizing  mventiona  as, 
for   example     the    Bessemer    process. 


ceive  $2,450,880  in  wages,  and  manu- 
factured products  to  the  value  of  $101,- 
207,428:  and.  in  the  entire  range  of 
agricultural  implements  and  machines 
now  manufactured,  every  one.  from 
hoe  or  spade  to  combined  harvester 
and  thrasher,  has  been,  e'ther  in  the 
implement  or  machine  itself,  or  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  the  subject  of 


The  blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills  and 
forges  and  blooraeries.  reported  at  the 
pi'eeent  census  comprise  0C8  establish- 
ments, with  a  capital  of  $573,391,603, 
emploving  222.490  wage-earuer?.  with 
?]20,820.276  paid  in  wages,  and  sup- 
plrluE  products  to  the  value  of  $803,- 
!H18273.  A  prohibition  of  the  use  of 
the  patented  Inventions  of  the  last  half 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


215 


century  would  stop  every  one  of  these 
establishments. 

The  same  may  likewise  be  said  of 
the  textile  industry,  the  manufactures 
of  leather,  of  lumber,  chemicals,  etc., 
and  the  railway  system  in  its  entirety, 
from  the  rail  to  the  top  of  the  smoke- 
stack, and  from  the  pilot  to  the  rear 
train  light  or  signal,  is  an  aggregation 
of  American  inventions. 

Without  attempting  to  touch  upon 
the  industries  which  have  been  revo- 
lutionized or  expanded  by  patents,  the 
summaries  which  follow  aim  to  show 
the  growth  of  patents  which  have  gen- 
erally sprung  from  industries. 

The  closing  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  have  witnessed  the 
most    extraordinary     development    of 


manufactures  and  commerce  known  in 
our  history.  Industrial  demand  and 
invention  go  hand  in  hand.  They  act 
and  react,  being  interdependent.  Any 
cjiange  in  industrial  conditions  creat- 
ing a  new  demand  is  at  once  met  by 
the  invention  of  the  means  for  supply- 
ing it,  and  through  new  inventions  new 
industrial  demands  are  every  year  be- 
ing created.  Thus  through  the  process 
of  evolution  the  industrial  field  is 
steadily  expanding,  and  a  study  of  the 
inventions  for  any  decade  will  point 
out  the  lines  of  industrial  growth  for 
the  succeeding  decade. 

The  following  figures  give  an  idea 
of  the  development  of  American  inven- 
tions during  the  past  fifty-four  years : 


NUMBER  OF  PATENTS  FOR  INVENTIONS  ISSUED  DURING  EACH  CALENDAR 
YEAR,  AND  NUMBER  OF  LIVE  PATENTS  AT  THE  BEGINNING 

OF  EACH  CALENDAR  YEAR. 


Year. 


Number 
of  Patents 
Issued  Dur- 
ing the 
Year. 


1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864. 
1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1861. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
1876. 


884 

757 

890 

846 

1,759 

1,892 

2,315 

2.686 

3.467 

4,165 

4,363 

3.010 

3.221 

3.781 

4,638 

6,099 

8,874 

12,301 

12.544 

12,957 

12.157 

11,687 

12,200 

11,616 

12,230 

13,291 

14,172 


Number 

of  Live 

Patents. 


6.987 

7,769 

8,099 

8,474 

8,928 

10,251 

11,673 

13,518 

15,714 

18,714 

22,435 

26,252 

28,795 

31,428 

34.244 

38,034 

43,415 

51,433 

62,929 

73,824 

85,005 

94,910 

104,022 

112,937 

120,551 

128,547 

141,157 


Number 
of  Patents 
Issued  Dur- 
ing the 
Year. 


1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
18S5. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
189S. 
1839. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 


Number 
of  Live 
Patents. 


12,920 

155,200 

12,345 

168,011 

12.133 

177,737 

12  926 

186,408 

15,548 

195,325 

18,135 

206.043 

21,196 

218.041 

19,147 

230,360 

23.331 

237,204 

21,797 

247.991 

20,429 

256.831 

19,585 

265,103 

23,360 

273.001 

25,322 

284.161 

22,328 

297,867 

22,661 

307.965 

22,768 

317,335 

19.875 

325,931 

20.883 

332,886 

21,867 

341,424 

22,098 

351.158 

20,404 

360.330 

23,296 

365,186 

24,660 

370,347 

25,558 

373,811 

27,136 

380,222 

31,046 

393,276 

The  theory  of  the  patent  law  is  sim- 
ple. The  country  is  enr.ched  by  inven- 
tions and  offers  for  them  a  small 
premium ;  this  premium  is  a  Feventeen 
years'  monopoly  of  their  fruit — no 
more,  no  less.     Having  purchased  the 


invention  for  this  insignificant  price, 
the  purchase  is  consummated  by  the 
publication  in  the  patent  records  of  the 
details  of  the  invent'on  so  that  he  who 
runs  may  read.  The  whole  thing  is 
a    strictly    business    transaction,    and 


216 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


this  character  is  emphasized  by  the 
fact  that  the  inventor  is  required  to 
pay  for  the  clerical  and  expert  labor 
required  to  put  his  invention  into 
shape  for  issuing.  His  patent  fees  are 
designed  to  cover  this  expense,  and  do 
so,  with  a  considerable  margin  to 
•spare.  Thus  the  people  of  the  United 
States  are  perpetually  being  enriched 
by  the  work  of  inventors,  at  absolutely 
no  cost  to  themselves. 

The  inventor  does  not  work  for  love 
nor  for  glory  alone,  but  in  the  hopes 
of  a  return  for  his  labor.  Glory,  and 
love  of  his  species,  are  elements  actuat- 
ing his  work,  and  in  many  cases  he 
invents  because  he  cannot  help  himself, 
because  his  genius  is  a  hard  task  mas- 


ter and  keeps  him  at  work.  But  none 
the  less,  the  great  incitement  to  inven- 
tion is  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  valua- 
ble patent,  and  without  this  induce- 
ment inventions  would  be  few  and  far 
between,  and  America  would,  without 
the  patent  system,  be  far  in  arrears 
of  the  rest  of  the  world,  instead  of 
leading  it,  as  it  does  to-day.  The  few 
pregnant  sentences  of  the  patent  stat- 
utes, sentences  the  force  of  whose 
every  word  has  been  laboriously  ad- 
judicated by  our  highest  tribunal,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
are  responsible  for  America's  moat 
characteristic  element  of  prosperity, 
the  work  of  her  inventors,  to  whom  be- 
longs the  credit. 


DISTINGUISHED  AMERICAN  INVENTORS. 


Benjamin  Franklin ;  b.  Boston, 
1706;  d.  1790;  at  12,  printer's  appren- 
tice, fond  of  useful  reading ;  27  to  40, 
teaches  himself  Latin,  etc.,  makes  va- 
rious useful  improvements;  at  40, 
studies  electricity ;  1752,  brings  elec- 
tricity from  clouds  by  kite,  and  invents 
the  lightning  rod. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton- 
gin ;  b.  Westborough,  Mass.,  1765;  d. 
1825 ;  went  to  Georgia  1792  as  teach- 
er; 179*i,  invents  the  cotton-gin,  prior 
to  which  a  full  day's  work  of  one  per- 
son was  to  clean  by  hand  one  pound 
of  cotton ;  one  machine  performs  the 
labor  of  five  thousand  persons ;  1800, 
founds  Whitneyville,  makes  firearms, 
by  the  interchangeable  system  for  the 
parts. 

Robert  Fulton;  b.  Little  Britain, 
Pa.,  1765 ;  d.  1825 ;  artist  painter ;  in- 
vents steamboat  1793 ;  invents  subma- 
rine torpedoes  1797  to  1801 ;  builds 
steamboat  in  France  1803 ;  launches 
passenger  boat  Clermont  at  N.  Y. 
1807,  and  steams  to  Albany;  1812, 
builds  steam  ferryboats ;  1814,  builds 
first  steam  war  vessel. 

Jethro  Wood,  inventor  of  the  mod- 
ern cast-iron  plough;  b.  White  Creek, 
N.  Y.,  1774;  d.  1834;  patented  the 
plough  1814 ;  previously  the  plough 
was  a  stick  of  wood  plated  with  iron ; 
lawsuits  against  infringers  consumed 
his  means ;  Secretary  Seward  said : 
*'No  man  has  benefited  the  country 
pecuniarily  more  than  Jethro  Wood, 
and  no  man  has  been  as  inadequately 
rewarded." 

Thomas  Blanchard ;  b.  1788,  Sutton, 
Mass. ;  d.  1864  ;  invented  tack  machine 
1806;  builds  successful  steam  carriage 
1825;  builds  the  stern-wheel  boat  for 


shallow  waters,  now  in  common  use  on 
Western  rivers ;  1843,  patents  the 
lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms,  now 
in  common  use  all  over  the  world  for 
turning  lasts,  spokes,  axe-handles, 
gun-stocks,  hat-blocks,  tackle-blocks, 
etc. 

Ross  Winans,  of  Baltimore ;  b.  1798, 
N.  J. ;  author  of  many  inventions  re- 
lating to  railways;  first  patent,  1828; 
he  designed  and  patented  the  pivoted, 
double  truck,  long  passenger  cars  now 
in  common  use.  His  genius  also  as- 
sisted the  development  of  railways  in 
Russia. 

Cyrus  H.  McCormick.  inventor  of 
harvesting  machines ;  b.  Walnut  Grove, 
Va.,  1809 ;  in  1851  he  exhibited  his  in- 
vention at  the  World's  Fair,  London, 
with  practical  success.  The  mowing 
of  one  acre  was  one  man's  day's  work ; 
a  boy  with  a  mowing  machine  now  cuts 
10  acres  a  day.  Mr.  McCormick'a 
patents  made  him  a  millionaire. 

Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  and  pat- 
entee of  the  simple  mixture  of  rubber 
and  sulphur,  the  basis  of  the  present 
great  rubber  industries  throughout  the 
world ;  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1800 ;  in 
1839,  by  the  accidental  mixture  of  a 
bit  of  rubber  and  sulphur  on  a  red-hot 
stove,  he  discovered  the  process  of  vul- 
canization. The  Goodyear  patents 
proved  immensely  profitable. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  and 
patentee  of*  electric  telegraph ;  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  1791 ;  d.  1872 ; 
artist  painter ;  exhibited  first  drawings 
of  telegraph  1832;  half-mile  wire  in 
operation  1835 ;  caveat  1837 ;  Congress 
appropriated  $30,000  and  in  1844  first 
telegraph  line  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore  was  opened ;  after  long  con- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


217 


tests  the  courts  sustained  his  patents 
and  he  realized  from  them  a  large  for- 
tune. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  modern 
sewing  machine ;  b.  Spencer,  Mass., 
1819;  d,  1867;  machinist;  sewing  ma- 
chine patented  1846;  from  that  time 
to  1854  his  priority  was  contested  and 
he  suffered  from  poverty,  when  a  deci- 
sion of  the  courts  in  his  favor  brought 
him  large  royalties,  and  he  realized 
several  millions  from  his  patent. 

James  B.  Eads ;  b.  1820 ;  author  and 
constructor  of  the  great  steel  bridge 
over  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  1867, 
and  the  jetties  below  New  Orleans, 
1876.  His  remarkable  energy  was 
shown  in  1861  when  he  built  and  de- 
livered complete  to  the  Government,  all 
within  sixty-five  days,  seven  iron-plat- 
ed steamers,  600  tons  each ;  subse- 
quently other  steamers.  Some  of  the 
most  brilliant  successes  of  the  Union 
arms  were  due  to  his  extraordinary 
rapidity  in  constructing  these  vessels. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry ;  b.  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  1799 ;  d.  1878 ;  in  1828  invented  the 
present  form  of  the  electro-magnet 
which  laid  the  foundation  for  practi- 
cally the  entire  electrical  art  and  is 
probably  the  most  important  single 
contribution  thereto.  In  1831  he  dem- 
onstrated the  practicability  of  the  elec- 
tric current  to  effect  mechanical  move- 
ments and  operate  signals  at  a  distant 
point,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
electro-magnetic  telegraph ;  he  devised 
a  system  of  circuits  and  batteries, 
which  contained  the  principle  of  the 
relay  and  local  circuit,  and  also  in- 
vented one  of  the  earliest  electro-mag- 
netic engines.  He  made  many  scien- 
tific researches  in  electricity  and  gen- 
eral physics  and  left  many  valuable 
papers  thereon.  In  1826  he  was  a 
professor  in  the  Albany  Academy  ;  was 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  at 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1832,  and 
in  1846  was  chosen  secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washing- 
ton, where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
Prof.  Henry  was  probably  the  greatest 
of  American  physicists. 

Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  telephone;  b.  1847  at 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  moved  to  Can- 
ada 1872  and  afterward  to  Boston ; 
here  he  became  widely  known  as  an  in- 
structor in  phonetics  and  as  an  au- 
thority in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb ; 
in  1873  he  began  the  study  of  the 
transmission  of  musical  tones  by  tele- 
graph;  in  1876  he  invented  and  pat- 
ented the  speaking  telephone,  which 
has  become  one  of  the  marvels  of  the 


nineteenth  century  and  one  of  the 
greatest  commercial  enterprises  of  the 
world;  in  1880  the  French  Govern- 
ment awarded  him  the  Volta  prize  bf 
J^10,000  and  he  has  subsequently  re- 
ceived the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  from  France  and  many  honor- 
ary degrees,  both  at  home  and  abroad ; 
Dr.  Bell  still  continues  his  scientific 
work  at  his  home  in  Washington  and 
has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the 
phonograph   and    aerial    navigation. 

[Prof.  Bell  is  now  generally  known 
as  Dr.  Bell,  out  of  i-espect  for  his 
honorary    degree.] 

Thomas  A.  Edison ;  b.  1847,  at  Mi- 
lan, Ohio ;  from  a  poor  boy  in  a  coun- 
try village,  with  a  limited  education, 
he  has  become  the  most  fertile  inventor 
the  world  has  ever  known ;  his  most 
important  inventions  are  the  phono- 
graph in  1877,  the  incandescent  elec- 
tric lamp,  1878;  the  quadruplex  tele- 
graph, 1874-1878;  the  electric  pen, 
1876;  magnetic  ore  separator,  1880, 
and  the  three-wire  electric  circuit, 
1883 ;  his  first  patent  was  an  electric 
vote-recording  machine,  taken  in  1869, 
since  which  time  more  than  700  pat- 
ents have  been  granted  him ;  early  in 
life  Edison  started  to  run  a  newspaper, 
but  his  genius  lay  in  the  field  of  elec- 
tricity, where  as  an  expert  telegrapher 
he  began  his  great  reputation ;  his 
numerous  inventions  have  brought 
him  great  wealth ;  a  fine  villa  in  Llew- 
ellyn Park,  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  is  his 
home,  and  his  extensive  laboratory 
near  by  is  still  the  scene  of  his  con- 
stant work ;  he  is  the  world's  most 
persevering  inventor. 

Captain  John  Ericsson ;  b.  1803  in 
Sweden ;  d.  in  New  York,  1889 ;  at  10 
years  of  age,  designed  a  sawmill  and 
a  pumping  engine ;  made  and  patented 
many  inventions  in  England  in  early 
life ;  in  1829  entered  a  locomotive  in 
competition  with  Stephenson's  Rocket ; 
in  1836  patented  in  England  his 
double-screw  propeller  arid  shortly 
after  came  to  the  United  States  and 
incorporated  it  in  a  steamer;  in  1861, 
built  for  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment the  turret  ironclad  Monitor ;  was 
the  inventor  of  the  hot-air  engine 
which  bears  his  name ;  also  a  torpedo 
boat  which  was  designed  to  discharge 
a  torpedo  by  means  of  compressed  air 
beneath  the  water ;  he  was  an  indefati- 
gable worker  and  made  many  other  in- 
ventions ;  his  diary,  kept  daily  for  40 
years,  comprehended  14,000  pages. 

Charles  F.  Brush ;  b.  near  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  1849 ;  prominently  identified 
with  the  development  of  the  dynamo, 


218 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  arc  light  and  the  storage  battery, 
in  which  fields  he  made  many  impor- 
tant inventions ;  in  1880  the  Brush 
Company  put  its  electric  lights  into 
New  York  City  and  has  since  extended 
its  installations  into  most  of  the  cities 
and  towns  of  the  United  States ;  in 
1881,  at  the  Paris  Electrical  Exposi- 
tion, he  received  the  ribbon  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor. 

George  Westinghouse,  Jr. ;  b.  at 
Central  Bridge,  N.  Y.,  1846;  while 
still  a  boy  he  modeled  and  built  a 
steam  engine  ;  his  first  profitable  inven- 
tion was  a  railroad  frog ;  his  most  no- 
table inventions,  however,  were  in 
railroad  airbrakes,  the  first  patents 
for  which  were  taken  out  in  1872 ;  the 
system  now  known  by  his  name  has 
grown  to  almost  universal  adoption 
and  constitutes  a  great  labor  saving 
and  life  saving  adjunct  to  railroad 
transportation ;  Mi.  Westinghouse, 
whose  home  is  at  Pittsburg,  was  one 
of  the  earliest  to  develop  and  use  nat- 
ural gas  from  deep  wells ;  in  late  years 
he  has  made  and  patented  many  in- 
ventions in  electrical  machinery  for 
the  development  of  power  and  light, 
and  has  commercially  developed  the 
same  on  a  large  scale. 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler ;  b.  1854,  at 
Wtirtemberg,   Germany ;   d.  1899 ;   in- 


ventor of  the  linotype  machine;  his 
early  training  as  a  watch  and  clock 
maker  well  fitted  him  for  the  painstak- 
ing and  complicated  work  of  his  life, 
which  was  to  make  a  machine  which 
would  mold  the  type  and  set  it  up  in 
one  operation ;  in  1872  Mergenthaler 
came  to  Baltimore  and  entered  a  ma- 
chine shop,  in  which  he  subsequently 
became  a  partner;  the  first  linotype 
machine  was  built  in  1886  and  put  to 
use  in  the  composing  room  of  the  New 
York  Tribune;  to-day  all  large  news- 
paper and  publishing  houses  are 
equipped  with  great  batteries  of  these 
machines,  costing  over  $3,000  each, 
and  each  performing  the  work  of  five 
compositors. 


The  first  recorded  patent  granted  by 
the  United  States  Government  bears 
date  July  31,  1790,  issued  to  Samuel 
Hopkins,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes.  Two  other  patents  were  grant- 
ed in  that  year.  In  the  following  year, 
1791,  thirty-three  patents  were  grant- 
ed. Among  them  were  six  patents  to 
James  Rumsay  and  one  to  John  Fitch 
for  inventions  relating  to  steam  en- 
gines and  steam  vessels.  For  the  sin- 
gle year  of  1876  the  number  of  pat- 
ents and  caveats  applied  for  was  al- 
most 20.000. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS. 


Below  is  given  in  chronological  or- 
der a  list  of  important  inventions  be- 
ginning with   the  16th  century,   with 


the  title  of  the  invention,  the  year  it 
was  made,  the  name  of  the  inventor 
and  his  nativity : 


Inventions. 


Discoveries  of  electrical  phenomena 

Won  the  title  of  **  founder  of  the  science  of 
electricity." 

Screw  printing-press 

Spirally  grooved  rifle  barrel 

Iron  furnaces 

The  use  of  steam 

The  first  authentic  reference  in  English  liter- 
ature to  the  use  of  steam  in  the  arts. 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  first  book  published  in  the 

Colonies 

Barometer 

Steam  enjpne,  atmospheric  pressure 

Machine  for  generating  electricity 

First  paper  mill  in  America 

First  steam  engine  with  a  piston.  .  •  .  ,. 

The  manufacture  of  nlate  glass  established 
First  to  discover  difference  between  electric 

conductors  and  insulators 

The  first  practical  application  of  the  steam 

engine 

First  newspaper  in  America,  * 'Boston  News 

Letter" 

First  to  produce  electric  spark 


1560 
1603 

1620 
1620 
1621 
1630 


1640 

1643 

1663 

1681-6 

1690 

1690 

1695 

J  1696 

11736 

1702 

1704 
11708 
11716 


Inventor. 


WUliam  Gilbert 


Blaew 
Koster 
Lord  Dudley 
David  Ramseye 


Torricelli 

Thomas  Newcomen 
Otto  von  Guericke 
William  Rittenhouse 
Denys  Papin 


Stephen  Gray 

Thomas  Savery 

John  Campbell 
Dr,  J.  Wall 


Nativity. 


Enfi^nd 


Germanv 
England. 
England 
England 


Mass. 

Italy 

England 

Germany 

Penna. 

France 

France 

England 

England 

Mass. 
England 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


219 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— Con/tnu«d. 


Inventions 


Thermometer , 

Electrometer,  the  well-known  pith  ball. 


The  *  *  Franklin  "  printing-press. 
Electrical  glass  plate  machine. . 


Stereots^ping 

First  to  discover  that  electricity  is  of  two  kinds. 

Flying  shuttle  in  weaving 

Rotar^^  3-color  printing-press  (multi-color). . . . 

Electric  or  Leyden  Jar 

Substitution  of  coke  for  coal  in  melting  iron . .  . 

Lightning  conductor 

Spinning  jenny 

Pianoforte,  played  in  public  in  England  in  .... 

Drawing  rolls  in  a  spinning  machine 

The  introduction  of  the  ** Hollander"  or  beat- 
ing engine  for  pulping  rags  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper 

The  mule  spinner 

Cut  nails 

Circular  wood  saw 

Embryo  bicycle 

Steam  engine,  the  basis  of  the  modem  engine . . 

Gas  balloon 

Puddling  iron 

Plow,  with  cast-iron  mold  board,  and  wrought- 
and  cast-iron  shares 

Power  loom 

First  steamboat  in  the  United  States 

Steam  road  wagon  (first  automobile) 

Grain  threshing  machine 

Hobby  horse,  forerunner  of  bicycle 

Rotary  steam  power  printing-press,  the  first 
idea  of 

Wood  planing  machine 

Gas  first  used  as  an  illuminant 

Cotton  pin 

Art  of  lithography 

Machine  for  making  continuous  webs  of  paper . 

Electric  battery  discovered 

Steam  coach 

Wood  mortising  machine 

Pattern  loom 

First  fire-proof  safe 

Steamboat  on  the  Clyde,  "Charlotte  Dundas". 

First  photographic  experiments 

Planing  machine 

The  application  of  steam  to  the  loom 

Steel  pen 

Steam  locomotive  on  rails 

Application  of  twin-screw  propellers  in  steam 
navigation 

Process  of  making  malleable-iron  castings 

First  life  preserver 

Electro-plating. 

Knitting  machine,  the  latch  needle  in  the  .... 

Steamboat  navigation  on  the  Hudson  River. .  . 

Percussion  or  detonating  compound 

First  street  gas  lighting  in  England 

Band  wood  saw 

Voltaic  arc 

First-  steamboat  to  make  e  trip  to  sea,  the 
"PhcBnix" 

Multi-wire  telegraphy 

Revolving  cylinder  printing-press 

Breeoh-l'^ar'ing  shotgun 

Storaflce  battery 

Dry  pile  (prototype  of  dry  battery) 

First  practical  steam  rotary  printing-press, 
paper  printed  on  both  sides 


1709 

J1718 

11772 

1725 

J1727 

1  1772 

1731 

1733-9 

1733 

1743 

1745 

1750 

1752 

1763 

1767 

1769 


1773 
1774 
1776 
1777 
1779 
1782 
1783 
1783-4 

1784 
1785 
1786 
1787 
1788 
1790 

1790 
1791 
1792 
1794 
1796 
1800 
1800 
1801 
1801 
1801 
1801 
1802 
1802 
1802 
1803 
1803 
1804 

1804 
1804 
1805 
1805 
1803 
1807 
1807 
1807 
1808 
1808 

1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1812 

1814 


Inventor. 


Fahrenheit 
John  Cantor 

Benjamin  Franklin 
Martin  de  Planta 

WiUiam  Ged 
Cisternay  du  Fay 
John  Kay 
Platt  <&  Keen 
Kleist 

Abraham  Darby 
Benjamin  Franklin 
James  Hargreaves 

Richard  Arkwright 


Samuel  Crampton 

Jeremiah  Wilkinson 

Miller 

Branchard  &  Magurier 

James  Watt 

J.  E.  &  J.  M.  Montgolfier 

Henry  (Dort 

James  Small 
James  Cartwright 
John  Fitch 
Oliver  Evans 
Andrew  Meikle 


Wm.  Nicholson 
Samuel  Bentham 
Wm.  Murdoch 
Eli  Whitney 
Alois  Senefelder 
Louis  Robert 
Volta 

Richard  Trevithick 
M.  J.  Brunei 
M.  J.  Jacquard 
Richard  Scott 
William  Symington 
Wedgwood  &  Davy 
J.  Bramah 
William  Horrocks 
Wise 
Richard  Trevithick 

John  Stevens 

Lucas 

John  Edwards 

Luigi  Brugnatelli 

Jeandeau 

Robert  Fulton 

A.  J.  Forsyth 

F.  A.  Winsor 

Newberry 

Sir  Humphry  Davy 

John  Stevens 
Sommering 
Frederick  Koenig 
Thornton  &  Hall 
J.  B.  Ritter 
Zamboni 

Frederick  Koenig 


Nativity. 


Danzig 
England 

Utd.  States 
France 

Scotland 

France 

England 

England 

Germany 

England 

Utd  States 

England 

England 

England 


England 

Utd.  States 

England 

France 

Scotland 

France 

England 

Scotland 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 

England 

England 

England 

Utd.  States 

Germany 

France 

Italy 

England 

England 

France 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

Utd.  States 

England 

England 

Italy 

France 

Utd.  States 

Scotland 

England 

England 

England 

Utd.  States 

Germany 

Germany 

rtd.  States 

Germany 

Italy 

Germany 


220 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— C<m/int*ed. 


Inventions. 


First  locomotive  in  United  States 

First  circular  wood  saw  made  in  this  country .  . 

Heliosraphy 

Kaleidoscope.  . 

Miners'  safety  lamp 

Dry  gas  meter 

Knitting  machine 

'  'Draisine"  bicycle 

'  'Columbian  "  press,  elbowed  pulling  bar,  num- 
ber of  impressions  per  hour,  50 

Stethoscope 

Electro-magnetism  discovered 

Lathe  for  turning  irregular  wood  forms 

The  theory  of  electro-dynamics  first  propounded 

Electroscope 

The  conversion  of  the  electric  current  into  me- 
chanical motion 

Galvanometer 

Multi-color  printing 

Calculating  machine 

Discovery  of  thermo-electricity 

Liquefaction  and  solidification  of  gas 

Water  gas^  discovery  of 

Portland  cement 

Electro-magnet 

First  passenger  railway,  opened  between  Stock- 
ton and  Darlington,  England 

Electrical  spur  wheel 

First  railroad  in  United  States,  near  Quincy, 
Mass 

The  law  of  galvanic  circuits  formulated 

Friction  matches 

The  reduction  of  aluminum 

Law  of  electrical  resistance 

Improved  rotary  printing-press,  London  Times, 
5,000  impressions  per  hour 

Hot  air  blast  for  iron  furnaces 

Wood  planing  machine 

Spool  electro-magnet , 

Tubular  locomotive  boiler 

Spinning  ring  frame 

The  "Washington"  printing-press,  lever  mo- 
tion and  knuckle  joint  for  a  screw,  number 
of  impressions  per  hour,  200 

First  steam  locomotive  in  United  States, 
*  'Stourbridge  Lion  " 

Double  fluid  galvanic  battery 

First  portable  steam  fire  engine 

Magneto-electric  induction 

Chloroform 

First  conception  of  electric  telegraph 

First  magneto-electric  machines 

Rotary  electric  motor 

Chloral-hydrate 

Locomotive,  "Old  Ironsides,"  built 

Link-motion  for  locomotives 

Adoption  of  steam  whistle  for  locomotives.  .  .  . 

Reciprocating  saw-tooth  cutter  within  double 
guard  fingers  for  reapers 

'  'McCormick"  reaper 

Rotary  electric  motor 

Carbolic  acid  discovered 

Horseshoe  machine 

Constant  electric  battery 

Acetylene  gas  discovered 

The  revolver ;  a  device  ' '  for  combining  a  num- 
ber of  long  barrels  so  as  to  rotate  upon  a  spin- 
dle by  the  act  of  cocking  the  hammer" 

The  screw  applied  to  steam  navigation 


Inventor. 


Nativity. 


The  galvanizing  of  iron. 


1814 
1814 
1814 
1814 
1815 
1815 
1816 
1816 

1817 
1819 
1819 
1819 
1820 
1820 

1821 
1822 
1822 
1822 
1823 
1823 
1823 
1825 
1825 

1825 
1826 

1826 
1827 
1827 
1827 
1827 

1827 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 


1829 

1829 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1831 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1833 

1833 
1834 
1834 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1836 


1836 
1836 
1841 
1837 


George  Stephenson 

Benjamin  Cummings 

Jos.  N.  Niepce 

Sir  David  Brewster 

Sir  Humphry  Davy 

S.  Clegg 

BrunelT 

Baron  von  Drais 

George  Clymer 

Laennec 

H.  C.  Oersted 

Thomas  Blanchard 

Andre  Ampere 

Bohenberg 

Michael  Faraday 
Schweigger 
P.  Force 

Charles  Babbage. 
Prof.  Seebeck 
Michael  Faraday 
Ibbetson 
Joseph  Aspdin 
Sturgeon 


Barlow 


George  S.  Ohm 
John  Walker 
Friedrich  Wohler 
George  S.  Ohm 

Cowper  &  Applegarth 
J.  B.  Neilson 
William  Woodworth 
Joseph  Henry 
St^quin 
John  Thorp 


Samuel  Rust 


A.  C.  Becquerel 

Brathwaite  &  Ericsson 

Michael  Faraday 

G.  J.  Guthrie 

Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse 

Saxton 

Wm.  Sturgeon 

Justus  von  Liebig 

M.  W.  Baldwin 

Sir  Henry  James 

George  Stephenson 

Obed  Hussey 
Cyrus  H.  McCormick 
M.  H.  Jacobi 
Runge 
H.  Burden 
J.  P.  Daniell 
Edmund  Davy 


Samuel  Colt 
John  Ericsson 

Henry  Craufurd 


England 

Utd.  States 

France 

England 

England 

England 

England 

Germany 

Utd.»States 

France 

Germany 

Utd.  States 

France 

Germany 

England 

Germany 

Utd.  States 

England 

En^and 

England 

England 

England 

England 


England 


Germany 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Germany 

England 
Scotland 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
England 


Utd.  States 


France 

England 

England 

Scotland 

Utd.  SUtes 

Utd.  States 

England 

Germany 

Utd.  States 

England 

England 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

Russia 

Germany 

Utd.  States 

England 

England 


Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

England 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


221 


PROGRESS  OF  INYESTIONS— Continued. 


Inventions. 


Indicator-telegraph 

Photographic  carbon  printing 

Babbitt  metal 

Vulcanization  of  rubber 

The  first  boat  electrically  propelled 

Daguerreotype 

(First  to  produce  a  direct  photographic  posi- 
tive in  the  camera  by  n>eans  of  highly  polished 

silver  surfaced  plate  exposed  to  the  vapors  of 

iodine  and  subsequent  development  witn  mer- 
cury vapor.) 

Making  photo-prints  from  paper  negatives 

(First  production  of  positive  proofs  from 

negatives.) 

Photographic  portraits  (Daguerreotype 
process.) 

First  incandescent  electric  lamp 

Celestial  photography 

Artesian  well 

Pneumatic  caissons 

Pianoforte  automaticallv  played 

Water  gas,  utilization  of 

Steam  hammer 

Typewriting  machine 

First  telegram  sent 

The  use  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  ansesthetic .  . 

The  electric  arc  light  (gas  retort  carbon  in  a 
vacuum) 

First  telegraphic  message,  Washington,  Balti- 
more  

Automatic  adjustment  of  electric  arc  light  car- 
bons  

Double  cylinder  printing-press. 

Pneumatic  tire 

Sewing  machine 

Printing  telegraph 

Suez  canal  started 

Ether  as  an  ansesthetic 

Electric  cautery 

Artificial  limbs 

Gun  cotton 

First  pianoforte  keyboard  player 

Chloroform  in  surgery 

Nitro-glycerine 

Time-lock 

Hoe's  lightning  press,  capable  of  printing  20,000 
impressions  per  hour 

Match-making  machinery 

Breech  gun-lock,  interrupted  thread 

Magazine  gun 

Steam  pressure  gauge 

Lenticular  stereoscope 

Latch  needle  for  knitting  machine 

•  *C)orli8S "  engine 

Printing-press,  curved  plates  secured  to  a  ro- 
tating cylinder 

Mercerized  cotton 

Collodion  process  in  photography 

American  maphine-made  watches 

Electric  locomotive 

Self-raker  for  harvesters.  . 

Breech-loading  rifle 

Icemaking  machine 

Ophthalmoscope 

The  Ruhmkorn  coil 

Fire-alarm  telegraph 

Reticulated  screen  for  half-tone  photographic 
printing 

Soda  process  of  making  pulp  from  wood 

Laws  of  magneto-electric  induction 

Laws  of  electro-statics 


1837 
1838 
1839 
1839 
1839 
1839 


1839 


1839 
1840 
1840 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1842 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1844 

1844 

1844 

1845 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1847 
1847 
1847 

1847 
1848 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 

1849 
1850 
1850 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1852 

1852 
1853 
1853 
1853 


Cooke  &  Wheatstone 

Mungo  Ponton 

Isaac  Babbitt 

Charles  Goodyear 

Jacob! 

Louis  Daguerre 


Fox  Talbot 


Profs.  Draper  &  Morse 

Grove 

Draper 

M  Triger 

M.  Seytre 

Selligne 

James  Nasmyth 

Charles  Thurber 

Prof.  S.  F  B.  Morse 

Dr.  Horace  Wells 

L^on  Foucault 

Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse 

Thomas  Wright 
R.  Hoe  &  Co. 
R.  W.  Thompson 
Elias  Howe . 
House 
De  Lesseps 
Dr.  Morton.  . 
Crusell 

Schonbein 

Debain 

Dr.  Simpson 

Sobrero 

Savage 

Richard  M.  Hoe 
A.  L.  Dennison 
Chambers 
Walter  Hunt. 
Bourdon 

Sir  David  Brewster 
J.  T.  Hibbert 
G.  H.  Coriiss 

Jacob  Worms 
John  Mercer 
Scott  Archer 

Dr  Page 

W.  H.  Seymour 

Maynard 

J.  Gorrie 

Helmholtz 

Ruhmkorff 

Channing  &  Farmer 

Fox  Talbot 
Watt  &  Burgess 
Michael  Faraday 
Michael  Faraday 


Nativity. 


England 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
France 


England 


Utd.  States 

England 

Utd.  States 

Paris 

France 

France 

France 

Scotland 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

France 

Utd.  States 

England 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Utd.  States 
Russia 

Germany 

France 

Scotland 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

France 
England 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Germany  " 
Utd.  States 

England 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 


222 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— Con/tnt*cd. 


Inventions. 


Electrolysis 

Duplex  telegraph 

Photographic  roll  films 

Diamond  rock  drill 

Four-motion  feed  for  sewirg  machines 

Magazine  firearm 

Fat  decomposed  by  water  or  steam  at  high  tem- 
perature, since  largely  used  in  soap  making. . 

Safety  matches 

Iron-clad  floating  batteries  first  used  in  Cri- 
mean war 

Cocaine 

Process  of  making  steel,  blowing  air  through 
molten  pig  iron 

Dryplate  photography 

Bicycle 

Sleeoing  car 

Aniline  dyes 

Printing  machine  for  the  blind  (contains  ele- 
ments of  the  present  typewriting  machine) . . 

Regenerative  furnace 

Refining  engine  in  paper  pulp  making 

Coal-oil  first  sold  in  the  United  States 

First  sea-going  iron-clad  war  vessel,  the 
"Glorie" 

Ground  wood  pulp 

Inclined  elevator  and  platform  in  the  reaper.  .  . 

Cable  car.  : 

Breech-loading  ordnance 

Feed  injector  for  boilers 

First  Atlantic  cable 

Great  Eastern  launched: 

Storage  or  secondary  battery 

Singing  telephone 

Ammonia  absorption  ice  machine 

Improved  stereotjrping  process 

Shoe-sewing  machine 

Driven  well,  a  tube  with  a  pointed  perforated 
end  driven  into  the  ground 

Passenger  elevator. 

Barbed-wire  fence  introduced 

Calcium  carbide  produced 

Revolving  turret  for  floating  battery 

First  iron-clad  steam  battery,  "Monitor" 

Gatling  gun 

Smokeless  gunpowder 

Pneumatic  nianoforte  player  (regarded  as  first 
to  strike  keys  by  pneumatic  pockets) 

Explopive  gelatine 

Rubber  dental  plate 

Automatic  grain-binding  device 

Process  of  making  fine  steel 

Antiseptic  surgery 

Web-feeding  printing-press 

Automatic  shell  ejector  for  revolver 

Open-hearth  steel  process 

Compressed  air  rock  drill 

Torpedo 

Dynamo  electric  machine 

Sulphite  process  for  making  paper  pulp  from 
wood 

Dynamo  electric  machine 

Disappearing  gun  carriage 

First  practical  typewriting  machine 

Dynamite 

Oleomargarine 

Water  heater  for  steam  fire  engine 

Sulky  plow 

Railway  air-brake 

Tunnel  shield  (operated  by  hydraulic  power) .  . 

A  curved  spring  tooth  harrow 


1853 
1853 
1854 
1854 
1854 
1854 

1854 
1855 

1855 
1855 

1855 
1855 
1855 
1856 
1856 

1856 
1856 
1856 
1857 

1857 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1860 
1860 
1861 
1861 

1861 
1861 
1861 
1862 
1862 
1862 
1862 
1863 

1863 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 

1867 
1866 
1868 
1868 
186S 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1869 
1869 
1869 


Inventor. 


Michael  Faraday 

Gintl 

Melhuish 

Herman 

A.  B.  Wilson     , 

Smith  &  Wesson 

R.  A.  Tilghman 
Lundstrom 


Gaedeke 

Sir  Henry  Bessemer 
Dr.  J.  M.  Taupenot 
Ernst  Michaux 
Woodruff 
Perkins 

Alfred  E.  Beach 
Wm.  Siemens 
T.  Kingsland 
Messrs.  Stout  &  Hand 


Henry  Voelter 
J.  S   Marsh 
E.  A.  Gardner 
Wright  &  Gould 
Giffard 
Cyrus  Field 

Gaston  Plants 
Philip  Reis 
F  P.  E.  C&rr6 
Charles  Craske 
George  McKay 

Col.  N.  W.  Green 
E.  G.  Otis 

Frederich  Woehler 
Theodore  Timby 
John  Ericsson 
Dr.  R.  J.  Gatling 
J.  F.  E.  Schultze 

M.  Fourneaux 

A.  Nobel 

J.  A.  Cummings 

Jacob  Behel 

Martin 

Sir  Joseph  Lister 

William  Bullock 

W  C.  Dodge 

Siemens-Martin 

C.  Burleigh. 

Whitehead 

Wilde 

Tilghman 
Siemens 
Moncrief 
C.  L.  Sholes 

A.  Nobel 
H.  Mege 

W.  A.  Brickell 

B.  Slusser 

George  Westinghouse 
Alfred  E.  Beach 
David  L.  Garver 


Nativity. 


England 
Austria 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Sweden 


Germany 

England 

France 
Utd.  States 
England 

Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

France 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Utd.  States 

France 
Germany 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Prussia 

France 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 

Utd.  States 
Germany 
England 
Utd.  States 
France 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


223 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— Con/inii«d. 


Inventions. 


Dynamo-electric  machine 

Celluloid 

Rebounding  gun-lock 

The  Goodyear  welt  shoe-sewing  machine 

Photographic  gelatino-bromide  emulsion  (basis 
of  present  rapid  photography) 

Continuous  web  pnnting-press 

Grain  binder 

Compressed  air  rock  drill 

Positive  motion  weaving  loom 

Theory  that  light  is  an  electric  phenomenon. .  . 

Automatic  air  brake 

Automatic  car  coupler 

The  photograohic  platinotype  process 

(Prints  by  this  process  are  permanent.) 

Quadniol  3X  telegraph 

Twine  binder  for  harvesters.    . . '. 

Gelatino-bromide  photographic  emulsion  (sen- 
sitiveness to  light  greatly  increased  by  the 
application  of  heat) 

Self-binding  reaper 

Barbed-wire  machine 

Si'^hon  recorder  for  submarine  telegraphs 

Store  cash  carrier 

Illuminating  water  gas.    

Roller  flour  mills 

Middling  purifier  for  flour 

Ice-makmg  machine 

Sneaking  telephone 

Electric  candle 

(The  first  step  towards  the  division  of  the 

electric  current  for  lighting.) 

Continuous  machine  Tor  making  tobacco  cigar- 
ettes  

Steam  f  3ed  saw  mills 

The  first  Portland  cement  plant  in  U.  S 

Phonograph 

Gas  engine 

Carbon  microphone 

Telephone  transmitter  of  variable  resistance.  . 

Carbon  filament  for  electric  lamp 

( Beginning  of  the  incandescent  vacuum  elec- 
tric light.) 

Ro*ary  disk  cultivator 

Decided  advance  in  the  * 'expression"  of  self- 
playini^  pianofortes 

Automatic  grain  binder 

Cathode  rays  discovered 

Electric  railway 

Steam  plow 

Magazine  rifle 

"Blake"  telephone  transmitter. .    

Hammerless  gim 

Storage  battery  or  accumulator 

Typhoid  bacillus  isolated 

Pneumonia  bacillus  isolated 

Button-hole  machine 

Improvement  in  "expression"  of  self-playing 
pianofortes 

Hand  photographic  camera  for  plates 

Tuberculosis  bacillus  isolated 

Hydrophobia  bacillus  isolated 

Cnolera  bacillus  isolated 

IHphtheria  bacillus  isolated 

Lockjaw  bacillus  isolated 

Antipyrene 

Linotype  machine 

The  rear-driven  chain  safety  bicycle 

Chrome  tanning  of  leather 

Process  of  reducing  aluminum 

Gas  burner 


1870 
1870 
1870 
1871 

1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1572 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 

1873 
1873 


1873 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1876 
1876 


1876 
1876 
1876 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1878 


1878 

1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1881 

1882 
1881 
1882 
1882 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1885 
1885 


Inventor. 


Nativity. 


Gramme 

J.  W.  &  Isaac  Hyatt 

L.  HaUer 

Goodyear 

R.  L.  Maddox 
Hoe  &  Tucker 
S.  D.  Locke 
S.  IngersoU 
J.  LyaU 
Clerk  Maxwell 
George  Westinghouse 
E.  H.  Janney 
WUlis 

T.  A.  Edison 
M.  L.  Gorham 


Charles  Bennett 

Locke  &  Wood 

Glidden  &  Vaughan 

Sir  William  Thompson 

D.  Brown 

T.  S.  C.  Lowe 

F.  Wegmann 

Geo.  T.  Smith 

R.  P.  Pictet 

Alex.  G.  Bell 

Paul  Jablochkoff 


Russell 

D.  C.  Prescott 

T.  A.  Edison 
N.  A.  Otto 
T.  A.  Edison 
£jnil  Berliner 
T.  A.  Edison 


Mallon 

Gaily 

J.  F.  Appleby 

Sir  Wm.  Crookes 

Siemens 

W.  Foy 

Lee 

Blake 

Greener 

Camille  A.  Faure 

Eberth  &  Koch 

Sternberg 

Reece 

Schmaele 
Wm.  Schmid 
Robert  Koch 
Louis  Pastern- 
Robert  Koch 
Loeffler 
Nicolaier 
Kuno 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler 
George  W.  Marble 
Schultz 
Cowles 
Carl  Welsbach 


France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 


England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Switzerland 
Utd.  States 
Russia 


Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Coplay,  Pa. 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 


Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  SUtes 

Germany 

France 

Germany 

Germany 

France 

Utd.  States 

Germany 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

England 

Germany 


224 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— C<m/inu«i. 


Inventions. 


Hydraulic  dredge 

First  electric  railway  in  United  States,  Hamp- 
den and  Baltimore,  Md 

Contact  device  for  overhead  electric  trolley.  .  . 

Graphophone 

Electric  welding 

Combined  harvester  and  thresher 

Band  wood  saw 

Cyanide  process  of  obtaining  gold  and  silver.  . 

System  of  polyphase  electric  currents 

Incandescent  gas  light 

(The  formation  of  a  conensha'ped  interwoven 

mantle  of  thread  coated  with  a  refractory  rare 

earth  and  rendering  the  same  incandescent  by 

the  heat  rays  of  a  Bunsen  gas  burner  regardless 

of  how  the  gas  is  produced.) 

Process  of  annealing  armor  plate 

"Kodak"  snap-shot  camera 

(Constructed  to  use  a  continuous  sensitized 

ribbon  film.) 

Process  of  making  artificial  silk 

Hertzian  waves  or  electric-wave  radiation .... 

First  notary  cement  kilns  in  U.  S 

Nickel  steel 

Process  for  making  aluminum. 

Electric  plow 

Improved  linotype  machine 

Bicycles  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires 

Krag-Jorgensen  magazine  rifle 

"Coherer"  for  receiving  electric  waves 

Rotary  steam  turbine 

Cement-lined  paper-pulp  digester 

Round  bale  cotton  press 

Microphone 

Power  loom 

Commercial  application  of  formic-aldehyde. .  . 

Shoe-last  lathe,  for  different  lengths.* 

Kinetoscope 

Process  for  making  carborundum 

Calcium  carbide  produced  in  electric  iumace.  . 

Process  for  liquefying  air 

Electric  locomotive,  B.  &  O.  Bell  Tunnel 

X-rays 

Acetylene  gas  from  calcium  carbide 

System  of  wireless  telegraphy 

Foundation  laid  of  science  of  radio-activity, 
i.e.,  emanation  of  penetrating  rays  from  lumi- 
nescent bodies 

Use  of  ultra-violet  rays  in  treating  diseases.  .  . 

Nernst  electric  light 

(Method  of  rendering  a  clay  compound  ca- 
pable of  conducting  electricity  and  thence  be- 
coming   brilliantly  incandescent    without    a 

vacuum.) 

Mercury  vapor  electric  light 

(An  artificial  light  composed  strictly  of  the 

ultra-blue  violet  rays  of  the  spectrum  obtained 

by  passing  an  electric  current  through  a  partial 

vacuum  tube  filled  with  mercury  vapor,  the 

latter  acting  as  a  conductor.  Possesses  re- 
markable actinic  power  for  photographic  pur- 
poses.) 

Air-ship 

Automobile  mower 

The  first  passenger  steam  turbine  ship,  "Ed- 
ward VII." 

The  first  oil-burning  steamship  built  in  the 
United  States,  "Nevada" 

English  Pacific  cable,  Canada-Australia 

American  Pacific  cable 

Berlin-Zossen  Road,  130^^  miles  an  hour 


Date. 

1S85 

1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1887 


Inventor. 


1888 
1888 


1888 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 


1896 
1896 
1897 


1900 


1901 
1901 

1901 

1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 


Bowers 


C.  J.  Van  Depoele 
Bell  &  Tainter 
Elihu  Thompson 
Matteson 

D.  C.  Prescott 
McArthur  &  Forrest 
Nicola  Tesla 

Carl  A.  Von  Welsbach 


Harvey 

Eastman  &  Walker 


H.  DeChardonnet 
Heinrich  Hertz 

Schneider 
Chas.  M.  Hall 
W.  Stephens 
Ottmar  Mergenthaler 

Krag-J6rgensen 

Edouard  Branly 

C.  A.  Parsons 

G.  F.  Russell 

Brown 

lijnile  Berliner 

Northnip 

J.  J.  A.  TriUat 

Kimball 

T.  A.  Edison 

E.  G.  Acheson 

Thos.  L.  Willson 

Carl  Linde 

Prof.  W.  C.  Roentgen 
Thomas  L.  Willson 
G.  Marconi 


Henri  Becquerel 
Niels  R.  Finsen 
Walter  Nernst 


Peter  Cooper  Hewitt 


M.  Santos-Dumont 
Deering  Harvester  Co 

Denny  &  Brothers 


Nativity. 


Utd.  States 


Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Austria 


Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 


France 
Germany 
Coplay,  Fa. 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  SUtes 
Utd.  States 
Germany 

Utd.  States 
England 
England 
Utci.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Italy 


France 

Denmark 

Germany 


Ut<l.  States 


Utd.  States 
Germany 
— Encyclopedia  Americana, 


France 
Utd.  States 

England 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


225 


GENERAL   INFORMATION   REGARDING    PATENTS. 


What  is  a  Patent? — The  term 
patent  or  letters  patent  is  derived  from 
litterae  patentes,  signifying  that  which 
is  open  or  disclosed  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  lettre  de  caches  that  which 
is  sealed  or  secret.  This  term  is  the 
keynote  of  the  whole  principle  upon 
which  the  patent  system  is  built  up, 
namely,  disclosure.  The  disclosure 
must  be  honest,  absolute  and  unre- 
served. The  penalty  for  mental  crook- 
edness or  for  ignorance  in  giving  out 
fully  and  freely  the  nature  of  the  in- 
vention is  severe  and  direct  and  is 
nothing  less  than  forfeiture  of  the  pat- 
ent itself.  The  reason  for  this  is  per- 
fectly logical  and  arises  from  the  very 
meaning,  spirit  and  nature  of  the  re- 
lationship existing  between  the  pat- 
entee and  the  government.  The  term 
of  a  patent  is  17  years.  During  this 
term  of  17  years  the  patentee  obtains 
a  monopoly  under  which  he  secures  ex- 
clusive right  of  manufacture,  use  and 
sale.  The  patent  itself,  however,  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  contract  between  the 
patentee  and  the  government,  presu- 
mably for  their  mutual  benefit.  The 
government  grants  to  the  inventor  the 
exclusive  right  of  manufacture  and 
sale  for  17  years  on  condition  that  the 
inventor  shall  disclose  fully  the  nature 
of  his  invention  or  discovery,  and  shall 
allow  the  public  the  unrestricted  use 
of  the  invention  after  this  term  has 
expired.  If  he  fail  in  making  full  dis- 
closure, he  has  not  lived  up  to  the 
terms  of  the  implied  contract  and  the 
patent  thereby  becomes  null  and  void. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  an  inventor 
disclo^s  freely  part  of  the  inventton, 
but  cunningly  conceals  some  essential 
step  in  the  process,  but 'if  the  case  is 
tested  within  the  courts  and  the  real 
facts  are  brought  to  light,  the  patent 
will  be  declared  invalid.  At  the  end 
of  the  term  of  17  years  the  patent  be- 
comes public  property,  and  the  article 
may  be  freely  manufactured  by  any 
one.  It  can  never  thereafter,  as  in  so 
many  cases  in  the  Middle  Ages,  be- 
come a  lost  art. 

Who  May  Obtain  a  Patent? — In 
order  to  secure  a  valid  patent,  the  ap- 
plicant must  declare  upon  oath  that  he 
believes  himself  to  be  the  true,  original 
and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
art,  machine,  manufacture,  composi- 
tion or  improvement  for  which  he  so- 
licits a  patent ;  that  he  does  not  know 
and  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used ;  and  that 
the  invention  has  not  been  in  public 


use  or  on  sale  in  the  United  States  for 
more  than  two  years  before  the  appli- 
cation was  filed,  and  that  the  inven- 
tion has  not  been  described  in  any 
printed  publication  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation. Any  one  who  can  subscribe  to 
the  above  conditions  may  apply  for  a 
patent,  irrespective  of  race,  color,  age, 
or  nationality.  Minors  and  women 
and  even  convicts  may  apply  for  pat- 
ents under  our  law.  The  rights  even 
of  a  dead  man  in  an  invention  are  not 
lost,  for  an  application  may  be  filed  in 
his  name  by  bis  executor  or  adminis- 
trator, and  the  rights  of  his  heirs 
thereby  safeguarded.  The  patent  in 
this  case  would  issue  to  the  executor 
or  administrator  and  would  become 
subject  to  the  administration  of  the 
estate  like  any  other  property  left  by 
the  deceased.  Even  the  rights  of  an 
insane  person  may  not  be  lost,  as  the 
application  may  be  filed  by  his  legal 
guardian.  If  foreign  patents  for  the 
same  invention  have  been  previously 
issued,  having  been  filed  more  than  12 
months  before  the  filing  of  the  United 
States  application,  the  patent  would 
be  refused.  The  applicant  must  state 
his  nationality.  It  often  happens  that 
two  or  more  individuals  have  jointly 
worked  upon  the  invention,  and  in  this 
case  the  several  inventors  should  joint- 
ly apply  for  the  patent.  Should  they 
not  so  apply,  the  patent  when  issued 
would  be  invalid.  If  they  are  merely 
partners,  however,  and  not  co-invent- 
ors, they  should  not  apply  jointly  for 
a  patent,  as  the  inventor  alone  is  en- 
titled to  file  the  application.  He  may. 
however,  assign  a  share  in  the  patent 
to  his  partner,  coupled  with  the  re- 
quest that  the  patent  should  issue  to 
them  jointly.  It  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  these  distinctions  should 
be  clearly  understood ;  otherwise,  the 
patent  may  be  rendered  invalid. 

What  Mat  be  Patented? — Any 
netv  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufac- 
ture or  compos" tion  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  improvements  thereon. 
The  thiner  invented  must  be  new  and 
useful.  These  are  conditions  precedent 
to  the  granting  of  a  patent.  Of  these 
two  conditions  by  far  the  more  import- 
ant is  the  former,  and  it  is  concerning 
the  interpretation  of  this  word  "netp" 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  invention 
that  the  principal  work  and  labor  in- 
volved in  passing  an  application  safely 
through  the  Patent  OflSce  is  involved. 
When  the  invention  has  been  worked 


226 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


out  by  the  inventor  and  he  is  pre- 
pared to  file  his  application,  his  attor- 
ney prepares  the  ndies.ary  tai^ers,  as 
provided  for  by  law,  nam.My:  An 
Oath,  a  Petition,  a  Specific  ition  con- 
s'sting  of  a  description  of  the  inven- 
tion and  concluding  w  th  c  aims  which 
specifically  set  forth  what  the  inventor 
claims  to  be  the  novel  features  of  the 
invention,  and  drawings  which  are  pre- 
pared and  filed  wi.h  the  ca^e,  and  in 
due  course  the  application  is  ready 
for  examination  in  the  Patent  OflBce. 
The  question  of  whether  the  invention 
is  new  is  then  considered,  and  the  bur- 
den of  proof  that  the  invention  is  not 
new  rests  upon  the  Patent  Office.  The 
examination  consists  in  searching 
through  the  files  of  the  Patent  Office 
among  the  patents  that  have  been  al- 
ready issued,  and  through  si  ch  litera- 
ture as  may  bear  upon  the  subject. 
If  any  reference  is  discovered  that  an- 
ticipates the  invention,  as  defined  by 
the  claims  of  the  specification,  the  ap- 
plicant is  informed  of  the  fact,  and  he 
is  allowed  to  amend  his  pa.  ers  and 
narrow  the  claims  so  as  to  avoid  the 
prior  patents,  if  possible.  If  his  at- 
torney considers  the  position  of  the 
Patent  Office  untenable,  he  may  pre- 
sent arguments  to  show  wherein  he  be- 
lieves that  the  inventor  is  entitled  to  a 
patent.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  an  invention  is  new  is 
one  of  fact,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  upon  the  showing  that 
the  inventor  is  able  to  make  during 
the  prosecution  of  the  case,  depends 
largely  the  future  success  of  the  pat- 
ent. The  evidence  adduced  in  proving 
that  the  invention  is  not  new  must  be 
tangible  and  accessible.  A  patent 
would  not  be  refused  or  overturned  on 
a  mere  mental  concept.  There  must 
be  some  evidence  of  a  substantial  char- 
acter that  serves  to  show  that  the 
earlier  idea  was  reduced  to  practice 
or  at  least  that  there  was  such  a  de- 
scription or  drawine  made,  as  would 
be  sufficient  for  one  skilled  in  the  art  to 
reduce  the  invention  to  practice.  If  it 
has  not  been  actually  reduced  to  prac- 
tice, it  must  be  a  concrete  not  an  ab- 
stract idea. 

It  is  essential  that  the  application 
for  a  patent  should  be  filed  before  the 
invention  has  been  in  public  use  or  on 
sale  for  a  period  of  two  years.  If  the 
inventor  has  publicly  used  or  sold  his 
invention  for  a  period  of  two  years,  it 
becompp  nuMic  property  and  he  can- 
not rpt'ain  the  right  to  obtain  a  pat- 
ent. He  may.  however,  make  models 
and  experiment  with  his  invention  for 


a  much  longer  period,  provided  he  does 
not  disclose  his  invention  to  the  pub- 
lic or  put  it  into  actual  use  or  on  sale 
for  a  period  of  two  years.  The  word 
"useful"  is  not  one  which  usually 
gives  either  the  Patent  Office  or  the 
inventor  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  as 
any  degree  of  utility,  however  insignifi- 
cant, will  serve  to  entitle  the  invent- 
or to  a  patent.  It  has  often  hap- 
pened that  an  invention  which  ap- 
peal's, at  the  time  the  patent  is  ap- 
plied for,  to  have  no  special  utility,  in 
later  years,  owing  to  new  discoveries 
or  improvements  in  the  arts,  is  found 
to  possess  the  greatest  merit  and 
value.  Unless  an  invention  is  posi- 
tively meretricious,  therefore,  it  is 
difficult  to  assume  that  it  either  has  no 
utility  or  never  will  have  any.  Pat- 
ents are  granted  for  "any  new  and 
useful  art,  machine,  manufacture  or 
composition  of  matter,  or  any  improve- 
ment thereon."  It  is  seen  from  tFie 
terras  of  the  statute  that  almost  any 
creature  of  the  inventive  faculty  of 
man  becomes  a  proper  subject  for  a 
patent.  The  exceptions  are  very  few. 
Patents  will  not  be  granted,  for  ex- 
ample, for  any  invention  that  offends 
the  law  of  nature.  Under  this  cate- 
gory may  be  mentioned  perpetual  mo- 
tion machines.  In  case  an  application 
of  this  character  is  presented,  the 
Commissioner  politely  informs  •  the 
applicant  that  the  matter  cannot  be 
considered  until  a  working  model 
demonstrating  the  principle  of  the  in- 
vention has  been  deposited  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office.  Inventions  of  an  immoral 
nature  will  not  be  considered.  Medi- 
cines and  specifics  are  not  now  proper 
subjects  for  letters  patent,  unless  some 
important  new  discovery  is  involved. 

Patented  Articles  Must  be 
Marked. — Articles  manufactured  and 
sold  under  a  patent-  must  be  so  marked 
that  the  public  shall  have  notice  t^^at 
the  article  is  a  patented  one.  This 
notice  consists  of  the  word  "Patented." 
together  with  the  date  when  the  patent 
was  issued  or  the  Serial  Number  of  the 
patent.  Damages  in  an  infringement 
suit  cannot  be  recovered  unless  the 
defendant  has  received  such  notice 
that -the  article  is  patented.  The  term 
of  a  United  States  patent  is  17  years. 
This  term  cannot  be  extended  except 
by  special  Act  of  Congress.  It  is 
many  years  pince  a  bill  seeking  an  ex- 
tension of  the  term  of  a  patent  has 
been  passed  bv  Congress. 

Appeals. — If  an  appl'cation  for  a 
patent  has  been  relectpd,  the  annlicant 
may  appeal  from  the  Primary  Examin- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


221 


er  to  the  Board  of  Examiners-in-Cbief. 
He  may  further  carry  the  appeal  to 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  in 
case  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the  lat- 
ter decision,  he  may  carry  the  appeal 
finally  to  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

Inteiu'EKENCE. — If  two  or  more  in- 
dividuals shall  have  invented  the  same 
thing  at  or  about  the  same  time,  inter- 
ference proceedings  may  be  instituted 
to  determine  which  applicant  is  the 
original  or  first  inventor.  Interference 
proceedings  are  instituted  between  ap- 
plicants whose  applications  are  pend- 
ing or  between  a  pending  application 
and  a  patent  already  issued,  provided 
the  latter  patent  has  not  been  issued 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  the 
filing  of  the  conflicting  application. 
The  proceedings  are  conducted  before 
the  Examiner  of  Interferences.  Ap- 
peal may  be  taken  from  the  Examiner 
of  Interferences  to  the  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers-in-Chief,  and  from  the  Board 
of  Examiners-in-Chief  to  the  Commis- 
sioner, and  thence  to  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peals of  the  District  of  Columbia.  Not 
all  the  cla'ms  for  a  patent  are  neces- 
sarily involved,  only  such  as  cover  the 
particular  feature  of  the  invention 
which  is  declared  to  be  in  interference. 
The  unsuccessful  applicant  by  elimi- 
nating the  claims  or  claim  in  contro- 
versy may  procure  allowance  of  the 
other  cla'ms  not  objected  to,  and  have 
the  patent  issued.  In  determining  the 
question  of  priority  of  invention,  wit- 
nesses are  examined  and  the  proceed- 
ings are  conducted  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  a  suit  at  law.  The  first 
step  in  the  proceeding  cons'sts  in  filing 
with  the  Commissioner  a  Preliminary 
Statement  made  under  oath,  giving  the 
date  at  which  the  invention  was  first 
conceived  and  reduced  to  some  tangi- 
ble form,  such  as  the  making  of  draw- 
ings, the  construction  of  a  model,  or 
the  disclosing  of  the  invention  to  an- 
other. The  object  of  the  subsequent 
examination  and  cross-examination  is 
to  substantiate  the  date  of  invention 
as  claimed  by  the  applicants  respec- 
tively, and  to  establish  the  priority  of 
invention. 

Infringement. — In  case  of  an  ac- 
tion for  the  infringement  of  a  patent, 
the  importance  of  the  question  of  nov- 
elty appears  from  the  special  pleadings 
which  the  defendant  may  enter,  which 
are  as  follows : 

1.  That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving 
the  public  the  description  and  specifi- 
cation filed  by  the  patentee  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office   was   made  to  contain   less 


than  the  whole  truth  relative  to  his 
invention  or  discovery,  or  more  than  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect ; 
or, 

2.  That  he  had  surreptitiously  or 
unjustly  obtained  the  patent  for  that 
which  was  in  fact  invented  by  another, 
who  was  using  reasonable  diligence  in 
adapting  and  perfecting  the  same ;  or, 

3.  That  it  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  some  printed  publication 
prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or  dis- 
covery thereof;  or, 

4.  That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any 
material  and  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented ;  or, 

5.  That  it  has  been  in  public  use 
or  on  sale  in  this  country  for  more 
than  two  years  before  his  application 
for  a  patent,  or  had  been  abandoned 
to  the  public. 

Damages  for  infringement  of  a  pat- 
ent may  be  recovered  by  action  on  the 
case  in  the  name  of  the  patentee  or 
his  assignee.  The  courts  having  juris- 
dict'on  over  such  cases  have  the 
power  (1)  to  grant  injunctions  against 
the  violation  of  any  right  secured  by 
the  patent;  (2)  to  allow  the  recovery 
of  damages  sustained  by  the  complain- 
ant through  such  infringement.  In 
such  a  case  the  defendant  is  compelled 
to  furnish  an  accounting  showing  the 
amount  of  the  articles  manufactured 
and  sold  and  the  profits  derived  from 
such  sale. 

Design  Patents. — Design  patents 
are  issued  for  any  new  or  original  de- 
sign, whether  it  be  a  work  of  art, 
statue,  bas-relief,  design  for  prints  or 
fabrics,  or  for  any  new  design  or 
shape  or  ornament  in  any  article  of 
manufacture.  The  scope  of  the  de- 
sign patent  was  formerly  very  broad, 
but  recent  decisions  and  enactments 
have  greatly  restricted  its  availability 
and  a  design  patent  cannot  now  be  ob- 
tained unless  it  possesses  some  inher- 
ent artistic  quality.  Mere  util'ty  is 
not  sufficient  to  entitle  a  new  design 
to  letters  patent.  The  terms  of  design 
patents  are  3  1-2,  7  or  14  years. 

Caveats. — Any  one  who  has  made 
a  new  invention  or  discovery,  which  is 
not  yet  completed  or  perfected,  may 
file^  in  the  Patent  Office  a  caveat,  de- 
scrib'ng  his  invention,  said  caveat 
serving  as  notice  to  the  Patent  Office 
that  the  caveator  is  in  possession  of  a 
certain  invention  partly  developed,  for 
which  later  he  proposes  to  file  an  ap- 
plication for  a  patent.  The  caveat  is 
filed  by  the  Commission  in  the  secret 
archives  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  is 


228 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


operative  for  a  term  of  one  year.  The 
term  may  be  prolonged  from  year  to 
year  by  the  payment  of  a  small  fee. 
The  caveat  should  not  be  confounded 
with  a  patent,  for  it  gives  the  inventor 
no  real  protection  or  monopoly.  It 
simply  entitles  him  to  notice  in  case 
another  inventor  files  an  application 
for  the  same  invention.  In  this  event 
the  caveator  is  entitled  to  three 
months'  grace  within  which  to  file  his 
patent  application,  whereupon  .an  in- 
terference will  be  declared  between  the 
two  inventions. 

Assignments. — A  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  may  be  sold  or  assigned 


like  any  other  piece  of  property.  An 
inventor  may  sell  or  assign  his  in- 
terest or  a  part  interest  in  his  inven- 
tion, either  before  the  application  is 
filed  or  while  the  application  is  still 
pending.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  patent  may  be  issued  to  the  as- 
signee or  to  the  inventor  and  assignee 
jointly.  The  patent,  if  already  issued, 
may  be  assigned  by  the  owner  whether 
he  be  the  inventor  or  assignee.  The 
conveyance  is  effected  by  an  instru- 
ment in  writing  stating  the  conditions 
under  which  the  patent  is  assigned, 
and  the  assignment  should  be  recorded 
in  the  Patent  Office. — Enc.  Americana. 


ABSTRACTS  OF  DECISIONS. 


Where  an  inventor  has  completed 
his  invention,  if  he  neither  applies  for 
a  patent  nor  puts  it  to  practical  use, 
a  subsequent  inventor  who  promptly 
applies  is  entitled  to  the  patent,  and 
the  first  one  is  deemed  to  have  aban- 
doned his  rights.  Pattee  v.  Russell, 
3  O.  G.,  181 ;  Ex  parte  Carre,  5  O.  G., 
30;  Johnson  v.  Root,  1  Fisher,  351. 

As  between  two  rival  inventors,  the 
test  of  priority  is  the  diligence  of  the 
one  first  to  conceive  it.  If  he  has  been 
diligent  in  perfecting  it,  he  is  entitled 
to  receive  the  patent.  If  he  has  been 
negligent,  the  patent  is  awarded  to 
his  opponent.  Robinson  on  Patents. 
Sec.    375. 

The  construction  and  use  in  public 
of  a  working  machine,  whether  the  in- 
ventor has  or  has  not  abandoned  it, 
excludes  the  grant  of  a  patent  to  a 
subsequent  inventor.  An  abandon- 
ment in  such  case  inures  to  the  bene- 
fit of  the  public  and  not  to  the  bene- 
fit of  a  subsequent  inventor.  Young  v. 
Van  Duser,  1(5  O.  G.,  95. 

A  mere  aggregation  or  combination 
of  o!d  devices  is  not  patentable  when 
the  elements  are  unchanged  in  func- 
tion and  effect.  They  are  patentable 
when,  "by  the  action  of  the  elements 
upon  each  other,  or  by  their  joint  ac- 
tion on  their  common  object,  they  per- 
form additional  functions  and  accom- 
plish additional  effects."  Robinson  on 
Patents,  Sec.  154. 

A  change  of  shape  enabling  an  in- 
strument to  perform  new  functions  is 
invention.  Wilson  v.  Coon,  18  Blatch. 
532;  Collar  Co.  v.  White,  7  O.  G., 
690,  877. 

A  patent  which  is  simply  for  a  meth- 
od of  transacting  business  or  keeping 
accounts  is  not  valid.  U.  S.  Credit 
System  Co.  v.  American  Indemnity 
Co.,  as  O.  G.,  318. 


The  law  requires  that  manufactur- 
ers of  patented  articles  give  notice  to 
the  public  that  the  goods  are  patented 
by  marking  thereon  the  date  of  the 
patent  or  giving  equivalent  notice. 
When  this  law  is  not  complied  with, 
only  nominal  damages  can  be  recov- 
ered. Wilson  V.  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  4 
Bann.  &  A.  637;  McCourt  v.  Brodie, 
5  Fisher,  384. 

To  prevent  fraudulent  impositions 
on  the  public  it  is  forbidden  that  un- 
patented articles  be  stamped  "Pat- 
ented," and  where  this  is  done  with 
intention  to  deceive,  a  penalty  of  one 
hundred  dollars  and  costs  for  each 
article  so  stamped  is  provided.  Any 
person  may  bring  action  against  such 
offenders.  Walker  v.  Hawxhurst,  5 
Blatch.  494;  Tompkins  v.  Butterfield, 
25  Fed.  Rep.  556. 

A  patentee  is  bound  by  the  limita- 
tions imposed  on  his  patent,  whether 
they  are  voluntary  or  enforced  bv  the 
Patent  Office,  and  if  he  accepts  claims 
not  covering  his  entire  invention  he 
abandons  the  remainder.  Toepfer  v. 
Goetz,  41  O.  G.,  933. 

Claims  should  be  construed,  if  pos- 
sible, to  sustain  the  patentee's  right  to 
all  he  has  invented.  Ransom  v.  Mayor 
of  N.  Y.   (1856),  Fisher,  252. 

I'Tie  assignor  of  a  patented  invention 
is  estopped  from  denying  the  validity 
of  his  own  patent  or  his  own  title  to 
the  interest  transferred.  He  cannot 
become  the  owner  of  an  older  patent 
and  hold  it  against  his  assignee.  Rob- 
inson on  Patents,  Sec.  787,  and  notes. 

Any  assignment  which  does  not  con- 
vey to  the  assignee  the  entire  and  un- 
qualified monopoly  which  the  patentee 
holds  in  the  territory  specified,  or  an 
undivided  interest  in  the  entire  mo- 
nopoly, is  a  mere  license.  Sanford  v. 
Messer,  2  O.  G.,  470, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


229 


FOREIGN    PATENTS. 


Canada,  Dominion  of. — ^The  laws 
of  Canada  follow  somewhat  closely  the 
practice  in  the  United  States.  The 
term  of  a  patent  is  18  years.  The  gen- 
eral practice,  however,  is  to  divide  the 
fees,  making  payment  only  for  a  term 
of  six  years  at  one  time.  Applications 
are  subjected  to  examination  as  to 
novejty  and  usefulness,  as  in  the 
United  States.  The  application  must 
be  filed  in  Canada  not  later  than  dur- 
ing the  year  following  the  issue  of  the 
United  States  or  other  foreign  patent. 
If  the  inventor  neglects  to  file  his  ap- 
plication within  the  12  months,  the 
invention  becomes  public  property.  It 
is  not  permissible  to  import  the  pat-, 
ented  article  into  the  Dominion  after 
12  months  from  the  date  of  the  Cana- 
dian patent.  Within  two  years  from 
said  date  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
the  article  under  the  patent  must  have 
been  begun.  These  exactions  may  be 
relaxed  under  certain  conditions. 

Great  Britain. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  14  years. .  After  January, 
1905,  an  examination  will  be  made  in 
Great  Britain  to  ascertain  whether 
the  invention  has  been  disclosed  in  the 
specifications  of  British  patents  grant- 
ed within  fifty  years  of  the  filing  of  the 
British  application.  While  this  will  be 
the  extent  of  the  examination  by  the 
Patent  Office,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
invalidate  a  British  patent  to  show  in 
court  that  the  invention  was  published, 
or  was  in  public  use,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain before  the  priority  of  the  British 
application.  In  Great  Britain  the  true 
inventor  should  apply  for  the  patent  in 
his  own  name ;  but  if  the  invention  has 
been  conceived  in  a  foreign  country, 
the  first  introducer  may  obtain  the  pat- 
ent whether  he  be  the  true  inventor  or 
not.  Under  these  circumstances,  there- 
fore, a  foreign  assignee  may  apply  for 
the  patent  in  his  own  name  without 
the  true  inventor  being  known.  After 
the  fourth  year  there  are  annual  taxes, 
gradually  increasing  in  amount.  The 
patent  becomes  void  if  the  tax  is  not 
paid.  No  time  is  set  within  which  the 
manufacture  of  the  invention  must  be 
commenced,  but  after  three  years  if  the 
manufacture  has  not  been  begun,  the 
patentee  may  be  compelled  to  grant  li- 
censes, or  the  patent  may  be  declared 
invalid. 

France. — ^The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  There  is  no  examination  as 
to  novelty,  and  the  patent  is  granted 
to  the  first  applicant,  whether  or  not 
he  be  the  true  inventor.     The  life  of 


the  patent  depends  upon  the  payment 
of  annual  taxes.  The  patent  must  be 
worked  in  France  within  three  years 
of  the  filing  of  the  application.  If  these 
conditions  are  not  complied  with,  the 
patent  becomes  public  property. 

Germany. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  patent  is  issued  to  the 
first  applicant,  but  if  he  is  not  the  true 
inventor  he  should,  before  filing  the 
application,  obtain  the  written  consent 
of  the  inventor.  The  application  is 
subjected  to  a  rigid  examination.  The 
patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  progres- 
sive tax,  and  must  be  worked  within 
a  period  of  three  years. 

Austria. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  practice  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  practice  in  Germany, 
although  the  examination  is  generally 
not  so  exacting.  The  patent  is  subject 
to  an  annual  tax  and  it  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three  years. 

Hungary. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  laws  are  similar  to 
those  of  Germany.  There  is  a  progres- 
sive annual  tax  and  the  patent  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three 
years. 

Belgium. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
20  years.  The  first  applicant  obtains 
the  patent  whether  or  not  he  is  the 
true  inventor.  There  is  a  small  an- 
nual tax,  and  the  patent  should  be 
worked  within  three  years  or  within 
one  year  of  the  working  elsewhere. 

Italy. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  15 
years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the  first 
applicant.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an 
annual  tax,  and  the  working  must  take 
place  within  three  years. 

Russia. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
15  years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  the 
payment  of  annual  taxes  and  must  be 
worked  within  five  years. 

Spain. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
20  years,  subject  to  the  payment  of  an- 
nual taxes.  It  must  be  worked  within 
three  years.  The  patent  is  issued  to 
the  first  applicant,  whether  or  not  he 
be   the   true   inventor. 

Switzerland. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  15  years,  subject  to  an  an- 
nual tax.  Working  must  take  place 
within  three  years.  Only  the  true  in- 
ventor or  his  assignee  can  obtain  a 
patent. 

Norway. — Term  of  patent  is  15 
years,  subject  to  a  small  annual  tax. 
The  patent  must  be  worked  within 
three  years.  The  application  must  be 
filed  in  the  name  of  the  true  inventor 
or  his  legal  representative.     Applica- 


230 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


tion  must  be  filed  within  six  months  of 
the  publication  of  any  prior  patent. 

Sweden. — Term  of  patent  is  15 
years,  subject  to  payment  of  an  an- 
nual tax.  The  conditions  are  very 
similar  to  the  laws  of  Norway,  but  the 
application  should  be  filed  before  the 
issuing  of  a  prior  foreign  patent. 

Denmark. — ^The  laws  are  similar  to 
those  of  Sweden. 

PoRTiTGAL. — The  term  varies  from 
1  to  15  years,  the  fees  payable  depend- 
ing upon  the  term  of  the  patent. 

Holland  has  no  patent  laws. 

Australasia.  —  The  Australasia 
patent  protects  an  invention  in  Vic- 
toria, New  South  Wales,  Queensland, 
South  Australia,  Tasmania  and  West- 
ern Australia,  but  not  in  New  Zealand, 
which  has  its  own  patent  laws.  The 
term  of  the  Australia  patent  is  14 
years,  a  tax  being  due  before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  seventh  year.  When 
the  patent  is  not  worked  the  patentee 
may  be  required  to  give  license  for  a 
reasonable  consideration. 

New  Zealand. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  14  years,  taxes  being  due  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  fourth  and  sev- 
enth years.  There  are  no  require- 
ments as  to  working. 

British  India. — The  patent  is 
granted  for  14  years,  and  closely  fol- 
lows the  British  practice.  The  appli- 
cation should  be  filed  within  one  year 
of  the  issue  of  the  patent  in  any  other 
country. 

Porto  Rico. — It  is  possible  to  pro- 
cure protection  for  industrial  property 
by  registering  a  certified  copy  of  the 
United  States  patent  with  the  Civil 
Governor  and  complying  with  the  other 
legal  formalities. 

Philippines. — The  modus  operandi 
is  the  same  as  that  just  described  as 
applying  to  Porto  Rico. 

Cuba. — Since  Cuba  has  become  an 
independent  republic  it  has  established 
a  patent  system.    The  term  of  the  pat- 


ent is  17  years.  Working  should  be 
established  within  one  year.  No  taxes 
after  the  issue  of  the  patent. 

Mexico. — The  term  is  20  years. 
There  are  no  taxes  after  the  issue  of 
the  patent. 

South  American  Republics. — 
Patents  are  issued  by  all  the  South 
American  republics.  The  principal 
countries  in  which  patent  protection 
is  sought  are  Brazil,  in  which  the  laws 
are  quite  favorable  to  foreigners,  Chile 
and  Argentina.  Patents  are  also  fre- 
quently secured  in  Venezuela,  Peru, 
Ecuador,  Colombia  and  Paraguay,  but 
only  for  certain  classes  of  invention, 
owing  to  the  expense  involved  in  pro- 
curing the  patents. 

South  Africa. — Patents  are  obtain- 
able in  four  important  states,  Cape 
Colony,  Transvaal,  Congo  Free  State 
and  Orange  Free  State. 

Japan  has  recently  enacted  a  sys- 
tem of  patent  laws  on  a  liberal  basis. 

China  has  no  patent  laws  nor  pat- 
ent oflice. 

The  conditions  under  which  foreign- 
ers may  file  applications  in  the  coun- 
tries having  patent  laws  vary  great- 
ly, and  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  specify  under  what  conditions  ap- 
plications may  be  filed.  In  most  coun- 
tries, however,  the  issuance  of  a  prior 
foreign  patent  will  either  defeat  the  is- 
suance of  the  patent  subsequently  ap- 
plied for  in  another  country,  or  will 
render  the  patent  invalid  even  if  it  is 
issued.  Great  care  should  be  taken, 
therefore,  to  avoid  having  a  foreign 
patent  issue  at  such  a  time  as  to  en- 
danger the  life  of  the  patent  at  home. 
The  many  dangers  and  difilculties 
which  have  arisen  from  the  differing 
laws  and  the  varying  practice  in  dif- 
ferent countries  have  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  rectifying  provisions 
which  lessen  these  various  disparities 
and  rendering  them  innocuous. 

—Encyclopedia  Americana. 


PATENT    LAWS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


[The  Constitutional  Provision. — 
The  Congress  shall  have  power  *  *  * 
to  promote  the  progress  of  Science 
and  Useful  Arts,  by  securing  for  limit- 
ed Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors 
the  exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings    and    Discoveries.] 

statutes. 

organization  of  the  patent  office. 

Title  XI,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  80: 
Sec.  475.     There  shall  be  in  the  De- 
partment   of    the    Interior    an    oflBce 


known  as  the  Patent  Office,  where  all 
records,  books,  models,  drawings,  speci- 
fications, and  other  papers  and  things 
pertaining  to  patents  shall  be  safely 
kept  and  preserved. 

Sec.  47(>.  There  shall  be  in  the 
Patent  Office  a  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, one  Assistant  Commissioner,  and 
three  examiners-in-chief,  who  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate.  All  other  oflJicers,  clerks,  and 
employees  authorized  by   law   for  the 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


231 


OflSce  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior,  upon  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents. 

COI7BTS. 

Sec.  629.     The  circuit  courts  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction     ♦     *  .  * 
of    all    suits    at    law    or    in    equity 
arising    under    the    patent    copyright 
laws  of  the  United  States. 

Title  XIII,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  169: 

Sec.  893.  Copies  of  the  specifica- 
tions and  drawings  of  foreign  letters 
patent  certified  .as  provided  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  shall  be  prima  facie 
evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  granting 
of  such  letters  patent,  and  of  the  date 
and  contents  thereof. 

Sec.  894.  The  printed  copies  of 
specifications  and  drawings  of  patents, 
which  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  is 
authorized  to  print  for  gratuitous  dis- 
tribution, and  to  deposit  in  the  Capi- 
tols of  the  Slates  and  Territories,  and 
in  the  clerks'  ofliices  of  the  district 
courts,  shall,  when  certified  by  him 
and  authenticated  by  the  seal  of  his 
office,  be  received  in  all  courts  as  evi- 
dence of  all  matters  therein  contained. 

Sec.  1537.  No  patented  article 
connected  with  marine  engines  shall 
hereafter  be  purchased  or  used  in  con- 
nection with  any  steam  vessels  of  war 
until  the  same  shall  have  been  sub- 
mitted to  a  competent  board  of  naval 
engineers,  and  recommended  by  such 
board,  in  writing,  for  purchase  and 
use. 

Title  XVII,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  292: 

Sec.  1673.  No  royalty  shall  be  paid 
by  the  United  States  to  any  one  of  its' 
officers  or  employees  for  the  use  of  any 
patent  for  the  system,  or  any  part 
theeof,  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
section,  nor  for  any  such  patent  in 
which  said  officers  or  employees  may  be 
directly   or  indirectly    interested. 

PATENTS. 

Title  LX,  Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  chap. 
1,  p.  945: 

Sec.  4883.  All  patents  shall  be  is- 
sued in  the  name  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  under  the  seal  of  the  Pat- 
ent Office,  and  shall  be  signed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  they 
shall  be  recorded,  together  with  the 
specifications,  in  the  Patent  Office  in 
books  to  be  kept  for  that  purpose. 

Sec.  4884.  Every  patent  shall  con- 
tain a  short  title  or  description  of 
the  invention  or  discovery,  correctly 
indicating  its  nature  and  design,  and  a 


grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  or  as- 
signs, for  the  term  of  seventeen  years, 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use,  and 
vend  the  invention  or  discovery 
throughout  the  United  States  and  the 
Territories  thereof,  referring  to  the 
specification  for  the  particulars  there- 
of. A  copy  of  the  specification  and 
drawings  shall  be  annexed  to  the  pat- 
ent and  be  a  part  thereof. 

Sec.  4885.  Every  patent  shall  bear 
date  as  of  a  day  not  later  than  six 
months  from  the  time  at  which  it  was 
passed  and  allowed  and  notice  thereof 
was  sent  to  the  applicant  or  his  agent ; 
and  if  the  final  fee  is  not  paid  within 
that  period  the  patent  shall  be  with- 
held. 

Sec.  4880.  Any  person  who  has  in- 
vented or  discovered  any  new  and  use- 
ful art,  machine,  manufacture,  or  com- 
position of  matter,  or  any  new  and 
useful  improvements  thereof,  not 
known  or  used  by  others  in  this  coun- 
try, before  his  invention  or  discovery 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country,  before  his  in- 
vention or  discovery  thereof,  or  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  applica- 
tion, and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale 
in  this  country  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application,  unless 
the  same  is  proved  to  have  been  aban- 
doned, may,  upon  payment  of  the  fees 
required  by  law,  and  other  due  pro- 
ceeding had,  obtain  a  patent  therefor. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents  are  au- 
thorized to  grant  any  officer  of  the 
Government,  except  officers  and  em- 
ployees of  the  Patent  Office,  a  patent 
for  any  invention  of  the  classes  men- 
tioned in  section  4880  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  when  such  invention  is  used 
or  to  be  used  in  the  public  service, 
without  the  payment  of  any  fee: 
Provided,  That  the  applicant  in  his 
application  shall  state  that  the  in- 
vention described  therein,  if  patented, 
may  be  used  by  the  Government,  or  any 
of  its  officers  or  employees  in  prose- 
cution of  work  for  the  Government,  or 
by  any  other  person  in  the  United 
States,  without  the  payment  to  him 
of  any  royalty  thereon,  which  stipula- 
tion shall  be  included  in  the  patent. 

Sec.  4887.  No  person  otherwise  en- 
titled .thereto  shall  be  debarred  from 
receiving  a  patent  for  his  invention  or 
discovery,  nor  shall  any  patent  be  de- 
clared invalid  by  reason  of  its  having 
been  first  patented  or  caused  to  be 
patented  by  the  inventor  or  his  legal 
representatives  or  assigns  in  a  foreign 


282 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


country,  unless  the  application  for  said 
foreign  patent  was  filed  more  than 
twelve  months,  in  cases  within  the  pro- 
visions of  section  4886  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  and  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  prior  to  the  filing  of  the 
application  in  this  country,  in  which 
case  no  patent  shall  be  granted  in 
this  country. 

An  application  for  patent  for  an  in- 
vention or  discovery  or  for  a  design 
filed  in  this  country  by  any  person 
who  has  previously  regularly  filed  an 
application  for  a  patent  for  the  same 
invention,  discovery,  or  design  in  a 
foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  con- 
vention, or  law,  affords  similar  privi- 
leges to  citizens  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  the  same  force  and  effect 
as  the  same  application  would  have 
if  filed  in  this  country  on  the  date  on 
which  the  application  for  patent  for 
the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  de- 
sign was  first  filed  in  such  foreign 
country,  provided  the  application  in 
this  country  is  filed  within  twelve 
months  in  cases  within  the  provisions 
of  section  4880  of  the  Revised  Stat- 
utes, and  within  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  from  the  earliest  date  on 
which  any  such  foreign  application 
was  filed.  But  no  patent  shall  be 
granted  on  an  application  for  patent 
for  an  invention  or  discovery  or  a  de- 
sign which  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  a  printed  publication  in 
this  or  any  foreign  country  more  than 
two  years  before  the  date  of  the  ac- 
tual filing  of  the  application  in  this 
country,  or  which  had  been  in  public 
use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  such 
filing. 

Sec.  4888.  Before  any  inventor  or 
discoverer  shall  receive  a  patent  for 
his  invention  or  discovery,  he  shall 
make  application  therefor,  in  writing, 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and 
shall  file  in  the  Patent  Ofiice  a  writ- 
ten description  of  the  same,  and  of 
the  manner  and  process  of  making, 
constructing,  compounding,  and  using 
it,  in  such  full,  clear,  concise,  and  ex- 
act terms  as  to  enable  any  person 
skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which 
it  appertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most 
nearly  connected,  to  make,  construct, 
compound,  and  use  the  same ;  and  in 
case  of  a  machine,  he  shall  explain 
the  principle  thereof,  and  the  best 
mode  in  which  he  has  contemplated 
applying  that  principle,  so  as  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  inventions ;  and 
he  shall  particularly  point  out  and 
distinctly  claim  the  part,  improvement, 


or  combination  which  he  claims  as  his 
invention  or  discovery.  The  specifica- 
tion and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the 
inventor  and  attested  by  two  wit- 
nesses 

Sec.  4889.  When  the  nature  of  the 
case  admits  of  drawings,  the  applicant 
shall  furnish  one  copy  signed  by  the 
inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses,  which  shall 
be  filed  in  the  Patent  Office ;  and  a 
copy  of  the  drawing,  to  be  furnished 
by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  be  attached 
to  the  patent  as  a  part  of  the  specifi- 
cation.   • 

Sec.  4890.  When  the  invention  or 
discovery  is  of  a  composition  of  mat- 
ter, the  applicant,  if  required  by  the 
Commissioner,  shall  furnish  specimens 
of  ingredients  and  of  the  composition, 
sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  purpose 
of  experiment. 

Sec.  4891.  In  all  cases  which  ad- 
mit of  representation  by  model,  the 
applicant,  if  required  by  the  Commis- 
sioner, shall  furnish  a  model  of  con- 
venient size  to  exhibit  advantageously 
the  several  parts  of  his  invention  or 
discovery. 

Sec.  4892.  The  applicant  shall 
make  oath  that  he  does  verily  believe 
himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 
ventor or  discoverer  of  the  art,  ma- 
chine, manufacture,  composition,  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a 
patent ;  that  he  does  not  know  and 
does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used ;  and  shall 
state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citizen. 
Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any 
person  within  the  United  States  au- 
thorized by  law  to  administer  oaths, 
or,  when  the  applicant  resides  in  a 
forengn  country,  before  any  minister, 
charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or  commer- 
cial agent  holding  commission  under 
the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
or  before  any  notary  public,  judge,  or 
magistrate  having  an  official  seal  and 
authorized  to  administer  oaths  in  the 
foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant 
may  be,  whose  authority  shall  be 
proved  by  certificate  of  a  diplomatic 
or  consular  officer  of  the  United 
States. 

Sec.  4893.  On  the  filing  of  any 
such  application  and  the  payment  of 
the  fees  required  by  law,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  shall  cause  an  exam- 
ination to  be  made  of  the  alleged  new 
invention  or  discovery ;  and  if  on  such 
examination  it  shall  appear  that  the 
claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a  patent 
under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is 
sufficiently  useful  and  important,  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


233 


Commissioner  shall  issue  a  patent 
therefor. 

Sec.  4894.  All  applications  for  pat- 
ents shall  be  completed  and  prepared 
for  examination  within  one  year  after 
the  filing  of  the  application,  and  in  de- 
fault thereof,  or  upon  failure  of  the 
applicant  to  prosecute  the  same  with- 
in one  year  after  any  action  therein, 
of  which  notice  shall  have  been  given 
to  the  applicant,  they  shall  be  regarded 
as  abandoned  by  the  parties  thereto, 
unless  it  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  that 
such  delay  was  unavoidable. 

Sec.  4895.  Patents  may  be  granted 
and  issued  or  reissued  to  the  assignee 
of  the  inventor  or  discoverer ;  but  the 
assignment  must  first  be  entered  of 
record  in  the  Patent  Office.  And  in 
all  cases  of  an  application  by  an  as- 
signee for  the  issue  of  a  patent,  the 
application  shall  be  made  and  the 
specification  sworn  to  by  the  inventor 
or  discoverer ;  and  in  all  cases  of 
an  application  for  a  reissue  of  any 
patent,  the  application  must  be  made 
and  the  corrected  specification  signed 
by  the  inventor  or  discoverer,  if  he 
is  living,  unless  the  patent  was  is- 
sued and  the  assignment  made  before 
the  eighth  day  of  July,  1870. 

Sec.  4896.  When  any  person,  hav- 
ing made  any  new  invention  or  dis- 
covery for  which  a  patent  might  have 
been  granted,  dies  before  a  patent  is 
granted,  the  right  of  applying  for  and 
obtaining  the  patent  shall  devolve  on 
his  executor  or  administrator,  in  trust 
for  the  heirs  at  law  of  the  deceased, 
in  case  he  shall  have  died  intestate ; 
or  if  he  shall  have  left  a  will  disposing 
of  the  same,  then  in  trust  for  his  de- 
visees, in  as  full  manner  and  on  the 
same  terms  and  conditions  as  the  same 
might  have  been  claimed  or  enjoyed 
by  him  in  his  lifetime ;  and  when  the 
application  is  made  by  such  legal  rep- 
resentatives, the  oath  or  affirmation 
required  to  be  made  shall  be  so  varied 
in  form  that  it  can  be  made  by  them. 
The  executor  or  administrator  duly  au- 
thorized under  the  law  of  any  foreign 
country  to  administer  upon  the  estate 
of  the  deceased  inventor  shall,  in  case 
the  said  inventor  was  not  domiciled  in 
the  United  States  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  have  the  right  to  apply  for  and 
obtain  the  patent.  The  authority  of 
such  foreign  executor  or  administrator 
shall  be  proved  by  certificate  of  a 
diplomatic  or  consular  officer  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  4897.  Any  person  who  has  an 
interest- in  an  invention  or  discovery, 


whether  as  inventor,  discoverer,  or  as- 
signee, for  which  a  patent  was  order- 
ed to  issue  upon  the  payment  of  the 
final  fee,  but  who  fails  to  make  pay- 
ment thereof  within  six  months  from 
the  time  at  which  it  was  passed  and 
allowed,  and  notice  thereof  was  sent 
to  the  applicant  or  his  agent,  shall 
have  a  right  to  make  an  application 
for  a  patent  for  such  invention  or  dis- 
covery the  same  as  in.  the  case  of  an 
original  application.  But  such  second 
application  must  be  made  within  two 
years  after  the  allowance  of  the  ori- 
ginal application.  But  no  person 
shall  be  held  responsible  in  damages 
for  the  manufacture  or  use  of  any 
article  or  thing  for  which  a  patent 
was  ordered  to  issue  under  such  re- 
newed application  prior  to  the  issue 
of  the  patent.  And  upon  the  hear- 
ing of  renewed  applications  pre- 
ferred under  this  section,  abandon- 
ment shall  be  considered  as  a  question 
of  fact. 

Sec.  4898.  Every  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  shall  be  assignable  in 
law  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  and 
the  patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal 
representatives  may  in  like  manner 
grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right 
under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any 
specified  part  of  the  United  States. 
An  assignment,  grant,  or  conveyance 
shall  be  void  as  against  any  subse- 
quent purchaser  for  mortgagee  or  a 
valuable  consideration,  without  notice, 
unless  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent 
Office  within  three  months  from  the 
date  thereof. 

If  any  such  assignment,  grant,  or 
conveyance  of  any  patent  shall  be  ac- 
knowledged before  any  notary  public 
of  the  several  States  or  Territories  or 
the  District  of  Columbia,  or  any  com- 
missioner of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court,  or  before  any  secretary  of  le- 
gation or  consular  officer  authorized 
to  administer  oaths  or  perform  nota- 
rial acts  under  section  1750  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  the  certificate  of 
such  acknowledgment,  under  the  hand 
and  official  seal  of  such  notary  or  oth- 
er officer,  shall  be  prima  facie  evidence 
of  the  execution  of  such  assignment, 
grant  or  conveyance. 

Sec.  4899.  Every  person  who  pur- 
chases of  the  inventor  or  discoverer, 
or,  with  his  knowledge  and  consent, 
constructs  any  newly  invented  or  dis- 
covered machine,  or  other  patentable 
article,  prior  to  the  application  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer  for  a  patent, 
or  who  sells  or  uses  one  so  constructed, 
shall  have  the  right  to  use,  and  vend 


234 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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CONVENTIONAL  SIGNS  USED  IN  U.  S.  PATENT  OFFICE  DRAWINGS. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


235 


to  others  to  be  used,  the  specific  thing 
so  made  or  purchased,  without  liability 
therefor. 

Sec.  4900.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
all  patentees,  and  their  assigns  and 
legal  representatives,  and  of  all  per- 
sons making  or  vending  any  patented 
article  for  or  under  them,  to  give  suffi- 
cient notice  to  the  public  that  the  same 
is  patented  either  by  fixing  thereon 
the  word  "patented,"  together  with  the 
day  and  year  the  patent  was  granted ; 
or  when,  from  the  character  of  the  ar- 
ticle, this  cannot  be  done,  by  fixing  to 
it,  or  to  the  package  wherein  one  or 
more  of  them  is  inclosed,  a  label  con- 
ta.ning  the  like  notice;  and  in  any 
suit  for  infringement,  by  the  party 
failing  so  to  mark,  no  damages  shall 
be  recovered  by  the  plaintiff,  except  on 
proof  that  the  defendant  was  duly 
notified  of  the  infringement,  and  con- 
tinued, after  such  notice,  to  make, 
use,  or  vend  the  article  so  patented. 

Sec.  4901.  Every  person  who,  in 
any  manner,  marks  upon  anything 
made,  used,  or  sold  by  him  for  which 
he  has  not  obtained  a  patent,  the 
name  or  any  imitation  of  the  name  of 
any  persons  who  has  obtained  a  pat- 
ent therefor,  without  the  consent  of 
such  patentee,  or  his  assigns  or  legal 
representatives ;  or 

Who,  in  any  mannec,  marks  upon  or 
affixes  to  any  such  patented  article 
the  word  "patent"  or  "patentee,"  or 
the  words  "letters  patent,"  or  any 
word  of  like  import,  with  intent  to  imi- 
tate or  counterfeit  the  mark  or  device 
of  the  patentee,  without  having  the 
license  or  consent  of  such  patentee  or 
his  assigns  or  legal  representatives ; 
or 

Who.  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or 
affixes  to  any  unpatented  article  the 
word  "patent"  or  any  word  importing 
that  the  same  is  patented,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deceiving  the  public,  shall  be 
liable,  for  every  such  offense,  to  a 
penalty  of  not  less  than  one  hundred 
dollars,  with  costs ;  one-half  of  said 
penalty  to  the  person  who  shall  sue 
for  the  same,  and  the  other  to  the  use 
of  the  United  States,  to  be  recovered 
by  suit  in  any  district  court  of  the 
United  States,  within  whose  jurisdic- 
t'on  such  offense  may  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

Sec.  4902.  Any  person  who  makes 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  and 
desires  further  time  to"  mature  the 
Fame  may,  on  pavment  of  the  fee??  re- 
quired by  law,  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
a  caveat  setting  forth  the  design  there- 
of  and    of    its   distinguishing   charac- 


teristics and  praying  protection  of  his 
right  until  he  shall  have  matured  his 
invention.  Such  caveat  shall  be  filed 
in  the  confidential  archives  of  the  office 
and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be 
operative  for  the  term  of  one  year 
from  the  filing  thereof;  and  if  appli- 
cation is  made  within  the  year  by  any 
other  persons  for  a  patent  with  which 
such  caveat  would  in  any  manner  in- 
terfere the  Commissioner  shall  deposit 
the  description,  specification,  drawings, 
and  model  of  such  application  in  like 
manner  in  the  confidential  archives  of 
the  office,  and  give  notice  thereof  by 
mail  to  the  person  by  whom  the  ca- 
veat was  filed.  If  such  person  desires 
to  avail  himself  of  his  caveat  he  shall 
tile  his  description,  specifications, 
drawings,  and  model  within  three 
months  from  the  time  of  placing  the 
notice  in  the  post-office  in  Washington, 
with  the  usual  time  required  for  trans- 
mitting it  to  the  caveator  added  there- 
to, which  time  shall  be  indorsed  on  the 
notice. 

Sec.  4903.  Whenever,  on  examina- 
tion, any  claim  for  a  patent  is  re- 
jeieted,  the  Commissioner  shall  notify 
the  applicant  thereof,  giving  him  brief- 
ly the  reasons  for  such  rejection,  to- 
gether with  such  information  and  ref- 
erences as  may  be  useful  in  judging  of 
the  propriety  of  renewing  his  applica- 
tion or  of  altering  his  specification ; 
and  if,  after  receiving  such  notice, 
the  applicant  persists  in  his  claim 
for  a  patent,  with  or  without  alter- 
ing his  specifications,  the  Commission- 
er shall  order  a  re-examination  of  the 
case. 

Sec.  4904.  Whenever  an  applica- 
tion is  made  for  a  patent  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Commissioner, 
would  interfere  with  any  pending  ap- 
plication, or  with  any  unexpired  pat- 
ent, he  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the 
applicants,  or  applicant  and  patentee, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  shall  direct  the 
primary  examiner  to  proceed  to  deter- 
niine  the  question  of  priority  of  inven- 
tion. And  the  Commissioner  may  is- 
sue a  patent  to  the  party  who  is  ad- 
judged the  prior  inventor,  unless  the 
adverse  party  appeals  from  the  deci- 
sion of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of  the 
board  of  examiners-in-chief,  as  the  case 
may  be,  within  such  time,  not  less  than 
twenty  days,  as  the  Commissioner 
shall  prescribe. 

Sec.  4905.  The  Commissioner  of 
Patents  may  establish  rules  for  taking 
affidavits  and  depositions  reouired  in 
cases  pending  in  the  Patent  Office,  and 
such  affidavits  and  depositions  may  be 


236 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


taken  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
law  to  take  depositions  to  be  used  in 
the  courts  of  the  United  States  or  of 
the  State  where  the  officer  resides. 

Sec.  4906.  The  clerk  of  any  court 
of  the  United  States,  for  any  district 
or  Territory  wherein  testimony  is  to 
be  taken  for  use  in  any  contested  case 
pending  in  the  Patent  Office,  shall, 
upon  the  application  of  any  party 
thereto,  or  of  his  agent  or  attorney, 
issue  a  subpcena  for  any  witness  re- 
siding or  being  within  such  district  or 
Territory,  commanding  him  to  appear 
and  testify  before  any  officer  in  such 
district  or  Territory  authorized  to  take 
depositions  and  affidavits,  at  any  time 
and  place  in  the  subpoena  stated.  But 
no  witness  shall  be  required  to  attend 
at  any  place  more  than  forty  miles 
from  the  place  where  the  subpoena  is 
served  upon  him. 

Sec.  4907.  Every  witness  duly  sub- 
poenaed and  in  attendance  shall  be  al- 
lowed the  same  fees  as  are  allowed  to 
witnesses  attending  the  courts  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  4908.  Whenever  any  witness, 
after  being  duly  served  with  such  sub- 
poena, neglects  or  i-efuses  to  appear, 
or  after  appearing  refuses  to  testify, 
the  judge  of  the  court  whose  clerk  is- 
sued the  subpoena  may,  on  proof  of 
such  neglect  or  refusal,  enforce  obedi- 
ence to  the  process,  or  punish  the  dis- 
obedience, as  in  other  like  cases.  But 
no  witness  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
contempt  for  disobeying  such  subpoena, 
unless  his  fees  and  traveling  expenses 
in  going  to,  returning  from,  and  one 
day's  attendance  at  the  place  of  exam- 
ination, are  paid  or  tendered  him  at 
the  time  of  the  service  of  the  subpoena ; 
nor  for  refusing  to  disclose  any  secret 
invention  or  discovery  made  or  owned 
by   himself. 

Sec.  4909.  Every  applicant  for  a 
patent  or  for  the  reissue  of  a  patent, 
any  of  the  claims  of  which  have  been 
twice  rejected,  and  every  party  to  an 
interference,  may  appeal  from  the  de- 
cision of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of 
the  examiner  in  charge  of  interferences 
in  such  case,  to  the  board  of  examin- 
ers-in-chief; having  once  paid  the  fee 
for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  4910.  If  such  party  is  dissat- 
isfied with  the  decision  of  the  examin- 
ei*s-in-chief,  he  may,  on  payment  of 
the  fee  prescribed,  appeal  to  the  Com- 
missioner in  person. 

Sec.  4911.  If  such  party,  except  a 
party  to  an  interference,  is  dissatis- 
fied with  the  decision  of  the  Commis- 
sioner, he  may  appeal  to  the  Supreme 


Court    of    the    District    of    Columbia, 
sitting   in   banc. 

Sec.  4912.  When  an  appeal  is 
taken  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  appellant 
shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  Com- 
missioner, and  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  such  time  as  the  Commissioner 
shall  appoint,  his  reasons  of  appeal, 
specifically  set  forth  in  writing. 

Sec.  4913.  The  court  shall,  before 
hearing  such  appeal,  give  notice  to  the 
Commissioner  of  the  time  and  place  of 
the  hearing,  and  on  receiving  such  no- 
tice the  Commissioner  shall  give  no- 
tice of  such  time  and  place  in  such 
manner  as  the  court  may  prescribe,  to 
all  parties  who  appear  to  be  interested 
therein.  The  party  appealing  shall 
lay  before  the  court  certified  copies  of 
all  the  original  papers  and  evidence  in 
the  case,  and  the  Commissioner  shall 
furnish  the  court  with  the  grounds  of 
his  decision,  fully  set  forth  in  writing, 
touching  all  the  points  involved  by  the 
reasons  of  appeal.  And  at  the  request 
of  any  party  interested,  or  of  the 
court,  the  Commissioner  and  the  exam- 
iners may  be  examined  under  oath,  in 
explanation  of  the  principles  of  the 
thing  for  which  a  patent  is  demanded. 

Sec.  4914.  The  court,  on  petition, 
shall  hear  and  determine  such  appeal, 
and  revise  the  .decision  appealed  from 
in  a  summary  way,  on  the  evidence 
produced  before  the  Commissioner,  at 
such  early  and  convenient  time  as  the 
court  may  appoint ;  and  the  revision 
shall  be  confined  to  the  points  set 
forth  in  the  reasons  of  appeal.  After 
hearing  the  case  the  court  shall  return 
to  the  Commissioner  a  certificate  of  its 
proceedings  and  decision,  which  shall 
be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent 
Office,  and  shall  govern  the  further 
proceedings  in  the  case.  But  no  opin- 
ion or  decision  of  the  court  in  any 
such  case  shall  preclude  any  person 
interested  from  the  right  to  contest  the 
validity  of  such  patent  in  any  court 
wherein  the  same  may  be  called  in 
question. 

Sec.  4915.  Whenever  a  patent  on 
application  is  refused,  either  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  or  by  the 
Supreme  ("ourt  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia upon  appeal  from  the  Com- 
missioner, the  applicant  may  have 
remedy  by  bill  in  equity ;  and  the 
court  having  cognizance  thereof,  on 
notice  to  adverse  parties  and  other  due 
proceedings  had,  may  adjudge  that 
such  applicant  is  entitled,  according  to 
law,  to  receive  a  patent  for  his  inven- 
tion, as  specified  in  his  claim,  or  for 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


2^7 


any  part  thereof,  as  the  facts  in  the 
case  may  appear.  And  such  adjudica- 
tion, if  it  be  in  favor  of  the  right  of  the 
applicant,  shall  authorize  the  Commis- 
sioner to  issue  such  patent  on  the  ap- 
plicant filing  in  the  Patent  Office  a 
copy  of  the  adjudication,  and  other- 
wise complying  with  the  requirements 
of  law.  In  all  cases  where  there  is 
no  opposing  party,  a  copy  of  the  bill 
shall  be  served  on  the  Commissioner; 
and  all  the  expenses  of  the  proceeding 
shall  be  paid  by  the  applicant,  whether 
the  final  decision  is  in  his  favor  or 
not. 

II.  S.,  U.  S.,  Sup.,  Vol.  2,  c.  74, 
Feb.  9,  1893.  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That 
there  shall  be,  and  there  is  hereby, 
established  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia a  court,  to  be  known  as  the  court 
of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Sec.  G.  That  the  said  court  of  ap- 
peals shall  establish  a  term  of  the 
court  during  each  and  every  month  in 
each  year  excepting  the  months  of 
July  and  August. 

Sec.  8.  That  any  final  judgment  or 
decree  of  the  said  court  of  appeals 
may  be  re-examined  and  affirmed,  re- 
versed, or  modified  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  upon  writ 
of  error  or  appeal,  in  all  causes  in 
which  the  matter  in  dispute,  exclusive 
of  costs,  shall  exceed  the  sum  of  five 
thousand  dollars,  in  the  same  manner 
and  under  the  same  regulations  as 
heretofore  provided  for  in  cases  of 
writs  of  error  on  judgment  or  appeals 
from  decrees  rendered  in  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  of  Columbia ; 

And  also  in  cases,  without  regard  to 
the  sum  or  value  of  the  matter  in  dis- 
pute, wherein  is  involved  the  validity 
of  any  patent  or  copyright,  or  in  which 
is  drawn  in  question  the  validity  of  a 
treaty  or  statute  of  or  an  authority 
exercised  under  the  United  States. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled.  That  in  any  case  heretofore 
made  final  in  the  court  of  appeals  of 
the  District  of  Columbia  it  shall  b^ 
competent  for  the  Supreme  Court  to 
require,  by  certiorari  or  otherwise, 
any  such  case  to  be  certified  to  the 
Supreme  Court  for  its  review  and  de- 
termination, with  the  same  power  and 
authority  in  the  case  as  if  it  had  been 
carried  by  appeal  or  writ  of  error  to 
the   Supreme  Court. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  determination  of 
appeals  from  the  decision  of  the  Com- 
missioner of   Patents,   now   vested   in 


the  general  term  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  pur- 
suance of  the  provisions  of  section  780 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States,  relating  to  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, shall  hereafter  be  and  the  same 
is  hereby  vested  in  the  court  of  ap- 
peal§  created  by  this  act ; 

And  in  addition,  any  party  ag- 
grieved by  a  decision  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  in  any  interference 
case  may  appeal  therefrom  to  said 
court  of  appeals. 

Title  LX,  Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  p.  950 : 
Sec.  4016.  Whenever  any  patent  is 
inoperative  or  invalid,  by  reason  of  a 
defective  or  insufficient  specification, 
or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming 
as  his  own  invention  or  discovery 
more  than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as 
new,  if  the  error  has  arisen  by  inad- 
vertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention,  the  Commissioner  shall,  on 
the  surrender  of  such  patent  and  the 
payment  of  the  duty  required  by  law, 
cause  a  new  patent  for  the  same  inven- 
tion, and  in  accordance  with  the  cor- 
rected specification,  to  be  issued  to  the 
patentee,  or,  in  case  of  his  death  or 
of  an  assignment  of  the  whole  or  any 
undivided  part  of  the  original  patent, 
then  to  his  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns,  for  the  unexpired  part  of 
the  term  of  the  original  patent.  Such 
surrender  shall  take  effect  upon  the  is- 
sue of  the  amended  patent.  The  Com- 
missioner may,  in  his  discretion,  cause 
several  patents  to  be  issued  for  dis- 
tinct and  separate  parts  of  the  thing 
patented,  upon  demand  of  the  appli- 
cant, and  upon  payment  of  the  re- 
quired fee  for  a  reissue  for  each  of 
such  reissued  letters  patent.  The 
specifications  and  claim  in  every  such 
case  shall  be  subject  to  revision  and 
restriction  in  the  same  manner  as  ori- 
ginal applications  are.  Every  patent 
so  reissued,  together  with  the  cor- 
rected specifications,  shall  have  the 
same  effect  and  operation  in  law,  on 
the  trial  of  all  actions  for  causes 
thereafter  arising,  as  if  the  same  had 
been  originally  filed  in  such  correct- 
ed form ;  but  no  new  matter  shall  be 
introduced  into  the  specification,  nor 
in  case  of  a  machine  patent  shall  the 
model  or  drawings  be  amended,  except 
each  by  the  other ;  but  when  there  is 
neither  model  nor  drawing,  amend- 
ments may  be  made  upon  proof  satis- 
factory to  the  Commissioner  that  such 
new  matter  or  amendment  was  a  part 
of  the  original  invention,  and  was 
omitted  from  the  specification  by  inad- 


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SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


vertence,     accidenti     or    mistake,     as 
aforesaid. 

Sec.  4917.  Whenever,  through  in- 
advertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention,  a  patentee  has  claimed  more 
than  that  of  which  he  was  the  original 
or  first  inveritor  or  d'scoverer,  his  pat- 
ent shall  he  valid  for  all  that  part 
which  is  truly  and  justly  his  own,  pro- 
vided the  same  is  a  material  or  sub- 
stantial part  of  the  thing  patented ; 
and  any  such  patentee,  his  heirs  or  as- 
signs, whether  of  the  whole  or  any 
sectional  interest  therein,  may,  on  pay- 
ment of  the  fee  required  by  law,  make 
disclaimer  of  such  parts  of  the  thing 
patented  as  he  shall  not  choose  to 
claim  or  to  hold  by  virtue  of  the  pat- 
ent or  assignment,  stating  therein  the 
extent  of  his  interest  in  such  patent. 
Such  disclaimer  shall  be  in  writing, 
attested  by  one  or  more  witnesses,  and 
recorded  in  the  patent  office ;  and  it 
shall  thereafter  be  considered  as  part 
of  the  original  specification  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  interest  possessed  by  the 
claimant  and  by  those  claiming  under 
him  after  the  record  thereof.  But  no 
such  disclaimer  shall  affect  any  action 
pending  at  the  time  of  its  being  filed, 
except  so  far  as  may  relate  to  the 
question  of  unreasonable  neglect  or 
delay  in  filing  it. 

Sec.  4918.  Whenever  there  are  in- 
terfering patents,  any  person  interest- 
ed in  any  one  of  them,  or  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  invention  claimed  under 
either  of  them,  may  have  relief  against 
the  interfering  patentee,  and  all  par- 
ties interested  under  him,  by  sunt  in 
equity  against  the  owners  of  the  in- 
terfering patent ;  and  the  court,  on 
notice  to  adverse  parties,  and  other 
due  proceedings  had  according  to  the 
course  of  equity,  may  adjudge  and  de- 
clare either  of  the  patents  .  void  in 
whole  or  in  part,  or  inoperative,  or  in- 
valid in  any  particular  part  of  the 
United  States,  according  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  parties  in  the  patent  or  the 
invention  patented.  But  no  such 
judgment  or  adjudication  shall  affect 
the  right  of  any  person  except  the  par- 
ties to  the  suit  and  those  deriving  title 
under  them  subsequent  to  the  rendition 
of  such  judgment. 

Sec.  4019.  Damages  for  the  in- 
fringement of  any  patent  may  be  re- 
covered by  action  on  the  case,  in  the 
name  of  the  party  interested  either  as 
patentee,  assignee,  or  grantee.  And 
whenever  in  any  such  action  a  verdict 
is  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court 
may  enter  judgment  thereon  for  any 


sum  above  the  amount  found  by  the 
verdict  as  the  actual  damages  sustain- 
ed, according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  not  exceeding  three  times  the 
amount  of  such  verdict,  together  with 
the  costs. 

Sec.  4920.  In  any  action  for  in- 
fringement the  defendant  may  plead 
the  general  issue,  and,  having  given 
notice  in  writing  to  the  plaintiff  or  his 
attorney  thirty  days  before,  may  prove 
on  trial  any  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing special  matters : 

First. — That  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
ceiving the  public  the  description  and 
specification  filed  by  the  patentee  in 
the  Patent  Office  was  made  to  contain 
less  than  the  whole  truth  relative  to 
his  invention  or  discovery,  or  more 
than  is  necessary  to  produce  the  de- 
sired effect ;  or. 

Second.  —  That  he  had  surrepti- 
tiously or  unjustly  obtained  the  patent 
for  that  which  was  in  fact  invented  by 
another,  who  was  using  reasonable 
diligence  in  adapting  and  perfecting 
the  same ;  or. 

Third. — That  it  has  been  patented 
or  described  in  some  printed  publica- 
tion prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or 
discovery  thereof,  or  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application  for  a 
patent  therefor ;  or, 

Fourth. — That  he  was  not  the  ori- 
ginal and  first  inventor  or  discoverer 
of  any  material  and  substantial  part 
of  the  thing  patented ;  or. 

Fifth. — That  it  had  been  in  public 
use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for  more 
than  two  years  before  his  application 
for  a  patent,  or  had  been  abandoned 
to  the  public. 

And  in  notices  as  to  proof  of  previ- 
ous invention,  knowledge,  or  use  of  the 
thing  patented,  the  defendant  shall 
state  the  names  of  the  patentees  and 
the  dates  of  their  patents,  and  when 
granted,  and  the  names  and  residences 
of  the  persons  alleged  to  have  invented 
or  to  have  had  the  prior  knowledge  of 
the  thing  patented,  and  where  and  by 
whom  it  had  been  used ;  and  if  any  one 
or  more  of  the  special  matters  alleged 
shall  be  found  for  the  defendant,  judg- 
ment shall  be  rendered  for  him  with 
costs.  And  the  like  defenses  may  be 
pleaded  in  any  suit  in  equity  for  re- 
lief against  an  alleged  infringement; 
and  proofs  of  the  same  may  be  given 
upon  like  notice  in  the  answer  of  the 
defendant,  and  with  the  Tke  effect. 

Sec.  4921.  The  several  courts  vest- 
ed with  jurisdiction  of  cases  arising 
under  the  patent  laws  shall  have  pow- 
er to  grant  injunctions   according  to 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


239 


the  course  and  principles  of  courts  of 
equity,  to  prevent  the  violation  of  any 
right  secured  by  patent,  on  such  terms 
as  the  court  may  deem  reasonable ;  and 
upon  a  decree  being  rendered  in  any 
such  case  for  an  infringement  the  com- 
plainant shall  be  entitled  to  recover,  in 
addition  to  the  profits  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  defendant,  the  damages  the 
complainant  has  sustained  thereby ; 
and  the  court  shall  assess  the  same  or 
cause  the  same  to  be  assessed  under  its 
direction.  And  the  court  shall  have 
the  same  power  to  increase  such  dam- 
ages, in  its  discretion,  as  is  given  to 
increase  the  damages  found  by  ver- 
dicts in  actions  in  the  nature  of  ac- 
tions of  trespass  upon  the  case. 

But  in  any  suit  or  action  brought 
for  the  infringement  of  any  patent 
there  shall  be  no  recovery  of  profits  or 
damages  for  any  infringement  com- 
mitted more  than  six  years  before  the 
filing  of  the  bill  of  complaint  or  the 
issuing  of  the  writ  in  such  suit  or 
action,  and  this  provision  shall  apply 
to  existing  causes  of  action. 

Sec.  4922.  Whenever,  through  in- 
advertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  wilful  default  or  intent  to 
defraud  or  mislead  the  public,  a  pat- 
entee has.  in  his  specification,  claimed 
to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  or 
discoverer  of  any  material  or  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  of 
which  he  was  not  the  original  and  first 
inventor  or  discoverer,  every  such  pat- 
entee, his  executors,  administrators, 
and  assigns,  whether  of  the  whole  or 
any  sectional  interest  in  the  patent, 
may  maintain  a  suit  at  law  or  in 
equity,  for  the  infringement  of  any 
part  thereof,  which  was  bqna  fide  his 
own,  if  it  is  a  material  and  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  and 
definitely  distinguishable  from  the 
parts  claimed  without  right,  notwith- 
standing the  specifications  may  em- 
brace more  than  that  of  which  the 
patentee  was  the  first  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer. But  in  every  such  case  in 
which  a  judgment  or  decree  shall  be 
rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  no  costs 
shall  be  recovered  unless  the  proper 
disclaimer  has  been  entered  at  the 
Patent  OflSce  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  suit.  But  no  patentee 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  this 
section  if  he  has  unreasonably  neg- 
lected or  delayed  to  enter  a  dis- 
claimer. 

Sec.  4923.  Whenever  it  appears 
that  a  patentee,  at  the  time  of  making 
his  application  for  the  patent,  believed 
himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 


ventor or  discoverer  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, the  same  shall  not  be  held  to 
be  void  on  account  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  or  any  part  thereof,  having 
been  known  or  used  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try, before  his  invention  or  discovery 
thereof,  if  it  had  not  been  patented  or 
described  in  a  printed  publication. 

DESIGNS. 

Sec.  4929.  Any  person  who  has  in- 
vented any  new,  original,  and  orna- 
mental design  for  an  article  of  manu- 
facture, not  known  or  used  by  others 
in  this  country  before  his  invention 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country  before  his  inven- 
tion thereof,  or  more  than  two  years 
prior  to  his  application,  and  not  in 
public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  unless  the  same  is  proved 
to  have  been  abandoned,  may,  upon 
payment  of  the  fees  required  by  law 
and  other  due  proceedings  had.  the 
same  as  in  cases  of  invention  or  dis- 
coveries covered  by  section  4886,  ob- 
tain a  patent  therefor. 

Sec.  4930.  The  Commissioner  may 
dispense  with  models  of  designs  when 
the  design  can  be  suflSciently  repre- 
sented by  drawings  or  photographs. 

Sec.  4931.  Patents  for  designs  may 
be  granted  for  the  term  of  three  years 
and  six  months,  or  for  seven  years,  or 
for  fourteen  years,  as  the  applicant 
may,  in  his  application,  elect. 

Sec.  4932.  Patentees  of  designs  is- 
sued prior  to  the  second  day  of  March. 
1861,  shall  be  entitled  to  extension  of 
their  respective  patents  for  the  term 
of  seven  years,  in  the  same  manner 
and  under  the  same  restrictions  as  are 
provided  for  the  extension  of  patents 
for  inventions  or  discoveries  issued 
prior  to  the  second  day  of  March, 
1861. 

Sec.  4933.  All  the  regulations  and 
provisions  which  apply  to  obtaining 
or  protecting  patents  for  inventions  or 
discoveries  not  inconsistent  with  the 
provisions  of  this  Title,  shall  apply  to 
patents  for  designs. 

CHAPTER  105.— -An  Act  to  Amend 
THE  Law  Relating  to  Patents, 
Trade-marks,  and  Copyrights. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc..  That  hereafter, 
during  the  term  of  letters  patent  for 
a  design,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
person  other  than  the  owner  of  said 
letters  patent,  without  the  license  of 
such   owner,   to   apply  the   design  se- 


240 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cured  by  such  letters  patent,  or  any 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  to  any 
article  of  manufacture  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sale,  or  to  sell  or  expose  for 
sale  any  article  of  manufacture  to 
which  such  design  or  colorable  imita- 
tion shall,  without  the  license  of  the 
owner,  have  been  applied,  knowing 
that  the  same  has  been  so  applied. 
Any  person  violating  the  provisions,  or 
either  of  them,  of  this  section,  shall  be 
liable  in  the  amount  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars ;  and  in  case  the  total 
profit  made  by  him  from  the  manufac- 
ture or  sale,  as  aforesaid,  of  the  arti- 
cle or  articles  to  which  the  design,  or 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  has  been 
applied,  exceeds  the  sum  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars,  he  shall  be  fur- 
ther liable  for  the  excess  of  such  prof- 
it over  and  above  the  stim  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars;  and  the  full 
amount  of  such  liability  may  be  re- 
covered by  the  owner  of  the  letters 
patent,  to  his  own  use,  in  any  circuit 
court  of  the  United  States  having  ju- 
risdiction of  the  parties,  either  by  ac- 
tion at  law  or  upon  a  bill  in  equity  for 
an  injunction  to  restrain  such  in- 
fringement. 

Sec.  2.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
contained  shall  prevent,  lessen,  im- 
peach, or  avoid  any  remedy  at  law  or 
in  equity  which  any  owner  of  letters 
patent  for  a  design,  aggrieved  by  the 
infringement  of  the  same,  might  have 
had  if  this  act  had  not  been  passed ; 
but  such  owner  shall  not  twice  re- 
cover the  profit  made  from  the  in- 
fringement. 

FEES. 

Sec.  4934.  The  following  shall  be 
the  rates  for  patent  fees :  On  filing 
each  original  application  for  a  patent, 
except  in  design  cases,  $15.00.  On 
issuing  each  original  patent,  except  in 
design  cases,  $20.00.  In  design  cases : 
For  three  years  and  six  months ; 
$10.00;  for  seven  years,  $15.00;  for 
fourteen  years,  $30.00.  On  filing  each 
caveat,  $10.00.  On  every  application 
for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  $30.00. 
On  filing  each  disclaimer,  $10.00.  On 
an. appeal  for  the  first  time  from  the 
primary  examiners  to  the  examiners- 
in-chief,  $10.(X).  On  every  appeal 
from  the  examiners-in-chief  to  the 
Commissioner,  $20.00.  For  certified 
copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  in- 
cluding certified  printed  copies,  10 
cents  per  hundred  words.  For  record- 
ing every  assignment,  agreement,  pow- 
er of  attorney,  or  other  paper,  of  three 
hundred  words  or  under,  $1.00 ;  of  over 


three  hundred  and  under  one  thousand 
words,  $2.00 ;  of  over  one  thousand 
words,  $3.00.  For  copies  of  drawings, 
the  reasonable  cost  of  making  them. 

Sec.  4935.  Patent  fees  may  be  paid 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  or  to 
the  Treasurer,  or  any  of  the  assistant 
treasurers  of  the  United  States,  or  to 
any  of  the  designated  depositaries,  na- 
tional banks,  or  receivers  of  public 
money,  designated  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  for  that  purpose;  and 
such  oflicer  shall  give  the  depositor  a 
receipt  or  certificate  of  deposit  there- 
for. All  money  received  at  the  Patent 
OflSce,  for  any  purpose,  or  from  any 
source  whatever,  shall  be  paid  into  the 
Treasury  as  received,  without  any  de- 
duction whatever. 

Sec.  493G.  The  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States  is  authorized  to  pay 
back  any  sum  or  sums  of  money  to 
any  person  who  has  through  mis- 
take paid  the  same  into  the  Treas- 
ury, or  to  any  receiver  or  deposi- 
tary, to  the  credit  of  the  Treas- 
ury, as  for  fees  accruing  at  the  Patent 
Office,  upon  a  certificate  thereof  being 
made  to  the  Treasurer  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents. 

PATENT   RIGHTS   VEST   IN    ASSIGNEE    IN 
BANKRUPTCY. 

Sec.  504G.  JVII  property  conveyed 
by  the  bankrupt  in  fraud  of  his  credit- 
ors ;  all  rights  in  equity,  choses  in 
action,  patent  rights,  and  copyrights ; 
all  debts  due  him,  or  any  person  for 
his  use,  and  all  liens  and  securities 
therefor ;  and  all  his  rights  of  action 
for  property  or  estate,  real  or  personal, 
and  for  any  cause  of  action  which  he 
had  against  any  person  arising  from 
contract  or  from  the  unlawful  taking 
or  detention,  or  injury  to  the  property 
of  the  bankrupt ;  and  all  his  rights  of 
redeeming  such  property  or  estate ;  to- 
gether with  the  like  right,  title,  power, 
and  authority  to  sell,  manage,  dispose 
of,  sue  for,  and  recover  or  defend  the 
same,  as  the  bankrupt  might  have  had 
if  no  assignment  had  been  made,  shall, 
in  virtue  of  the  adjudication  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  the  appointment  of  his  as- 
signee, but  subject  to  the  exceptions 
stated  in  the  preceding  section,  be  at 
once  vested  is  [in]  such  assignee. 

Sec.  70.  Title  to  Property.  The 
trustee  of  the  estate  of  a  bank- 
rupt, upon  his  appointment  and 
qualification,  and  his  successor  or 
successors,  if  he  shall  have  one 
or  more,  upon  his  or  their  appoint- 
ment and  qualification,  shall  in  turn 
be  vested  by  operation  of  law  with  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


241 


title  of  the  bankrupt,  as  of  the  date  he 
was  adjudged  a  bankrupt,  except  in 
so  far  as  it  is  to  property  which  is 
exempt,  to  all  (1)  documents  relating 
to  his  property;  (2)  interests  in  pat- 
ents, patent  rights,  copyrights,  and 
trade-marks. 

LABELS. 

CHAPTER  301.— An  Act  to  Amend 
THE  Law  Relating  to  Patents, 
Trade-marks,  and  Copyrights. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc,  [Section  1],  That 
no  person  shall  maintain  an  action  for 
the  infringement  of  his  copyright  un- 
less he  shall  give  notice  thereof  by  in- 
serting in  the  several  copies  of  every 
edition  published,  on  the  title  page  or 
the  page  immediately  following  it,  if  it 
be  a  book ;  or  if  a  map,  chart,  musical 
composition,  print,  cut,  engraving, 
photograph,  painting,  drawing,  chromo, 
statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design 
intended  to  be  perfected  and  completed 
as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscrib- 
ing upon  some  visible  portion  thereof, 
or  of  the  substance  on  which  the  same 
shall  be  mounted,  the  following  words, 
viz. :    "Entered    according    to    act    of 

Congress,  in  the  year ,  by  A.  B., 

in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, at  Washington" ;  or,  at  his  op- 
tion, the  word  "Copyright,"  together 
with  the  year  the  copyright  was  en-, 
tered,  and  the  name  of  the  party  bj|^^ 
whom  it  was  taken  out,  thus :  "Copy- 
right, 18—,  by  A.  B." 

Sec.  2.  That  for  recording  and  cer- 
tifying any  instrument  of  writing  for 
the  assignment  of  a  copyright,  the 
Librarian  qf  Congress  shall  receive 
from  the  persons  to  whom  the  service 
is  rendered,  $1.00;  and  for  every  copy 
of  an  assignment,  $1.00 ;  said  fee  to 
cover,  in  either  case,  a  certificate  of 
the  record,  under  seal  of  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress ;  and  all  fees  so  re- 
ceived shall  be  paid  into  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States. 

Sec,  3.  That  in  the  construction  of 
this  act,  the  words  "engraving,"  "cut," 
and  "print,"  shall  be  applied  only  to 
pictorial  illustrations  or  works  con- 
nected with  the  fine  arts,  and  no  prints 
or  labels  designed  to  be  used  for  any 
othfer  articles  of  manufacture  shall  be 
entered  under  the  copyright  law, 
but  may  be  registered  in  the 
Patent  Office.  And  the  Commission- 
er of  Patents  is  hereby  charged 
with  the  supervision  and  control 
of  the  entry  or  registry  of  such 
prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with 
the  regulations  provided  by  law  as  to 
copyright  of  prints,  except  that  there 


shall  be  paid  for  recording  the  title  of 
any  print  or  label  not  a  trade-mark, 
$6.00,  which  shall  cover  the  expense 
of  furnishing  a  copy  of  the  record  un- 
der the  seal  of  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, to  the  party  entering  the  same. 

Sec.  4.  That  all  laws  and  parts  of 
laws  inconsistent  with  the  foregoing 
provisions  be,  and  the  same  are  here- 
by repealed. 

Sec.  5.  That  this  act  shall  take  ef- 
fect on  and  after  the  .first  day  of  Au- 
gust, 1874. 

TRADE-MARKS. 

[The  Constitutional  Provision. — The 
Congress  shall  have  power  ♦  ♦  * 
(3)  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign 
nations,  and  among  the  several  States, 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes.  Art.  I, 
sec.  8.] 

the  statute  of  1876. 

CHAPTER  274.— An  Act  to  Pun- 
ish the  Counterfeiting  of  Trade- 
mark Goods  and  the  Sale  or 
Dealing  in  of  Counterfeit  Trade- 
Mark  Goods. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.  [Section  1],  That 
every  person  who  shall,  with  intent  to 
defraud,  deal  in  or  sell,  or  keep  or 
offer  for  sale,  or  cause  or  procure  the 
sale  of,  any  goods  of  substantially  the 
same  descriptive  properties  as  those 
referred  to  in  the  registration  of  any 
trade-mark,  pursuant  to  the  statutes  of 
the  United  States,  to  which,  or  to  the 
package  in  which  the  same  are  put  up, 
is  fraudulently  affixed  said  trade-mark, 
or  any  colorable  imitation  thereof,  cal- 
culated to  deceive  the  public,  knowing 
the  same  to  be  counterfeit  or  not  the 
genuine  goods  referred  to  in  said  regis- 
tration, shall,  on  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  by  fine  not  exceeding 
$1,000  dollars,  or  imprisonment  not 
more  than  two  years,  or  both  such  fine 
and   imprisonment. 

Sec.  2.  That  every  person  who 
fraudulently  affixes,  or  causes  or  pro- 
cures to  be  fraudulently  affixed,  any 
trade-mark  registered  pursuant  to  the 
statutes  of  the  United  States,  or  any 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  calculated 
to  deceive  the  public,  to  any  goods,  of 
substantially  the  same  descriptive 
properties  as  those  referred  to  in  said 
registration,  or  to  the  package  in 
which  they  are  put  up,  knowing  the 
same  to  be  counterfeit,  or  not  the 
genuine  goods,  referred  to  in  said  regis- 
tration, shall,  on  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  as  prescribed  in  the  first 
section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  That  every  person  who 
fraudulently    fills,    or    causes    or   pro- 


242 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cures  to  be  fraudulently  filled,  any 
package  to  which  is  affixed  any  trade- 
mark, registered  pursuant  to  the  stat- 
utes of  the  United  States,  or  any  col- 
orable imitation  thereof,  calculated  to 
deceive  the  public,  with  any  goods  of 
substantially  the  same  descriptive 
properties  as  those  referred  to  in  said 
registration,  knowing  the  same  to  be 
counterfeit,  or  not  the  genuine  goods 
referred  to  in  said  registration,  shall, 
on  conviction  thereof,  be  punished  as 
prescribed  in  the  first  section  of  this 
act. 

Sec.  4.  That  any  person  or  per- 
sons who  shall,  with  intent  to  defraud 
any  person  or  persons,  knowingly  and 
wilfully  cast,  engrave,  or  manufacture, 
or  have  in  his,  her,  or  their  possession, 
or  buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  deal  in, 
any  die  or  dies,  plate  or  plates,  brand 
or  brands,  engraving  or  engravings,  on 
wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  or  any  false  representation, 
likeness,  copy,  or  colorable  imitation  of 
any  die  plate,  brand,  engraving,  or 
mould  of  any  private  label,  brand, 
stamp,  wrapper,  engraving  on  paper 
or  other  substance,  or  trade-mark,  reg- 
istered pursuant  to  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States,  shall,  upon  conviction 
thereof,  be  punished  as  prescribed  in 
the  first  section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  5.  That  any  person  or  persons 
who  shall,  with  intent  to  defraud  any 
person  or  persons,  knowingly  and  wil- 
fully make,  forge,  or  counterfeit,  or 
have  in  his,  her,  or  their  possession,  or 
buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale  or  deal  in,  any 
representation,  likeness,  similitude, 
copy,  or  colorable  imitation  of  any  pri- 
vate label,  brand,  stamp,  wrapper,  en- 
graving, mould,  or  trade-mark,  regis- 
tered pursuant  to  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States,  shall,  upon  conviction 
thereof,  be  punished  as  prescribed  in 
the  first  section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  C.  That  any  person  who  shall, 
with  intent  to  injure  or  defraud  the 
owner  of  any  trade-mark,  or  any  other 
person  lawfully  entitled  to  use  or  pro- 
tect the  same,  buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale, 
deal  in  or  have  in  his  possession  any 
used  or  empty  box,  envelope,  wrapper, 
case,  bottle,  or  other  package  to  which 
is  attixed.  so  that  the  same  may  be 
obliterated  without  substantial  injury 
ta  such  box  or  other  thing  aforesaid, 
any  trade-mark,  registered  pursuant  to 
the  statutes  of  the  United  States,  not 
so  defaced,  erased,  obliterated,  and  de- 
stroyed as  to  prevent  its  fraudulent 
use,  shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be 
punished  as  prescribed  in  the  first  sec- 
tion of  this  act. 


Sec.  7.  That  if  the  owner  of  any 
trade-mark,  registered  pursuant  to  the 
statutes  of  the  United  States,  or  his 
agent,  make  oath,  in  writing,  that  he 
has  reason  to  believe,  and  does  believe, 
that  any  counterfeit  dies,  plates, 
brands,  engravings  on  wood,  stone, 
metal,  or  other  substance,  or  moulds  of 
his  said  registered  trade-mark,  are  in 
the  possession  of  any  person,  with  in- 
tent to  use  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  deception  and  fraud,  or  make  such 
oaths  that  any  counterfeits  or  colorable 
imitations  of  his  said  trade-mark,  label, 
brand,  stamp,  wrapper,  engravings  on 
paper  or  other  substance,  or  empty 
box,  envelope,  wrapper,  case,  bottle,  or 
other  package,  to  which  is  affixed  said 
registered  trade-mark  not  so  defaced, 
erased,  obliterated,  and  destroyed,  as 
to  prevent  its  fraudulent  use,  are  in 
the  possession  of  any  person,  with  in- 
tent to  use  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  deception  and  fraud,  then  the  sev- 
eral judges  of  the  circuit  and  district 
courts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
commissioners  of  the  circuit  courts 
may,  within  their  respective  jurisdic- 
tions, proceed  under  the  law  relating 
to  search-warrants,  and  may  issue  a 
search-warrant  authorizing  and  direct- 
ing the  marshal  of  the  United  States 
for  the  proper  district  to  search  for 
and  seize  all  said  counterfeit  dies, 
plates,  brands,  engravings  on  wood, 
stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  and  said  counterfeit  trade- 
marks, colorable  imitations  thereof, 
labels,  brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  en- 
gravings on  paper,  or  other  substance, 
and  said  empty  boxes,  envelopes,  wrap- 
pers, cases,  bottles,  or  other  packages 
that  can  be  found ;  and  upon  satisfac- 
tory proof  being  made  that  said  coun- 
terfeit dies,  plates,  brands,  engravings 
on  wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  sub- 
stance, moulds,  counterfeit  trade- 
marks, colorable  imitations  thereof, 
labels,  brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  en- 
gravings on  paper  or  other  substance, 
empty  boxes,  envelopes,  wrappers, 
cases,  bottles,  or  other  packages,  are 
to  be  used  by  the  holder  or  owner  for 
the  purposes  of  deception  and  fraud, 
that  any  of  said  judges  shall  have  full 
power  to  order  all  said  counterfeit 
dies,  plates,  brands,  engravings  on 
wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  counterfeit  trade-marks,  col- 
orable imitations  thereof,  labels, 
brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  engravings 
on  paper  or  other  substance,  empty 
boxes,  envelopes,  wrappers,  cases,  bot- 
tles, or  other  packages,  to  be  publicly 
destroyed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


243 


Sec.  8.  That  any  person  who  shall, 
with  intent  to  defraud  any  person  or 
persons,  knowingly  and  wilfully  aid  or 
abet  in  the  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  be  punished  by  a  fine 
not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  or 
imprisonment  not  more  than  one  year, 
or  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment. 

[August  14,   1876.] 

THE   STATUTE  OF  1881. 

CHAPTER  138.— An  Act  to  Au- 
thorize THE  Registration  of 
Trade-Marks  and  Protect  the 
Same. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc,  [Section  1],  That 
owners  of  trade-marks  used  in  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  with  the 
Indian  tribes,  provided  such  owners 
shall  be  domiciled  in  the  United  States 
or  located  in  any  foreign  country,  or 
tribes,  which,  by  treaty,  convention,  or 
law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  may  obtain 
registration  of  such  trade-marks  by 
Complying  with  the  following  require- 
ments : 

First. — By  causing  to  be  recorded  in 
the  Patent  Office  a  statement  specify- 
ing name,  domicile,  location,  and  citi- 
zenship of  the  party  applying;  the 
class  of  merchandise,  and  the  particu- 
lar description  of  goods  comprised  in 
such  class  to  which  the  particular 
trade-mark  has  been  appropriated ;  a 
description  of  the  trade-mark  itself, 
with  facsimiles  thereof,  and  a  state- 
ment of  the  mode  in  which  the  same  is 
applied  and  affixed  to  goods,  and  the 
length  of  time  during  which  the  trade- 
mark has  been  used. 

Second. — By  paying  into  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  United  States  the  sum  of 
$25.00,  and  complying  with  such  regu- 
lations as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  application  pre- 
scribed in  the  foregoing  section  must, 
in  order  to  create  any  right  whatever 
in  favor  of  the  party  filing  it.  be  ac- 
companied by  a  written  declaration 
verified  by  the  person,  or  by  a  member 
of  a  firm,  or  by  an  officer  of  a  cor- 
poration applying,  to  the  effect  that 
such  party  has  at  the  time  a  right  to 
the  use  of  the  trade-mark  sought  to  be 
registered,  and  that  no  other  person, 
firm,  or  corporation  has  the  right  to 
such  use,  either  in  the  identical  form 
or  in  any  such  near  resemblance  there- 
to as  might  be  calculated  to  deceive; 
that  such  trade-mark  is  used  in  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  Indian 
tribes,  as  above  indicated ;  and  that  the 


description  and  facsimiles  presented 
for  registry  truly  represent  the  trade- 
mark sought  to  be  registered. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  time  of  the  re- 
ceipt of  any  such  application  shall  be 
noted  and  recorded.  But  no  alleged 
trade-mark  shall  be  registered  unless 
the  same  appear  to  be  lawfully  used 
as  such  by  the  applicant  in  foreign 
commerce  or  commerce  with  Indian 
tribes,  as  above  mentioned,  or  is  with- 
in the  provision  of  a  treaty,  conven- 
tion, or  declaration  with  a  foreign 
power ;  nor  which  is  merely  the  name 
of  the  applUcant ;  nor  which  is  identi- 
cal with  a  registered  or  known  trade- 
mark owned  by  another,  and  appro- 
priate to  the  same  class  of  merchan- 
dise, or  which  so  nearly  resembles 
some  other  person's  lawful  trade-mark 
as  to  be  likely  to  cause  confusion  or 
mistake  in  the  mind  of  the  public,  or 
to  deceive  purchasers.  In  an  applica- 
tion for  registration  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  shall  decide  the  presumptive 
lawfulness  of  claim  to  the  alleged 
trade-mark ;  and  in  any  dispute  be- 
tween an  applicant  and  a  previous 
registrant,  or  between  applicants,  he 
shall  follow,  so  far  as  the  same  may  be 
applicable,  the  practice  of  courts  of 
equity  of  the  United  States  in  analo- 
gous cases. 

Sec.  4.  That  certificates  of  regis- 
try of  trade-marks  shall  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  under  the  seal  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior,  and  shall 
be  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, and  a  record  thereof,  together 
with  printed  copies  of  the  specifica- 
tions, shall  be  kept  in  books  for  that 
purpose.  Copies  of  trade-marks  and 
of  statements  and  declarations  filed 
therewith  and  certificates  of  registry 
so  signed  .and  sealed  shall  be  evidence 
in  any  suit  in  which  such  trade-marks 
shall  be  brought  in  controversy. 

Sec.  5.  That  a  certificate  of  regis- 
try shall  remain  in  force  for  thirty 
years  from  its  date,  except  in  cases 
where  the  trade-mark  is  claimed  for 
and  applied  to  articles  not  manufac- 
tured in  this  country,  and  in  which  it 
receives  protection  under  the  laws  of  a 
foreign  country  for  a  shorter  period, 
in  which  case  it  shall  cease  to  have 
any  force  in  this  country  by  virtue,  of 
this  act  at  the  time  that  such  trade- 
mark ceases  to  be  exclusive  property 
elsewhere.  At  any  time  during  the 
six  months  prior  to  the  exp'ration  of 
the  term  of  thirty  years  such  registra- 
tion may  be  renewed  on  the  same 
terms  and  for  a  like  period. 


244 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Sec.  6.  That  applicants  for  regis- 
tration under  this  act  shall  be  credited 
for  any  fee  or  part  of  a  fee  hereto- 
fore paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States  with  intent  to  procure 
protection  for  the  same  trade-mark. 

Sec.  7.  That  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  shall  be  prima  facie  evi- 
dence of  ownership.  Any  person  who 
shall  reproduce,  counterfeit,  copy,  or 
colorably  imitate  any  trade-mark  regis- 
tered under  this  act  and  affix  the  same 
to  merchandise  of  substantially  the 
same  descriptive  properties  as  those 
described  in  the  registration  shall  be 
liable  to  an  action  on  the  case  for 
damages  for  the  wrongful  use  of  said 
trade-mark  at  the  suit  of  the  owner 
thereof;  and  the  party  aggrieved  shall 
also  have  his  remedy  according  to  the 
course  of  equity  to  enjoin  the  wrong- 
ful use  of  such  trade-mark  used  in 
foreign  commerce  or  commerce  with 
Indian  tribes,  as  aforesaid,  and  to  re- 
cover compensation  therefor  in  any 
court  having  jurisdiction  over  the  per- 
son guilty  of  such  wrongful  act ;  and 
courts  of  the  United  States  shall  have 
original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  in 
such  cases  without  regard  to  the 
amount  in  controversy. 

Sec.  8.  That  no  action  or  suit  shall 
be  maintained  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act  in  any  case  when  the  trade- 
mark is  used  in  any  unlawful  business 
or  upon  any  article  injurious  in  itself, 
or  which  mark  has  been  used  with  the 
design  of  deceiving  the  public  in  the 
purchase  of  merchandise,  or  under  any 
certificate  of  registry  fraudulently  ob- 
tained. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  who  shall 
procure  the  registry  of  a  trade-mark, 
or  of  himself  as  the  owner  of  a  trade- 
mark, or  an  entry  respecting  a  trade- 
mark, in  the  office  of  the  Commission- 
er of  Patents,  by  a  false  or  fraudulent 
representation  or  declaration,  orally 
or  in  writing,  or  by  any  fraudulent 
means,  shall  be  liable  to  pay  any  dam- 
ages sustained  in  consequence  thereof 
to  the  injured  party,  to  be  recovered 
in  an  action  on  the  case. 

Sec.  10.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
shall  prevent,  lessen,  impeach,  or 
avoid  any  remedy  at  law  or  in  equity 
which  any  party  aggrieved  by  any 
wrongful  use  of  any  trade-mark  might 
have  had  if  the  provisions  of  this  act 
had  not  been  passed. 

Sec.  11.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
shall  be  construed  as  unfavorably  af- 
fecting a  claim  to  a  trade-mark  after 
the  term  of  registration  shall  have  ex- 
pired ;  nor  to  give  cognizance  to  any 


court  of  the  United  States  in  an 
action  or  suit  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State,  unless  the  trade-mark  in 
controversy  is  used  on  goods  intended 
to  be  transported  to  a  foreign  country, 
or  in  lawful  commercial  intercourse 
with  an  Indian  tribe. 

Sec.  12.  That  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  is  authorized  to  make  rules 
and  regulations  and  prescribe  forms 
for  the  transfer  of  the  right  to  use 
trade-marks  and  for  recording  such 
transfers  in  his  office. 

Sec.  13.  That  citizens  and  residents 
of  this  country  wishing  the  protection 
of  trade-marks  in  any  foreign  coun- 
try the  laws  of  which  require  registra- 
tion here  as  a  condition  precedent  to 
getting  such  protection  there  may  reg- 
ister their  trade-marks  for  that  pur- 
pose as  is  above  allowed  to  foreigners, 
and  have  certificate  thereof  from  the 
Patent  Office. 

Approved,  March  3,  1881. 

CHAPTER  393.— An  Act  Relating 
TO  THE  Registration  of  Trade- 
marks. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc. — That  nothing 
contained  in  the  law  entitled  *'An  act 
to  authorize  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks and  protect  the  same,"  approved 
March  3,  1881,  shall  prevent  the  regis- 
try of  any  lawful  trade-mark  rightful- 
ly used  by  the  applicant  in  foreign 
commerce  or  commerce  with  Indian 
tribes  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
said  act.  Approved,  August  5,  1882. 
Sec.  2496.  No  watches,  watch- 
cases,  watch-movements,  or  parts  of 
watch-movements,  or  any  other  arti- 
cles of  foreign  manufacture,  which 
shall  copy  or  simulate  the  name  or 
trade-mark  of  any  domestic  manufac- 
ture [manufacturer],  shall  be  admitted 
to  entry  at  the  custom-houses  of  the 
United  States,  unless  such  domestic 
manufacturer  is  the  importer  of  the 
same.  And  in  order  to  aid  the  officers 
of  the  customs  in  enforcing  this  pro- 
hibition, any  domestic  manufactui-gr 
who  has  adopted  trade-marks  may  re- 
quire his  name  and  residence  and  a  de- 
scription of  his  trade-marks  to  be  re- 
corded in  books,  which  shall  be  kept 
for  that  purpose  in  the  Department  of 
the  Treasury,  under  such  regulations 
as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall 
prescribe,  and  may  furnish  to  the  De- 
'  partment  facsimiles  of  such  trade- 
I  marks ;  and  thereupon  the  Secretary 
i  of  the  Treasury  shall  cause  one  or 
more  copies  of  the  same  to  be  trans- 
mitted to  each  collector  or  other  prop- 
er officer  of  the  customs. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


245 


HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PATENT  SYSTEM. 


The  century  just  closed  stands  out 
pre-eminently  as  the  century  of  in- 
vention. It  is  therefore  a  fitting  time 
briefly  to  refer  to  the  origin,  estab- 
lishment, and  development  of  our  pat- 
ent system,  to  call  to  mind  the  debt  the 
United  States  owes  to  inventors,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  point  out  the  ad- 
vantages that  have  followed  the  far- 
seeing  wisdom  of  the  framers  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  incorporating 
in  that  instrument  paragraph  8  of 
section  8  of  Article  I.  of  the  Consti- 
tution, which  gave  to  Congress  the 
power  "To  promote  the  progress  of 
science  and  the  useful  arts  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  invent- 
ors the  exclusive  rights  to  their  re- 
spective writings  and  discoveries." 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  population 
of  the  United  States  was  less  than 
6,000,000,  and  there  was  not  a  single 
city  within  our  borders  having  a  popu- 
lation of  75,000.  The  population  of 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
and  Boston  was  less  than  the  present 
population  of  Minneapolis.  The  lat- 
ter city  and  its  sister  city  of  St.  Paul, 
Chicago,  Omaha,  and  Kansas  City 
were  unknown.  Not  a  steam  pro- 
pelled vessel  was  in  use,  nor  was  there 
a  mile  of  railroad  in  the  United  States, 
The  electric  telegraph  and  telephone 
were  unknown.  Our  exports  con- 
sisted of  agricultural  products.  There 
was  scarcely  any  well-developed  line  of 
manufacture,  and  our  wants  in  that 
line  were  supplied  by  imports.  It  had 
been  the  policy  of  England  to  suppress 
manufacturing  in  its  colonies.  In 
1034  a  law  was  passed  in  Virginia  for 
the  encouragement  of  textile  manu- 
factures, but  it  was  promptly  annulled 
by  England.  In  1731  she  enacted  a 
law  prohibiting  the  carriage  of  woolen 
goods  and  hats  from  one  colony  to  an- 
other. In  1750  a  woollen  hat  factory 
in  Massachusetts  was  declared  to  be  a 
nuisance  and  suppressed.  No  carpets 
were  made  in  the  colonies  until  after 
1776,  except  rag  carpets.  In  1800 
carpets  were  in  this  country  a  luxury. 
Even  up  to  1850  there  was  not  a 
power  loom  for  carpet  making  in  the 
United  States. 

What  is  true  in  the  textile  art  is 
equally  true  of  most  of  the  other  arts. 

Though  the  country  was  an  agricul- 
tural one,  little  progress  had  been 
made  in  the  manufacture  of  agricul- 
tural implements.  It  was  not  until 
1819  that  an  iron  plow  was  produced 
in  this  country.     The  reaper  appeared 


in  1833  and  a  successful  thresher  not 
until  1850.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War  there  is  no  question  but 
that  the  country  continued  to  be  an 
agricultural  one.  It  is  true  that  dur- 
ing the  first  sixty  years  of  the  last 
century  our  manufactures  steadily  and 
rapidly  increased  in  kind  and  in  extent, 
but  our  population  increased  even 
more  rapidly,  so  that  we  consumed 
what  we  manufactured  and  were  still 
largely  dependent  upon  the  import  of 
manufactured  articles.  But  in  the 
last  few  years  a  great  reversal,  not 
only  in  sentiment  but  in  conditions, 
has  occurred ;  the  commercial  relations 
of  the  United  States  with  the  great 
trading  nations  of  the  world  have  rap- 
idly changed,  so  that  the  excess  of  im- 
ports of  manufactured  articles  has 
turned  into  an  excess  of  exports  of 
such  articles. 

One  need  not  look  far  for  the  cause 
of  this.  It  lies  in  the  economy  of 
manufacture  arising  from  the  use'  of 
labor-saving  devices,  mainly  the  inven- 
tion of  our  own  people,  which  has  en- 
abled us  to  compete  in  many  lines  of 
manufacture,  notwithstanding  the 
higher  scale  of  wages  paid  in  this 
country,  with  similar  articles  manufac- 
tured by  any  or  all  nations.  To  em- 
ploy these  devices  to  the  best  advan- 
tage requires  the  intelligence  of  the 
American  workmen,  and  the  result  is 
due  to  the  combination  of  witty  inven- 
tions and  thinking  men.  Witless  men 
behind  witty  machines  would  be  of  no 
use.  To  the  patent  system  more  than 
to  any  other  cause  are  we  indebted  for 
the  industrial  revolution  of  the  cen- 
tury. 

President  Washington  realized  the 
importance  of  formulating  a  law  to 
stimulate  inventions,  and  in  his  first 
annual  message  to  Congress,  in  1790, 
said : 

"I  can  not  forbear  intimating  to 
you  the  expediency  of  giving  effectual 
encouragement  as  well  to  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  useful  inventions 
from  abroad  as  to  the  exertion  of  skill 
and  genius  in  producing  them  at 
home." 

Congress  was  quick  to  act,  and  on 
April  10,  1790,  the  first  law  upon  the 
subject  was  enacted.  It  constituted 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  War,  and  the  Attorney-General  a 
board  to  consider  all  applications  for 
patents.  Owing  to  the  fires  that  have 
destroj-ed  the  early  records  of  the 
Patent  Oflice,  some  question  has  arisen 


246 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK, 


as  to  the  number  of  patents  issued 
under  this  act ;  but  from  the  best  in- 
formation obtainable  I  place  the  num- 
ber at  fifty-seven.  The  first  patent 
issued  was  to  Samuel  Hopkins,  July 
31,  1790,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes. 

The  act  of  1793  superseded  the  act 
of  1790,  and  remained  in  force  as 
amended  from  time  to  time  until  the 
act  of  1830  was  passed.  The  act  of 
1793  was  the  only  act  ever  passed  in 
this  country  which  provided  for  the  is- 
suance of  Letters  Patent  without  the 
requirement  of  an  examination  into 
the  novelty  and  utility  of  the  inven- 
tion for  which  the  patent  was  sought. 

The  act  of  1836,  with  modifications, 
remained  in  force  until  the  revision  of 
the  patent  laws  in  1870.  This  revi- 
sion was  largely  a  consolidation  of  the 
statutes  then  in  force. 

Under  the  revision  of  the  statutes 
of  the  United  States  in  1874  the  act 
of  1870  was  repealed ;  but  the  revision 
substantially  re-enacted  the  provisions 
of  the  act  of  1870. 

Under  the  acts  of  1790  and  1793 
Letters  Patent  were  granted  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years.  There  was  no 
provision  for  extension ;  but  while  the 
act  of  1793  was  in  force  Congress  ex- 
tended some  thirteen  patents. 

The  act  of  1836  provided  that  Let- 
ters Patent  should  be  granted  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years,  and  provision 
was  made  for  an  extension  for  a  term 
of  seven  years  upon  due  application 
and  upon  a  proper  showing.  Until 
1848  petitions  for  extensions  were 
passed  upon  by  a  board  consisting  of 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents,  and  the  Solicitor  of 
the  Treasury.  After  that  time  power 
was  vested  solely  in  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents. 

The  patent  act  of  ^larch  2,  1861 
(section  16),  provided  that  all  patents 
thereafter  granted  should  remain  in 
force  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
from  the  date  of  issue,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  such  patents  was  pro- 
hibited. 

The  consolidated  patent  act  of  1870, 
while  providing  that  patents  should  be 
granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years, 
also  provided  that  patents  granted 
prior  to  March  2,  1861,  might,  upon  \ 
due  application  and  a  proper  showing, 
be  extended  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  for  a  term  of  seven  years  from 
the  expiration   of  the  first  term. 

By  the  revision  of  the  patent  laws 
in  1874  the  prohibition  against  the  ex- 
tension of  patents  was  dropped,   and 


since  that  time  Congress  has  had  the 
power  to  extend  Letters  Patent.  Con- 
gress extended  five  patents  granted  un- 
der the  act  of  1836,  and  in  nine  in- 
stances authorized  patentees  to  apply 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  for  ex- 
tension of  their  patents.  So  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  discover,  no  patent 
granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
has  been  extended  by  Congress. 

It  was  not  until  1842  that  the 
statute  was  passed  authorizing  the 
grant  of  patents  for  designs.  Under 
that  act  design  patents  were  granted 
for  seven  years.  Subsequently  provi- 
sions were  made  for  granting  them  for 
terms  of  three  and  one-half,  seven,  and 
fourteen  years,  at  the  election  of  the 
applicant. 

By  the  act  of  March  2,  1861,  the 
Board  of  Examiners-in-Chief  was  es- 
tablished. Prior  to  that  time,  and 
during  the  incumbency  of  Commission- 
er Holt,  temporary  boards  of  examin- 
ers to  decide  appeals  had  been  appoint- 
ed by  him,  and  later  on  he  created  a 
permanent  board  of  three  examiners 
who  were  to  decide  on  appeal  rejected 
cases  and  submit  their  decisions  to 
him  for  approval. 

The  act  of  1870  made  the  first  pro- 
vision for  an  Assistant  Commissioner 
and  an  Examiner  of  Interferences. 
Another  provision  in  that  act  was  the 
power  given  the  Commissioner,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  to  establish  regula- 
tions for  the  conduct  of  proceedings 
in  the  Ofiice. 

On  January  1,  1898,  an  act  passed 
March  3,  1897,  went  into  force. 
Some  of  the  provisions  of  this  act 
were  that  applications  for  patents 
should  be  completed  and  prepared  for 
examination  within  one  year  after  the 
filing  of  the  application  and  that  the 
applicant  should  prosecute  the  same 
within  one  year  after  an  action  there- 
on or  it  should  be  regarded  as  aban- 
doned (prior  to  that  time  two  years 
was  the  limit)  ;  that  an  inventor 
should  be  debarred  from  receiving  a 
patent  if  his  invention  had  been  first 
patented  by  him  or  his  legal  represen- 
tatives or  assigns  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try, provided  the  application  for  the 
foreign  patent  had  been  filed  more 
than  seven  months  prior  to  the  fil.ng 
of  the  application  in  this  country,  and 
that  if  the  invention  for  which  a  pat- 
ent was  applied  for  had  been  patented 
or  described  in  any  printed  publication 
in  th"s  or  any  foreign  country  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  the  ap- 
plication a  patent  could  not  issue. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


247 


The  first  provision  for  affording  ac- 
commodations for  the  Patent  Office 
was  in  1810,  when  Congress  authorized 
the  purchase  of  a  building  for  the 
General  Post-office  and  for  the  office 
of  the  Keeper  of  Patents.  The  build- 
ing purchased  was  known  as  "Blod- 
gett*s  Hotel,'*  and  stood  on  the  site 
now  occupied  by  the  south  front  of 
the  building  until  recently  occupied  by 
the  Post-office  Department,  and  now 
used  by  several  bureaus  of  the  Interior 
Department.  The  east  end  of  this 
building  was  used  for  the  records,  mod- 
els, etc.,  of  the  Patent  Office.  This 
building  was  destroyed  by  fire  Decem- 
ber 13,  1836.  On  July  4,  183G,  an  act 
was  passed  appropriating  $108  000  for 
the  erection  of  a  suitable  building  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  Patent 
Office,  and  within  that  month  the 
erection  of  the  building  was  begun. 

It  was  the  present  south  front  of  the 
Patent  Office,  excluding  the  south  ends 
of  the  east  and  west  wings.  The  base- 
ment (which  is  now  the  first  or  ground 
floor)  was  to  be  used  for  storage  and 
analogous  purposes,  the  first  or  por- 
tico floor  for  office  rooms,  and  the  sec- 
ond floor  was  to  be  one  large  hall  with 
galleries  on  either  side,  and  to  have 
a  vaulted  roof.  This  hall  was  to  te 
used  for  exhibition  purposes,  for  the 
display  of  models  of  patented  and  un- 
patented inventions,  and  also  as  a  na- 
tional gallery  of  the  industrial  arts 
and  manufactures. 

.  During  the  erection  of  the  Patent 
Office  building  temporary  quarters 
were  provided  in  the  City  Hall.  In 
the  spring  of  1840  the  building  was 
completed  and  the  Office  moved  into  it. 
The  sum  of  $422,011.65  was  expend- 
ed on  this  building.  The  patented 
models  were  then  classified  and  ex- 
hibited in  suitable  glass  cases,  while 
the  national  gallery  was  arranged  for 
exhibition   of   models   and    specimens. 

By  the  act  of  March  3,  1849,  the 
Interior  Department  was  established 
and  the  Patent  Office  attached  thereto. 
This  same  act  appropriated  $50,000 
out  of  the  patent  fund  to  begin  the 
east  or  Seventh  street  wing,  which  was 
completed  in  1852  at  a  cost  of  $600,- 
000,  $250,000  of  which  was  taken 
from  the  revenue  of  the  Patent  Office. 
In  1852  the  plans  for  the  entire  build- 
ing, as  it  now  stands,  were  prepared. 
The  west  wing  was  completed  in  1856 
and  cost  $750,000.  Work  on  the  north 
or  G  street  wing  was  begun  the  same 
year.  In  1867  th's  wing  was  finished 
at  a  cost  of  $575,000.  The  entire 
building  cost  $2,347,011.65. 


Since  July  28,  1836,  667,173  pat- 
ents for  inventions,  and  since  1842 
34,018  patents  for  designs  have  been 
issued  by  this  office.  Many  of  these 
patents  are  for  minor  impravements, 
but  among  them  may  be  found  a  very 
large  number  covering  the  most  re- 
markable and  valuable  inventions, 
which  have  added  untold  sums  to  the 
world's  wealth,  revolutionized  the  old 
arts,,  created  new  ones,  brought  old- 
time  luxuries  within  the  reach  of  all, 
and  made  life  doubly  worth  living. 
These  contributions  have  come  from 
men  and  women,  white  and  colored. 
To  many  inventors  more  than  a  hun- 
dred patents  have  been  issued.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  inventors 
who  have  received  more  than  that 
number  between  1872  and  1900,  both 
years  inclusive: 

Thomas  A.  Edison 742 

Francis  H.  Richards 619 

Elihu  Thomson 444 

Charles  E.  Scribner 374 

Luther  C.  Crowell 293 

Edward  Weston 280 

Rudolph  M.  Hunter 276 

Charles    J.     Van     Depoele     (de- 
ceased )  245 

George  Westinghouse 239 

John  W.  Hyatt 209 

Freeborn  F.  Raymond,  2d 182 

Sydney  H.  Short 178 

Rudolf  Eickemeyer   (deceased) . .  171 

Milo  G.  Kellogg 159 

Walter  Scott 156 

Arthur  J.  Moxham 150 

Cyrus  W.  Saladee 148 

Louis  Goddu 146 

Hiram   S.  Maxim 146 

George  D.  Burton 144 

Lewis  IT.  Nash 142 

Edwin  Norton 141 

Abbot  Augustus  Low 137 

Philip  Diehl 137 

James  C.  Anderson 135 

Edward  J.  Brooks 133 

Elmer  A.  Sperry : 132 

Peter  K.  Dederick 128 

Hosea  W.  Libbey 127 

James  F.  McElroy 121 

William  N.  Whiteley 121 

Horace  Wyman 118 

Frank  Rhind 117 

Louis  K.  Johnson 114 

Warren  H.  Taylor 112 

James  M.  Dodge Ill 

George  H.  Reynolds 110 

Talbot  C.  Dexter 100 

James  H.  Northrop 102 

From  1790  to  March  1,  1895,  some 
5,535  patents  were  granted  to  worn- 


248 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


en.  It  is  a  fair  estimate  that  out  of 
every  1,000  patents  one  is  granted  to 
a  woman.  As  a  rule  women  take  out 
but  one  patent,  although  there  are 
many  exceptions.  While  the  majority 
of  patents  granted  them  are  for  im- 
provements in  wearing  apparel  and  in 
articles  for  household  use,  they  have 
invented  and  received  patents  for  add- 
ing machines,  windmills,  horseshoes, 
agricultural  implements,  and  fire  es- 
capes. 

To  some  165  colored  inventors  about 
400  patents  have  been  issued.  Twen- 
ty-eight patents  have  been  issued  to 
one  and  to  another  22.  So  far  as  the 
records  show,  Henry  Blair,  of  Mary- 
land, was  the  first  colored  patentee. 
In  i834  he  received  a  patent  for  a 
corn  planter,  and  in  1836  one  for  a 
cotton  planter.  The  character  of  their 
inventions  follows  lines  suggested  by 
their  employment.  Employed  in  the 
field  and  in  the  house,  improvements 
in  agricultural  implements  and  arti- 
cles of  domestic  use  predominate.  The 
sphere  of  their  inventive  effort  has 
widened  with  the  added  opportunities 
afforded  them  to  engage  in  mechanical 
vocations.  They  have  made  contribu- 
tions to  the  electric  arts  and  steam 
engineering,  and  many  improvements 
in  railway  appliances  and  paper-bag 
machines.  Before  the  Civil  War  the 
master  of  a  slave  living  in  Mississippi 
made  application  for  a  patent,  but  the 
Attorney-General  held  in  an  opinion 
reported  in  vol.  9,  Attorney-General's 
Opinions,  page  171,  that  an  invention 
of  a  slave,  though  it  be  new  and  use- 
ful, could  not  be  patented. 

In  May,  1802.  President  Jefferson 
appointed  Dr.  William  Thornton  as  a 
clerk  at  ^1,400  per  year,  to  have 
charge  of  the  issuance  of  patents.  He 
took  the  title  of  Superintendent,  and 
continued  to  act  in  that  capacity  un- 
til his  death,  March  28,  1828.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  William  P. 
Jones,  who  acted  until  his  removal  in 
the  early  part  of  President  Jackson's 
administration.  John  D.  Craig  fol- 
lowed Dr.  Jones,  and  in  1834  he  was 
succeeded  by  B.  F.  Pickett,  who  served 
but  a  brief  period.  The  last  Superin- 
tendent was  Henry  L.  Ellsworth,  who 
became  the  first  Commissioner  under 
the  act  of  1836,  and  served  until  1845. 
The  other  Commissioners  under  that 
act  were : 

Edmund  Burke.  May  4,  1845. 
Thomas  Ewbank,  May  9,  1849. 
Silas  H.  Hodges,   November  8,  1852. 
Charles  Mason,  May  16,  1853. 


Joseph  Holt,   September  10,  1857. 
William  D.  Bishop,  May  27,  1859. 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  February  16,  1860. 

D.  P.  Holloway,  March  28,  1861. 
T.  C.  Theaker,  August  17,  1865. 
Blisha  Foote,  July  29,  1868. 
Samuel  S.  Fisher,  April  26,  1869. 

Commissioner  Fisher  continued  as 
Commissioner  for  a  short  time  under 
the  act  of  1870.  Other  Commission- 
ers  under  that  act  have  been : 

M.  D.  Leggett,  January  16,  1871. 
John  M.  Thacher,  November  4,  1874. 
R.  H.  Duell,  October  1,  1875. 
Ellis  Spear,  January  30,  1877. 
H.  E.  Paine,  November  1,  1878. 

E.  M.  Marble,  May  7,  1880. 
Benjamin   Butterworth,   November   1, 

1883 
M.  V.  Montgomery,  March  23,  1885. 

B.  J.  Hall,  April  12,  1887. 

C.  B.  Mitchell,  April  1,  1889. 
William  E.  Simonds,  August  1,  1891. 
John  S.  Seymour,  March  31,  1893. 
Benjamin  Butterworth,  April  7,  1897. 
Charles  H.  Duell,  February  3,  1898. 

F.  I.  Allen,  April  11,  1901. 

Commissioner  Fisher  was  the  first 
to  publish  his  decisions  and  to  have 
the  copies  of  the  specifications  and 
drawings  made  by  photo-lithography. 
He  also  instituted  the  practice  of  re- 
quiring competitive  examinations  for 
entrance  to  and  promotions  in  the 
examining  force  of  the  office. 

Beginning  in  1843  and  annually 
thereafter  the  Patent  OflSce  reports 
were  published,  which,  until  1853,  con- 
tained merely  an  alphabetical  index  of 
the  names  of  the  inventors,  a  list  of 
the  expired  patents,  and  the  claims  of 
the  patents  granted  during  the  week. 
In  1853  and  afterward  small  engraved 
copies  of  a  portion  of  the  drawings 
were  added  to  the  reports  to  explain 
the  claims. 

The  act  of  1870  authorized  the  Com- 
missioner to  print  copies  of  the  claims 
of  the  current  issues  of  patents  and 
of  such  laws,  decisions,  and  rules  as 
were  necessary  for  the  information  of 
the  public.  In  conformity  with  this 
provision  there  was  published  weekly 
a  list  giving  the  numbers,  titles,  and 
claims  of  the  patents  issued  during 
the  week  immediately  preceding,  to- 
gether with  the  names  and  residences 
of  the  patentees.  This  list  was  first 
published  under  the  name  of  The 
Official  Gazette  of  the  United  States 
Patent  Office,  on  January  3,  1872. 
In  July,  1872,  portions  of  the  draw- 
ings were  introduced  to  illustrate  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


249 


claims  in  the  patented  cases.  The 
Official  Gazette  has  now  become  one 
of  the  most  valuable  and  important  of 
Government  publications.  Each  Sena- 
tor and  Representative  is  authorized  to 
designate  eight  public  libraries  to  re- 
ceive this  publication  free.  One  copy 
is  also  furnished  free  to  each  member 
of  Congress.  It  is  also  sent  all  over 
the  world  in  exchange  for  similar  pub- 
lications by  other  Governments,  and 
its  paid  subscription  list  is  constantly 
increasing. 

The  American  patent  system  •  is 
known  and  spoken  of  as  the  "exam- 
ination system,"  in  contradistinction 
to  the  English  system,  which  has 
been  mainly  followed  by  other  nations. 
The  examination  system  is  the  ideal 
system,  provided  the  examination  can 
be  made  with  sufficient  care  to  mini- 
mize the  likelihood  of  the  issue  of  pat- 
ents for  inventions  not  of  a  patentable 
nature.  The  field  of  search,  however, 
yearly  increases,  and  it  becomes  more 
and  more  difficult  through  lack  of  time 
to  make  a  perfect  examination.  Some- 
thing more  than  two  million  domestic 
and  foreign  patents  have  been  issued 
while  the  number  of  scientific  publi- 
catioQS  has  enormously  increased.  It 
is  only  by  means  of  a  perfect  classifi- 
cation that  this  great  mass  of  matter 
can  be  so  divided  as  to  be  convenient- 
ly accessible  for  use  in  the  examination 
of  any  individual  case. 

Of  our  patent  system  it  has  been 
well  said : 

"It  is  generally  recognized  by  the 
most  profound  students  of  our  insti- 
tutions, both  at  home  and  abroad,  that 
no  one  thing  has  contributed  more  to 
the  pre-eminence  of  this  country  in  the 
industrial  arts  and  in  manufactures 
than  the  encouragement  given  by  our 
Constitution  and  laws  to  inventors  and 
to  investors  in  patent  property." 

The  system  is  by  no  means  perfect ; 
but  it  is  generally  acknowledged  that 
the  patent  laws  of  the  United  States 
are  more  liberal  than  those  of  any  oth- 
er country,  and  that  the  examination, 
imperfect  though  at  times  it  be,  gives 
a  value  to  a  United  States  patent  not 
possessed  by  a  patent  issued  by  a  coun- 
try not  having  an  examination  system. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  prac- 
tice before  the  Patent  Office  lacks  sta- 
bility and  uniformity  by  reason  of  the 
frequent  changes  of  Commissioners, 
which  prevents  the  establishment  of 
definite  policies.  The  salaries  paid  to 
the  Commissioner  and  Assistant  Com- 
missioner, to  the  examiners  in  chief, 
and  to  the  examiners  of  the  various 


grades  are  inadequate.  It  is  also  true 
that  too  many  appeals  are  permitted, 
and  interference  proceedings  are  ren- 
dered onerous  and  complicated  by  the 
number  of  motions  and  appeals  pi*o- 
vided  by  the  laws  and  rules.  The 
most  serious  defect,  however,  follows 
from  the  power  to  keep  applications  in 
the  Office  for  indefinite  times  through 
delays  in  amending  the  same.  The  act 
of  March  3,  1897,  was  intended  to 
prevent  or  check  this  evil ;  but  it  has 
failed  of  its  purpose.  At  the  present 
time  about  75  per  cent  of  the  patents 
granted  are  issued  within  one  year 
after  being  filed,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  applications  are  unduly 
delayed  at  least  90  per  cent  would 
issue  within  that  time.  The  rights  of 
the  public  would  be  protected  and  very 
seldom  would  an  injustice  be  done  to 
an  inventor  if  provision  was  incorpo- 
rated into  the  patent  laws  providing 
that  unless  an  application  became  in- 
volved in  an  interference  it  should  not 
be  permitted  to  remain  in  the  Patent 
Office  more  than  three  years  without 
abridging  its  life  of  seventeen  years. 

The  records  of  the  Office  show  that 
there  were  pending  in  1900,  4,829 
applications,  filed  prior  to  Janu- 
ary 1,  1898.  Three  of  these  ap- 
plications were  filed  in  1880, 
one  in  1881.  four  in  1882,  three 
in  1884,  three  in  1885,  thirteen  in  1886, 
seven  in  1887,  thirteen  in  1888,  nine- 
teen in  1889,  twenty-three  in  1890. 
forty-five  in  1891,  sixty-four  in  1892, 
one  hundred  and  three  in  1893,  one 
hundrecl  and  fifty-four  in  1894,  three 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  in  1895,  nine 
hundred  and  ninety- two  in  1896,  and 
three  thousand  and  eleven  in  1897. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  an 
application  may  be  kept  alive  indefi- 
nitely, if  it  be  desired.  While  the  list 
above  given  embraces  only  such  appli- 
cations as  were  filed  under  the  law  as 
it  existed  prior  to  January  1,  1898, 
yet  ten  years  later  a  similar  list 
will  undoubtedly  be  given,  provided  the 
statutes  are  not  amended,  for  the  only 
difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  amend- 
ments now  have  to  be  made  within  a 
year  after  the  official  action  instead  of 
two  years  under  the  prior  act.  A  law 
which  permits  this  should  be  cor- 
rected. 

It  should  continue  to  be  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  a  nation  whose 
inventors  have  given  to  the  world  the 
cotton-gin  and  the  reaper,  the  sewing 
machine  and  the  typewriter,  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  and  telephone,  the  ro- 
tary web  perfecting  printing  press  and 


250 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  linotype,  the  incandescent  lamp 
and  the  phonog^ph,  and  thousands  of 
other  inventions  that  have  revolution- 
ized every  industrial  art,  to  encourage 
invention  in  every  lawful  way  and  to 
provide  that,  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, the  money  paid  to  the  Govern- 
ment by  inventors  be  used  for  their 
benefit.  The  wisdom  of  the  policy  has 
been  demonstrated. 

The  world  owes  as  much  to  invent- 
ors as  to  statesmen  or  warriors.     Ta 


them  the  United  States  is  the  greatest 
debtor,  so  much  have  they  advanced 
American  manufactures.  Their  labor- 
saving  machinery  does  work  that  it 
would  take  millions  of  men  using  hand 
implements  to  perform.  In  this  cen- 
tury the  debt  will  be  piled  still  higher, 
for  inventors  never  rest. — Abstract  or 
report  for  1900. 

C.  H.  DUELL, 

Commissioner   of   Patents. 


THE   COPYRIGHT  LAW  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


CONSTITUTION,   1787. 

Art.  1,  Sec.  8.  The  Congress  shall 
have  power  *  *  ♦  To  promote  the 
progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
Securing  for  Limited  Times  to  Au- 
thors and  Inventors  the  Exclusive 
Right  to  their  Respective  Writings 
and  Discoveries. 

ACTS    OF    CONGRESS. 

Sec.  4048.  All  records  and  other 
things  relating  to  copyrights  and  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  preserved,  shall  be 
under  the  control  of  the  Librarian  of 
Congress,  and  kept  and  preserved  in 
the  Library  of  Congress. 

LThe  Appropriation  Act  approved 
February  19,  1897,  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  a  "Register  of  Copy- 
rights, who  shall,  on  and  after  July  1, 
1897,  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
perform  all  the  duties  relating  to  copy- 
rights, and  shall  make  weekly  deposits 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
and  make  monthly  reports  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  and  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  and  shall,  on 
and  after  July  1,  1897,  give  bond  to 
the  Librarian  of  Congress,  in  the  sum 
of  $20,000,  with  approved  sureties,  for 
the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties."] 

Sec.  4949.  The  seal  provided  for 
the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress 
shall  be  the  seal  thereof,  and  by  it  all 
records  and  papers  issued  from  the 
office,  and  to  be  used  in  evidence  shall 
be  authenticated. 

Sec.  4950.  The  Appropriation  Act, 
approved  February  19,  1897,  provides : 
"The  Librarian  of  Congress  shall  on 
and  after  July  1,  1897,  give  bond,  pay- 
able to  the  United  States,  in  the  sum 
of  $20,000,  with  sureties  approved  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties  ac- 
cording to  law.*' 

Sec.  4951.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  make  an  annual  report  to 


Congress  of  the  number  and  descrip- 
tion of  copyright  publications  for 
which  entries  have  been  made  during 
the  year. 

Sec.  4952.  The  author,  inventor, 
designer,  or  proprietor  of  any  book, 
map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical  com- 
position, engraving,  cut,  print,  or 
photograph  or  negative  thereof,  or  of 
a  painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statue, 
statuary,  and  of  models  or  designs  in- 
tended to  be  perfected  as  works  of  the 
tine  arts,  and  the  executors,  adminis- 
trators, or  assigns  of  any  such  person 
shall,  upon  complying  with  the  provi- 
sions of  this  chapter,  have  the  sole 
liberty  of  printing,  reprinting,  pub- 
lishing, completing,  copying,  executing, 
finishing,  and  vending  the  same ;  and, 
in  the  case  of  dramatic  composition,  of 
publicly  performing  or  representing  it, 
or  causing  it  to  be  performed  or  repre:_ 
sented  by  others ;  and  authors  or  their 
assigns  shall  have  exclusive  right  to 
dramatize  and  translate  any  of  their 
works  for  which  copyright  shall  have 
been  obtained  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States. 

In  the  construction  of  this  act  the 
words  "engraving,"  "cut,"  and  "print," 
shall  be  applied  only  to  pictorial  illus- 
trations or  works  connected  with  the 
fine  arts,  and  no  prints  or  labels  de- 
signed to  be  used  for  any  other  articles 
of  manufacture  shall  be  entered  under 
the  copyright  law,  but  may  be  regis- 
tered in  the  Patent  Office.  And  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  is  hereby 
charged  with  the  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  entry  or  registry  of  such 
prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with 
the  regulations  provided  by  law  as  to 
copyright  of  prints,  except  that  there 
shall  be  paid  for  recording  the  title  of 
any  print  or  label,  not  a  trade-mark, 
$().00,  which  shall  cover  the  expense  of 
furnishing  a  copy  of  the  record,  under 
the  seal  of  the  Commi-ssioner  of  Pat- 
ents, to  the  party  entering  the  same. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


261 


Sec.  4953.  Copyrights  shall  be 
granted  for  the  term  of  twenty-eight 
years  from  the  time  of  recording  the 
title  thereof,  in  the  manner  hereinaf- 
ter directed. 

Sec.  4954.  The  author,  inventor,  or 
designer,  if  he  be  still  living,  py  his 
widow  or  children,  if  he  be  dead,  shall 
have  the  same  exclusive  right  contin- 
ued for  the  further  term  of  fourteen 
years,  upon  recording  the  title  of  the 
work  or  description  of  the  article  so 
secured  a  second  time,  and  complying 
with  all  other  regulations  in  regard  to 
original  copyrights,  within  six  months 
before  the  expiration  of  the  first  term 
And  such  person  shall,  within  two 
months  from  the  date  of  said  renewal, 
cause  a  copy  of  the  record  thereof  to 
be  published  in  one  or  more  newspa- 
pers, printed  in  the  United  States,  for 
the  space  of  four  weeks. 

Sec.  4955.  Copyrights  shall  be  as- 
signable in  law  by  any  instrument  of 
writing,  and  such  assignment  shall  be 
recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian 
of  Congress  within  sixty  days  after  its 
execution ;  in  default  of  which  it  shall 
be  void  as  against  any  subsequent  pur- 
chaser or  mortgagee  for  a  valuable 
consideration,   without  notice. 

Sec.  495G.  No  person  shall  be  en- 
titled to  a  copyright  unless  he  shall,  on 
or  before  the  day  of  publication,  in 
this  or  any  foreign  country,  deliver  at 
the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
or  deposit  in  the  mail  within  the 
United  States,  addressed  to  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
a  printed  copy  of  the  title  of  the  book, 
map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical  com- 
position, engraving,  cut,  print,  photo- 
graph, or  chromo,  or  a  description  of 
the  painting,  drawing,  statue,  statuary, 
or  a  model  or  design,  for  a  work  of 
the  fine  arts,  for  which  he  desires  a 
copyright ;  nor  unless  he  shall  also, 
not  later  than  the  day  of  the  publi- 
cation thereof,  in  this  or  any  foreign 
country,  deliver  at  the  office  of  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  or  deposit  in  the  mail  within 
the  United  States,  addressed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  two  copies  of  such  copyright 
book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  engraving,  chromo,  cut, 
print  or  photograph,  or  in  case  of  a 
painting,  drawing,  statue,  statuary, 
model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the  fine 
arts,  a  photograph  of  the  same :  Pro- 
vided. That  in  the  case  of  a  book,  pho- 
tograph, chromo,  or  lithograph,  the 
two  copies  of  the  same  required  to  be 
delivered  or  deposited  as  above,  shall 


be  printed  from  type  set  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States,  or  from 
plates  made  therefrom,  or  from  nega- 
tives, or  drawings  on  stone  made  with- 
in the  lim.ts  of  the  United  States,  or 
from  transfers  made  therefrom.  Dur- 
ing the  existence  of  such  copyright  the 
importation  into  the  United  States  of 
any  brook,  chromo.  lithograph,  or  pho- 
tograph, so  copyrighted,  or  any  edition 
or  editions  thereof,  or  any  plates  of 
the  same  not  made  from  type  set,  nega- 
tives, or  drawings  on  stone  made  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be,  and  is  hereby  prohibited,  except  in 
the  cases  specified  in  paragraphs  512 
to  516,  inclusive,  in  Section  2  of  the 
act  entitled  An  Act  to  reduce  the 
revenue  and  equalize  the  duties  on  im- 
ports and  for  other  purposes,  approved 
October  1,  1890;  and  except  in  the 
case  of  persons  purchasing  for  use  and 
not  for  sale,  who  import  subject  to  the 
duty  thereon,  not  more  than  two  cop- 
ies of  such  books  at  any  one  time ; 
and,  except  in  the  case  of  newspapers 
and  magazines,  not  containing  in 
whole  or  in  part  matter  copyrighted 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  un- 
authorized by  the  author,  which  are 
hereby  exempted  from  prohibition  of 
importation ; 

Provided,  nevertheless.  That  in  the 
case  of  books  in  foreign  languages,  of 
which  only  translations  in  English  are 
copyrighted,  the  prohibition  of  impor- 
tation shall  apply  only  to  the  trans- 
lation of  the  same,  and  the  importation 
of  the  books  in  the  original  language 
shall  be  permitted. 

Sec.  4057.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  record  the  name  of  such 
copyright  book,  or  other  article,  forth- 
with in  a  book  to  be  kept  for  that  pur- 
pose, in  the  words  following:  "Lib- 
rary of  Congress,  to  wit :  Be  it  re- 
membered   that    on    the   day.  of 

,  A.  B..  of ,  hath  deposited  in 

this  office  the  title  of  a  book  (map^ 
chart,  or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may 
be,  or  description  of  the  article),  the 
title  or  description  of  which  is  in  the 
following  words,  to  wit:  (here  insert 
the  title  or  description),  the  right 
whereof  he  claims  as  author  (origina- 
tor, or  proprietor,  as  the  case  may  be), 
in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  respecting  copyrights. 
C.  D.,  Librarian  of  Congress."  And 
he  shall  give  a  cony  of  the  t't!e  or 
description  under  the  seal  of  the  Li- 
brarian of  Congress,  to  the  proprietor, 
whenever  he  shall  require  it. 

Sec.  49.58.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  receive  from  the  persons  to 


252 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN-  REFERENCE    BOOK. 


whom  the  services  designated  are  ren- 
dered, the  following  fees :  1.  For  re- 
cording the  title  or  description  of  any 
copyright  book  or  other  article,  50 
cents.  2.  For  every  copy  under  seal 
of  such  record  actually  given  to  the 
person  claiming  the  copyright,  or  his 
assigns,  50  cents,  [3.  For  recording 
and  certifying  any  instrument  of  writ- 
ing for  the  assignment  of  a  copyright, 
$1.00.  4.  For  every  copy  of  an  as- 
signment, $1.00.]  All  fees  so  received 
shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States:  Provided,  That  the 
charge  for  recording  the  title  or  de- 
scription of  any  article  entered  for 
copyright,  the  production  of  a  person 
not  a  citizen  or  resident  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  $1.00,  to  be  paid  as 
above  into  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  lists 
of  copyrighted  articles  as  hereinafter 
provided  for. 

And  it  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of 
the  Librarian  of  Congress  to  furnish 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  copies 
of  the  entries  of  titles  of  all  books  and 
other  articles  wherein  the  copyright 
has  been  completed  by  the  deposit  of 
two  copies  of  such  book  printed  from 
type  set  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  in  accordance  with  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act,  and  by  the  deposit 
of  two  copies  of  such  other  article 
made  or  produced  in  the  United 
States;  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  is  hereby  directed  to  prepare 
and  print,  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  a  week,  catalogues  of  such  title- 
entries  for  distribution  to  the  collect- 
ors of  customs  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  the  postmasters  of  all  post- 
oflSces  receiving  foreign  mails,  and 
such  weekly  lists,  as  they  are  issued, 
shall  be  furnished  to  all  parties  desir- 
ing them,  at  a  sum  not  exceeding  five 
dollars  per  annum,  and  the  Secretary 
and  the  Postmaster-General  are  here- 
by empowered  and  required  to  make 
and  enforce  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  shall  prevent  the  importation  into 
the  United  States,  except  upon  the 
conditions  above  specified,  of  all  arti- 
cles prohibited  by  this  act. 

Sec.  4959.  The  proprietor  of  every 
copyright  book  or  other  article  shall 
deliver  at  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of 
Congress,  or  deposit  in  the  mail,  ad- 
dressed to  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
at  Washington,  I).  C.  a  copy  of  every 
subsequent  edition  wherein  any  sub- 
stantial oUanges  shall  be  made:  Pro- 
vided, however.  That  the  alterations, 
revisions,  and  additions  made  to  books 
by    foreign    authors,    heretofore    pub- 


lished, of  which  new  editions  shall  ap- 
pear subsequently  to  the  taking  ef- 
fect of  this  act,  shall  be  held  and 
deemed  capable  of  being  copyrighted 
as  above  provided  for  in  this  act,  un- 
less they  form  a  part  of  the  series  in 
course  of  publication  at  the  time  this 
act  snail  take  effect. 

Sec.  4960.  For  every  failure  on  the 
part  of  the  proprietor  of  any  copy- 
right to  deliver,  or  deposit  in  the  mail, 
either  of  the  published  copies,  or  de- 
scription, or  photograph,  required  by 
sections  4956  and  4959,  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright  shall  be  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  $25.00,  to  be  recovered  by 
the  Librarian  of  Congress,  in  the  name 
of  the  United  States,  in  an  action 
in  the  nature  of  an  action  of  debt, 
in  any  district  court  of  the  United 
States  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
which  the  delinquent  may  reside  or  be 
found. 

The  following  act  in  relation  to  the 
deposit  of  copies  was  approved  March 
n,  1893 :  "That  any  author,  inventor, 
designer,  or  proprietor  of  any  book,  or 
other  article  entitled  to  copyright,  who 
has  heretofore  failed  to  deliver  in  the 
oflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  or 
in  the  mail  addressed  to  the  Librarian 
of  Congress,  two  complete  copies  of 
such  book,  or  description  or  photo- 
graph of  such  article,  within  the  time 
limited  by  title  60,  chapter  3,  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  relating  to  copy- 
rights, and  the  acts  in  amendment 
thereof,  and  has  complied  with  all  oth- 
er provisions  thereof,  who  has,  before 
the  first  day  of  March,  1893,  delivered 
at  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, or  deposited  in  the  mail  ad- 
dressed to  the  Librarian  of  Congress 
two  complete  printed  copies  of  such 
book,  or  description  or  photograph  of 
such  article,  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  said  title 
sixty,  chapter  three,  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  and  the  acts  in  amendment 
thereof. 

Sec.  4961.  The  postmaster  to  whom 
such  copyright  book,  title,  or  other  ar- 
ticle is  delivered,  shall,  if  requested, 
give  a  receipt  therefor ;  and  when  so 
delivered  he  shall  mail  it  to  its  des- 
tination. 

Sec.  4962.  No  person  shall  main- 
tain an  action  for  the  infringement  of 
his  copyright  unless  he  shall  give  no- 
tice thereof  by  inserting  in  the  several 
copies  of  every  edition  published,  on 
the  title-page,  or  the  page  immediately 
following,  if  it  be  a  book ;  or  if  a  map, 
chart,  musical  composition,  print,  cut, 
engraving,  photograph,  painting,  draw- 


SCIENTIFIC    A 


RENCE    BOOK. 


253 


ing,  chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or 
model  or  design  intended  to  be  per- 
fected and  completed  as  a  work  of  the 
fine  arts,  by  inscribing  upon  some 
visible  portion  thereof,  or  of  the  sub- 
stance on  which  the  same  shall  be 
mounted,  the  following  words,  viz. : 
'*Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress, 

in  the  year ,  by  A.  B.,  in  the  oflSce 

of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Wash- 
ington" ;  or,  at  his  option,  the  word 
**Copyright,"  together  with  the  year 
the  copyright  was  entered,  and  the 
name  of  the  party  by  whom  it  was 
taken  out,  thus:  "Copyright,  18 — , 
by  A.  B." 

That  manufacturers  of  designs  for 
moulded  decorative  articles,  tiles, 
plaques,  or  articles  of  pottery  or  metal 
subject  to  copyright  may  put  the  copy- 
right mark  prescribed  by  Section  49()2 
of  the  Revised  Statutes,  and  acts  addi- 
tional thereto,  upon  the  back  or  bot- 
tom of  such  articles,  or  in  such  other 
place  upon  them  as  it  has  heretofore 
been  usual  for  manufacturers  of  such 
articles  to  employ  for  the  placing  of 
manufacturers,  merchants,  and  trade- 
marks thereon. 

Sec.  4963.  Every  person  who  shall 
Insert  or  impress  such  notice,  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  in  or  upon  any 
book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  print,  cut,  engraving  or 
photograph,  or  other  article,  whether 
such  article  be  subject  to  copyright  or 
otherwise,  for  which  he  has  not  ob- 
tained a  copyright,  or  shall  knowingly 
issue  or  sell  any  article  bearing  a  no- 
tice of  a  United  States  copyright 
which  has  not  been  copyrighted 
in  this  country ;  or  shall  import 
any  book,  photograph,  chromo,  or 
lithograph  or  other  article  bearing 
such  notice  of  copyright  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  which  is 
not  copyrighted  in  this  country,  shall 
be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  $100,  recov- 
erable one-half  for  the  person  who 
shall  sue  for  such  penalty,  and  one-half 
to  the  use  of  the  United  States ;  and 
the  Importation  into  the  United  States 
of  any  book,  chromo,  lithograph,  or 
photograph,  or  other  article  bearing 
such  notice  of  copyright,  when  there 
is  no  existing  copyright  thereon  in  the 
United  States,  is  prohibited ;  and  the 
circuit  courts  of  the  United  States  sit- 
ting in  equity  are  hereby  authorised  to 
enjoin  the  issuing,  publishing,  or  sell- 
ing of  any  article  marked  or  imported 
in  violation  of  the  United  States  copy- 
right laws,  at  the  suit  of  any  person 
complaining  of  such  violation  :  Pro- 
vided, That  this  act  shall  not  apply  to 


any  importation  of  or  sale  of  such 
goods  or  articles  brought  into  the 
United  States  prior  to  the  passage 
hereof. 

Sec.  4904.  Every  person  who,  after 
the  recording  of  the  title  of  any  book 
and  the  depositing  of  two  copies  of 
such  book  as  provided  by  this  act, 
shall,  contrary  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  within  the  term  limited,  and 
without  the  consent  of  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright  first  obtained  in  writ- 
ing, signed  in  presence  of  two  or  more 
witnesses,  print,  publish,  dramatize, 
translate,  or  import,  or,  knowing  the 
same  to  be  so  printed,  published,  dram- 
atized, translated,  or  imported,  shall 
sell  or  expose  to  sale  any  copy  of  such 
book,  shall  forfeit  every  copy  thereof 
to  such  proprietor,  and  shall  also  for- 
feit and  pay  such  damages  as  may  be 
recovered  in  a  civil  action  by  such 
proprietor  in  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

Sec.  4965.  If  any  person,  after  the 
recording  of  the  title  of  any  map, 
chart,  dramatic  or  musical  composi- 
tion, print,  cut,  engraving,  or  photo- 
graph, or  chromo,  or  of  the  descrip- 
tion of  any  painting,  drawing,  statue, 
statuary,  or  model  or  design  intended 
to  be  perfected  and  executed  as  a 
work  of  the  fine  arts,  as  provided  by 
this  act,  shall,  within  the  term  limited, 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
and  without  the  consent  of  the  proprie- 
tor of  the  copyright  first  obtained  in 
writmg,  signed  in  presence  of  two  or 
more  witnesses,  engrave,  etch,  work, 
<^opy,  print,  publish,  dramatize,  trans- 
late, or  import,  either  in  whole  or  in 
part,  or  by  varying  the  main  design, 
with  intent  to  evade  the  law,  or  know- 
ing the  same  to  be  so  printed,  pub- 
lished, dramatized,  translated,  or  im- 
ported, shall  sell  or  expose  to  sale  any 
copy  of  such  map,  or  other  article,  as 
aforesaid,  he  shall  forfeit  to  the  pro- 
prietor all  the  plates  on  which  the 
same  shall  be  copied,  and  every  sheet 
thereof,  either  copied  or  printed,  and 
shall  further  forfeit  $1.00  for  every 
sheet  of  the  same  found  in  hijs  posses- 
sion, either  printing,  printed,  copied, 
published,  imported,  or  exposed  for 
sale ;  and  in  case  of  a  painting,  statue, 
or  statuary,  he  shall  forfeit  $10.00  for 
every  copy  of  the  same  in  his  posses- 
sion, or  by  him  sold  or  exposed  for 
sale :  Provided,  however,  That  in  case 
of  any  such  infringement  of  the  copy- 
right of  a  photograph  made  from  any 
object  not  a  work  of  fine  arts,  the  sum 
to  be  recovered  in  any  action  brought 
under   the    provisions    of   this    section 


i 


254 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


shall  be  Dot  less  than  $100,  nor  more 
than  $5,000,  and :  Provided,  further, 
That  in  case  of  any  such  infringement 
of  the  copyright  of  a  painting,  draw- 
ing, statue,  engraving,  etching,  print, 
or  model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the 
fine  arts,  or  of  a  photograph  of  a  work 
of  the  fine  arts,  the  sum  to  be  recov- 
ered in  any  action  brought  through  the 
provisions  of  this  section  shall  be  not 
less  than  $250,  and  not  more  than 
$10,000.  One-half  of  all  the  foregoing 
penalties  shall  go  to  the  proprietors  of 
the  copyright  and  the  other  half  to  the 
use  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4966.  Any  person  publicly  per- 
forming or  representing  any  dramatic 
or  musical  composition  for  which  a 
copyright  has  been  obtained,  without 
the  consent  of  the  proprietor  of  said 
dramatic  or  musical  composition,  or 
his  heirs  or  assigns,  shall  be  liable  for 
damages  therefor,  such  damages  in  all 
cases  to  be  assessed  at  such  sum,  not 
less  than  $100  for  the  first,  and  $50 
for  every  subsequent  performance,  as 
to  the  court  shall  appear  to  be  just. 
If  the  unlawful  performance  and  rep- 
resentation be  wilful  and  for  profit 
such  person  or  persons  shall  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction 
be  imprisoned  for  a  period  not  exceed- 
ing one  year.  Any  injunction  that 
may  be  granted  upon  hearing  after 
notice  to  the  defendant  by  any  circuit 
court  in  the  United  States,  or  by  a 
judge  thereof,  restraining  and  enjoin- 
ing the  performance  or  representation 
of  any  such  dramatic  or  musical  com- 
position may  be  served  on  the  parties 
against  whom  such  injunction  may  be 
granted  anywhere  in  the  United 
States,  and  shall  be  operative  and  may 
be  enforced  by  proceedings  to  punish 
for  contempt  or  otherwise  by  any  other 
circuit  court  or  judge  in  the  United 
States ;  but  the  defendants  in  said  ac- 
tion, or  any  or  either  of  them,  may 
make  a  motion  in  any  other  circuit  in 
which  he  or  they  may  be  engaged  in 
performing  or  representing  said  drama- 
tic or  musical  composition  to  dissolve 
or  set  aside  the  said  injunction  upon 
such  reasonable  notice  to  the  plaintiff 
as  the  circuit  court  or  the  judge  be- 
fore whom  said  motion  shall  be  made 
shall  deem  proper ;  service  of  said  mo- 
tion to  be  made  on  the  plaintiff  in 
person  or  on  his  attorneys  in  the  ac- 
tion. The  circuit  courts  or  judges 
thereof  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  en- 
force said  injunction  and  to  hear  and 
determine  a  motion  to  dissolve  the 
same,  as  herein  provided,  as  fully  as  if 
the  action  were  pending  or  brought  in 


the   circuit   in   which   said   motion    is 
made. 

The  clerk  of  the  court,  or  judge 
granting  the  injunction,  shall,  when 
required  so  to  do  by  the  court  hearing 
the  application  to  dissolve  or  enforce 
said  injunction,  transmit  without  de- 
lay to  said  court  a  certified  copy  of  all 
the  papers  on  which  the  said  injunc- 
tion was  granted  that  are  on  file  in 
his  office. 

Sec.  4967.  Every  person  who  shall 
print  or  publish  any  manuscript  what- 
ever, without  the  consent  of  the  au- 
thor or  proprietor  first  obtained  shall 
be  liable  to  the  author  or  proprietor 
for  all  damages  occasioned  by  such 
injury. 

Sec.  4968.  No  action  shall  be  main- 
tained in  any  case  of  forfeiture  or 
penalty  under  the  copyright  laws,  un- 
less the  same  is  commenced  within  two 
years  after  the  cause  of  action  has 
arisen. 

Sec.  4969.  In  all  actions  arising 
under  the  laws  respecting  copyrights 
the  defendant  may  plead  the  general 
issue,  and  give  the  special  matter  in 
evidence. 

Sec.  4970.  The  circuit  courts,  and 
district  courts  having  the  jurisdiction 
of  circuit  courts,  shall  have  power, 
upon  bill  in  equity,  filed  by  any  party 
aggrieved,  to  grant  injunctions  to  pre- 
vent the  violation  of  any  right  secured 
by  the  laws  respecting  copyrights,  ac- 
cording to  the  course  and  principles  of 
courts  of  equity,  on  such  terms  as  the 
court  may  deem  reasonable. 

Sec.  4971. 

[Revised  Statutes,  title  13,  The 
Judiciary,  provides  as  follows :  Chap. 
7  (sec.  629).  The  circuit  courts  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction  as  follows: 
*  ♦  *  Ninth.  Of  all  suits  at  law 
or  in  equity  arising  under  the  patent 
or  copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 
A  writ  or  error  may  be  allowed  to  re- 
view any  final  judgment  at  law,  and 
an  appeal  shall  be  allowed  from  any 
final  decree  in  equity  hereinafter  men- 
tioned, without  regard  to  the  sum  or 
value  in  dispute :  First.  Any  final 
judgment  at  law  or  final  decree  in 
equity  of  any  circuit  court,  or  of  any 
district  court  acting  as  a  circuit 
court,  or  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  or  of  any  Ter- 
ritory, in  any  case  touching  patent 
rights  or  copyrights.  (Rev.  Stat., 
1878,  p.  130.)  Chap.  12  (sec.  711). 
The  jurisdiction  vested  in  the  courts 
of  the  United  States  in  the  cases  And 
proceedings  hereafter  mentioned,  shall 
be  exclusive  of  the  courts  of  the  sev- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


255 


eral  States :  *  *  *  Fifth.  Of  all 
cases  arising  under  the  patent-right  or 
copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 
(Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  pp.  134,  135.) 
Chap.  18  (sec,  972).  In  all  recoveries 
under  the  copyright  laws,  either  for 
damages,  forfeiture,  or  penalties,  full 
costs  shall  be  allowed  thereon.  (Rev. 
Stat.,  1878,  p.  183.)] 

The  act  approved  March  3,  1891 
(51st  Congress,  1st  session,  chap.  565: 
26  Statutes  at  Large,  pp.  1106-1110), 
in  addition  to  the  amendments,  noted 
above,  of  sections  4952,  4954,  4956, 
4958,  4959,  4963,  4964,  4965,  and 
4967,  provides  further  as  follows: 

"That  for  the  purpose  of  this  act 
each  volume  of  a  book  in  two  or  more 
volumes,  when  such  volumes  are  pub- 
lished separately,  and  the  first  one 
shall  not  have  been  issued  before  this 
act  shall  take  effect,  and  each  num- 
ber of  a  periodical  shall  be  considered 
an  independent  publication,  subject  to 
the  form  of  copyrighting  as  above." 
(Sec.  11.) 

"That  this  act  shall  go  into  effect  on 
the  first  day  of  July,  1891."  (Sec. 
12.) 

"That  this  act  shall  only  apply  to 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state 
or  nation  when  such  foreign  state  or 
nation  permits  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  benefit 
of  copyright  on  substantially  the  same 


basis  as  its  own  citizens;  or  when 
such  foreign  state  or  nation  is  a  party 
to  an  international  agreement  which 
provides  for  reciprocity  in  the  grant- 
ing of  copyright,  by  the  terms  of  which 
agreement  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica may  at  its  pleasure  become  a  party 
to  such  agreement.  The  existence  of 
either  of  the  conditions  aforesaid  shall 
be  determined  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time  as  the  purposes  of 
this  act  may  require."     (Sec.  13.) 

[An  Act  providing  for  the  public 
printing  and  binding  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  public  documents  (January  12, 
1895,  53d  Congress,  3d  session,  chap. 
23,  sec.  52:  28  Statutes  at  Large,  p. 
608).  provides  as  follows:  The  Pub- 
lic Printer  shall  sell,  under  such  regu- 
lations as  the  Joint  Committee  on 
Printing  may  prescribe,  to  any  person 
or  persons  who  may  apply,  additional 
or  duplicate  stereotype  or  electrotype 
plates  from  which  any  Government 
publication  is  printed,  at  a  price  not  to 
exceed,  the  cost  of  composition,  the 
metal  and  making  to  the  Government 
and  10  per  centum  added :  Provided, 
That  the  full  amount  of  the  price  shall 
be  paid  when  the  order  is  filed :  And 
provided,  further.  That  no  publication 
reprinted  from  such  stereotype  or  elec- 
trotype plates  and  no  other  Govern- 
ment publication  shall  be  copyrighted.] 


CHAPTEK    X. 


MANtTFACTURES,   EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS. 


LOCALIZATION  OF  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  BY  STATES:   1900. 


1 

Kff 

ColU™  and  cuffs 

11. -,,7. ■.!>,! 32  ;NBwyork 

»lS,TOa.M 

Slauehtering  uid  meat  pulcing,  whole- 

ES-^S-:;: 

Pottmy.    terra    cotta.    ud    fir*-cUy 

4t.m.m 

Ohio 

"B 

^ 

Pftjwr  and  wood  pulp 

■il 

" 

258 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MANUFACTURING    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 


Class. 


Total. 


Hand  trades 

Governmental  establishments  . .  .  . 
Educational,    eleemosynary,    and 

penal  institutions 

Establishments  with  a  product  of 

less  than  $500 

All  other  establishments 


Number 
of  Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


640.056 

215,814 
138 

381 

127.346 
296,377 


Capital. 


$9,858,205,501 
392,442,255 


Proprie- 
tors and 

Firm 
Members 


708.623 
242.154 


Wage-earners. 


Average 
Number. 


5.370,814 
559.130 


44,371,111 
9,421,392,135 


136,054 
330.415 


64,671 
4,747,013 


Total   Wages 


$2,323,055,634 
288,118.421 


2.117,466 
2,032,819.747 


Statistics  for  governmental  establishments,  educational,  eleemosynary,  and  penal  insti- 


MANUFACTURING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

[Twelfth  Census, 


Items. 


Number  of  establishments 

Capital 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc..  number  .  .  . 

Salaries 

Wage-earners,  average  number 

Total  wages 

Men.  at  least  16  years  of  age 

Wages 

Women,  at  least  16  years  of  age 

Wages 

Children,  under  16  years 

Wages 

Miscellaneous  expenses 

Cost  of  materials  used 

Value  of  products,  incl.  custom  work,  etc. 


Date  of  Census. 


1900.1 


512,276 

$9,831,486,500 

397,092 

$404,112,794 

5,314,539 

$2,327,295,545 

4.114,348 

$2,019,954,204 

1,031,608 

$281,679,649 

168,583 

$25,661,692 

$1,027,865,277 

$7,346,358,979 

$13,010,036,514 


1890. 


355.405 

$6,525,050,759 

2  461.001 

2  $391,984,660 

4,251,535 

$1,891,209,696 

3,326,964 

$1,659,215,858 

803,686 

$215,367,976 

120,885 

$16,625,862 

$631,219,783 

$5,162,013,878 

$9,372,378,843 


1880. 


253,852 
$2,790,272,606 
(») 

2,732,595 

$947,953,795 

2.019,035 

(*) 
531,639 

(«) 
181.921 

(») 

(«) 
$3,396,823,549 
$5,3CQ.579.191 


1  Includes,  for  comparative,  purposes.  85  governmental  establishments  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  having  products  valued  at  $9,887,355,  the  statistics  for  such  establishments  for  1800 
not  being  separable. 

2  Includes  proprietors  and  firm  members,  with  their  salaries;  number  only  reported  in 
1900,  but  not  included  in  this  table. 

3  Not  reported  separately. 
*  Decrease. 

s  Not  reported. 

Note. — Exact  comparisons  between  the  censuses  shown  in  this  table  are  difficult  and 
sometimes  impossible  on  account  of  changes  which  have  taken  place  from  census  to  census  in 
the  form  of  inquiries  contained  in  the  schedules,  in  the  industries  canvassed,  and  in  the  methods 
of  compilation.  Comparisons  between  the  censuses  of  1890  and  1900  are  more  exact  than  has 
ever  before  been  the  case;  but  even  between  these  two  censuses  there  are  certain  important 
differences  in  the  forms  of  inquiry,  or  the  methods  of  handling  the  statistics  in  compilation, 
to  which  careful  attention  should  be  paid. 

«1.  Capital. — It  cannot  be  assumed  that  any  true  comparability  exists  between  the  sta- 
tistics on  this  subject  elicited  prior  to  1890.  At  the  census  of  1880  the  question  read:  '  'Capital 
(real  and  personal)  invested  in  the  business."  At  the  census  of  1890  live  capital,  i.e.,  cash  on 
hand,  bills  receivable,  unsettled  ledger  accounts,  raw  materials,  stock  in  process  of  manxifac- 
ture,  finished  products  on  hand,  and  other  sundries,  was  for  the  first  time  included  as  a  separate 
and  distinct  item  of  capital,  and  the  capital  invested  in  realty  was  divided  between  land, 
buildings,  and  machinery.  The  form  of  this  inquiry  at  the  census  of  1890  and  1900  was  so 
similar  that  comparison  may  be  safely  made. 

2.  Salaried  Officials. — No  comparison  of  the  statistics  of  the  number  and  salaries  or 
salaried  officials  of  anv  character  can  be  made  between  the  reports  of  any  censuses.  Not  until 
the  census  of  1890  did  the  census  begin  to  differentiate  sharply  between  sidaried  officials,  i.e., 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


259 


SUMMARY  FOR  ALL  ESTABLISHMENTS:    1900. 


Miscellaneous 
Expenses. 

Cost  of  Materials  Used. 

Total. 

Purchased  in 
Raw  State. 

$2,391,668,276 

8,851.162 
60,576 

1,037,343 

1,431,529 

2,380.287,666 

Purchased  in 
Partially  Man-* 
ufactured 
Form. 

Fuel, 

Freight, 

etc. 

$322,902,536 

11.375,210 
249,495 

288,484 

26,825 
310,962,522 

Value  of  Pr9d- 
ucts.  Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repairing. 

$1,030,110,125 
124,623,253 

$7,363,132,083 

482,736,991 

6,917,518 

3,690,916 

8,895,774 
6,860,890.884 

$4,648,561,271 

462.510,619 
6,607,447 

2,365,089 

7,437,420 
4,169.640,696 

$13,058,562,917 

1,183,615,478 
•22,010,391 

6,640,692 

2,524,681 
902,962,191 

29,762,675 
11,816,533,681 

tutions,  and  establishments  with  a  product  of  less  than  $500,  are  included  in  Table  only. 


—COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY:    1850  TO  1900. 
Vols.  VII.  and  VIII. 


Date  of  Census. 

Per  Cent  of  Increase. 

1870. 

1860. 

1850. 

1890 

to 

1900. 

1880 

to 

1890. 

40.0 
133.8 

1870 

to 

1880. 

1860 

to 

1870. 

79.6 
109.8 

1850 

to 

1860. 

252,148 
$2,118,208,769 
(3) 

(8) 

2,053,996 

$775,584,343 

1,615,598 

(3) 

323,770 

(8) 

114,628 

(3) 

(«) 
$2,488,427,242 
$4,232,325,442 

140,433 
$1,009,855,715 
(3) 
(3) 

1,311,246 

$378,878,966 

1,040,349 

(8) 
270,897 

(3) 
(3) 
(3) 

h 

$1,031,605,092 

$1,885,861,676 

123,025 
$533,245,351 

(3) 

957,059 
$236,755,464 

731,137 
(3) 

225,922 
(3) 

(3) 

(3) 
(*) 
$555,123,822 
$1,019,106,616 

44.1 
50.7 
M3.9 
3.1 
25.0 
23.1 
23.7 
21.7 
28.4 
30.8 
39.5 
54.3 
62.8 
42.3 
38.8 

0.7 
31.7 

14.1 
89.4 

55.6 
99.5 
64.8 

33.0 
22.2 
25.0 

56.6 

104.7 

55.3 

37.0 
60.0 
42.3 

51.2 

64.2 

19.5 

19.9 

*33.6 

58.7 

52.0 
74.5 

36.5 
26.9 

141.2 
124.4 

85.8 
85.1 

employees  engaged  at  a  fixed  compensation  per  annum,  and  the  wage-earning  class,  i.e.,  em- 
plovees  paid  oy  the  hour,  the  day,  the  week,  or  the  piece,  for  work  performed  and  only  fof 
such  work.  Prior  to  1890  such  salaried  officials,  if  returned  at  all,  were  returned  with  the 
wage-earners  proper.  At  the  census  of  1890  the  number  and  salaries  of  proprietors  and  firm 
members  actively  engaged  in  the  business,  or  in  supervision,  were  reported,  combined  with 
clerks  and  other  officials.  Where  proprietors  and  firm  members  were  reported  without  sala- 
ries, the  amount  that  would  ordinarily  be  paid  for  similar  services  was  estimated.  At  the 
census  of  1900  the  number  of  proprietors  and  firm  members  actively  engaged  in  industry  or 
in  supervision  was  ascertained,  but  no  salaries  were  reported  for  this  class,  salaries,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  being  rarely  paid  in  such  cases,  proprietors  and  firm  members  depending  upon  the 
earnings  of  the  business  for  their  compensation. 

3.  Employees  and  Wages. — At  the  censuses  of  1850  and  1860  the  inquiries  regarding  em- 
ployees and  wages  called  for  '*the  average  number  of  hands  employed:  male,  female,"  "the 
average  monthly  cost  of  male  labor."  and  "the  average  monthly  cost  of  female  labor."  At 
the  census  of  1870  the  average  number  of  hands  employed  was  called  for,  divided  between 
"males  above  16  years,  females  above  15  years,  ana  children  and  youth,"  and  the  "total 
amount  paid  in  wages  during  the  year"  was  first  called  for.  The  inquiries  at  the  census  of 
1880  were  like  those  of  1870,  though  more  extended  for  some  of  the  selected  industries. 

At  the  census  of  1890  the  average  number  of  persons  employed  during  the  entire  year  ^as 
called  for,  and  also  the  average  number  employed  at  stated  weekly  rates  of  pay,  and  the 
average  number  was  computed  for  the  actual  time  the  establishments  were  reported  as  being 
in  operation.  At  the  census  of  1900  the  grreatest  and  least  numbers  of  employees  were  reported 
and  al^  the  average  number  employed  during  each  month  of  the  year.  The  average  number 
of  wage-earners  (men,  women,  and  children)  employed  during  the  entire  year  was  computed 
in  the  Census  Office  by  using  12,  the  number  of  calendar  months,  as  a  divisor  into  the  total 
of  the  average  numbers  reported  for  each  month.     This  difference  in  the  method  of  ascertain- 


260 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ing  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  during  the  entire  year  resulted  in  a  variation  in  the 
average  number  as  between  the  two  censuses. 

Furthermore,  the  schedules  for  1890  included  in  the  wage-earning  class  "overseers,  and 
foremen  or  sup>erintendents  (not  ^neral  superintendents  or  managers),"  while  the  census  of 
1900  separates  from  the  wage-earning  class  such  salaried  employees  as  general  superintendents, 
clerks,  and  salesmen.  It  is  probable  that  this  change  in  the  form  of  the  question  has  resulted 
in  eliminating  from  the  wage-earners,  as  reported  by  the  present  census,  many  high-salaried 
employees  included  in  1890. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Expenses. — This  item  was  not  shown  at  any  census  prior  to  that  of  1890. 
Comparison  between  the  totals  reported  can  safely  be  made  between  the  last  two  censuses. 

5.  Materials. — The  same  statement  is  true  regarding  the  materials  used  in  manufactures. 
With  the  exception  of  the  schedules  on  which  a  few  selected  Industries  were  reported  at  the 
census  of  1880,  the  question  concerning  materials  was  as  follows:  "Value  of  materials  used 
(including  mill  supplies  and  fuel)."  At  the  census  of  1890  the  schedule  contained  separate 
questions  as  to  the  kind,  quantity,  and  cost  of  th6  principal  materials,  and  the  cost  of  "mill 
supplies,"  "fuel,"  and  "all  other  materials."  The  amounts  paid  for  rent  of  power  and  heat 
were  also  included  under  this  head  in  1890.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  items  included 
the  cost  of  materials  at  the  census  of  1880 were  included  in  "miscellaneous  expenses"  at  the 
inquiries  of  1890  and  1900. 

6.  Products. — These  statistics  are  comparable  beginning  with  the  census  of  1870. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY,    BY    SPECIFIED    INDUSTRIES:     1900. 
[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII.  page  3,  and  Vol.  VIII.  page  18.] 


• 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Wage-earners. 

Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 

Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Industry. 

Average 
Num- 
ber 

Total  Wages. 

Total 

512,191 

$9,813,834,390 

5,306,143 

$2,320,938,168 

$7,343,627,875 

$13,000,149,159 

Agricultural     im- 
plements  

Ammunition 

Artificial  feathers 
and  flowers 

Artificial  limbs.  .  . 

Artists'  materials.. 

Awnings,      tents, 
and  sails 

Axle  grease 

Babbitt  metal  and 
solder 

Bags,  other  than 
paper 

715 
33 

227 

sr 

21 

858 
29 

51 

78 
63 

191 

550 
23 

105 

7 

18 

6,328 

312 

75 
121 

51,771 
65 

15 

157,707,951 
6,719,081 

3,633,869 
290,104 
376,736 

4,342,728 
577,195 

3,115,568 

7,696,732 
6,900,291 

8,337,723 

2,989,568 
1.038,305 

7,410,219 

526,059 

5,493,885 

6,760,070 

29,783,659 

884,9'01 
2,718,504 

54,976,341 
415,119 

782,247 

46,582 
5,231 

5,333 
249 
200 

4,400 
127 

535 

4,039 
2,029 

1,938 

4,396 
663 

1,667 

254 

1,771 

5,749 

17,525 

•     455 
1,250 

30,193 
220 

85 

22,450,880 
2,560,954 

1,561,763 

146,620 

79,267 

2,038,613 
55,238 

294,584 

1,133,128 
683,783 

717,000 

1,280,511 
307,991 

913,937 
64,102 

918,191 

2,505,974 

8,189,817 

278,218 
424,174 

17,974,264 
79,380 

46,107 

43,944,628 
7,436,748 

2,765,151 
126,062 
249.107 

6,480,685 
360,411 

7,998,369 

16,849,311 
4,659,001 

7,126,967 

1,398,374 
602,856^ 

7,500,413 

452,430 

4,075,702 

5,224,886 

16,792,051 

730,046 
2,186,809 

24,701,632 
244,970 

105,712 

101,207,428 
13,027,635 

6,297,805 
749,854 
497,046 

11,728,843 
718,114 

9,191.409 

20,123,486 

Bags,  paper 

Baking  and  yeast 

powders 

Baskets,  &  rattan 

and  willow  ware. 
Bells 

7,359.975 

14.568.380 

3.851.244 
1,247.730 

Belting  and  hose, 
leather 

Belting  and  hose, 
linen 

Belting  and  hose, 
rubber 

Bicycle  and  tricy- 
cle repairing. .  .  . 

Bicycles  and   tri- 
cycles  

Billiard  tables  and 
materials 

Blacking 

Blacksm  i  t  h  i  n  g 
and      w  h  e  e  1 
wrighting 

Bluing 

Bone,  ivory,  and 
lamp  black 

10.623.177 

717.137 

6,169.044 

13.766,033 

31.915.908 

1,650,868 
4,504,965 

85.971,630 
575,804 

359,787 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


261 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY    SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Num- 

Wage-earners. 

Value  of  Prod- 

ber of 

Cost  of 

ucts,  Including 
Custom  Work 

Industry. 

Estab- 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 
ber 

Materials 

lish- 
ments. 

Total  Wages. 

Used. 

and  Repair- 
ing. 

Bookbinding  and 

blank-book 

making 

Boot  and  shoe  cut 

954 

$12,744,628 

15,971 

$6,671,666 

$7,702,543 

$20,790,868 

stock 

342 

7,003,080 

6,155 

2,230,691 

17,800,282 

23,242,892 

Boot     and     shoe 

• 

findings 

186 

3,277,958 

2,993 

1,127,784 

4,627,048 

7,145,820 

Boot     and     shoe 

uppers 

132 

273,796 

256 

125,627 

401,680 

700,225 

Boots  and  shoes. 

custom  work 

and  repairing.  .. 

23,560 

9,262.134 

9,698 

4,128,361 

8,288,664 

26,550,678 

Boots  and  shoes. 

factory  product 
Boots  and  shoes. 

1.600 

101,795,233 

142,922 

59,175,883 

169,604,054 

261.028,580 

rubber 

22 

33,667.533 

14,391 

6.426,579 
3,589,447 

22,682,543 
28,087,823 

41,089,819 
41,640,672 

Bottling 

2,064 

16,620,152 

7,680 

Boxes,  cigar 

315 

3,288,272 

4,609 

1,439,599 

3,061,193 

5,856,915 

Boxes,  fancy  and 

oaoer 

729 

14.979.305 

27,653 

8,151,625 

11,765,424 

27,316,317 

Boxes,   wooden 

A    A  y  *»  fl    V^  f  *#\^^^ 

packing. 

896 

21.952.757 

22,034 

7,827,955 

22,807,627 

38,216,384 

Brass 

10 

503.367 

162 

98.796 

1,152,635 

1,419,817 

Brass  and  copper. 

A  \fSd 

v%Jf  9  v\r 

rolled 

19 

15.629.766 

6.759 

3,512,781 

30,000,632 

37,536,325 

Brass  castings  and 

^%^  f  ^#av «r  f  V  **»# 

V»f  fl   LTV 

brass  finishing.  . 

442 

21.925,039 

11,964 

6,070,762 

18,871,141 

30,343.044 

Brassware 

204 

12,194,715 

7,668 

3,550,074 

9,830.319 

17.140.075 

Bread  and   other 

bakery  products 
Brick  ana  tile.  .  .  . 

14,917 

81,049,553 

60,271 

27,893,170 

95,221,915 

175.657.S48 

5,423 

82,086.438 

61,979 

21,883,333 

11,006,148 

51.270,476 

Bridges 

196 

16.768.948 

12,181 
621 

6,711,260 
372,797 

16,258,561 
1,339,722 

30,151,624 
2,229,329 

Bronze  castings. .  . 

21 

A  \^  •  «    \M\J  f  V  ^  \J 

881,769 

Brooms          and 

brushes 

1,526 

9.616,780 

10,349 

3,788,046 

9,546,854 

18,490,847 

Butter,  rework'g  .. 

10 

255.525 

148 

67,747 

1,345,418 

2,114,935 

Buttons 

238 

4,212,568 

8,685 

2,826.238 

2,803,246 

.  7,695,910 

Calcium  lights. . .  . 

19 

95,114 

55 

24,418 

34.982 

118,666 

Cardboard 

5 

1.168.495 

626 

264,427 

705,527 

1,270,416 

Card  cutting  and 

designing 

43 

337.642 

325 

135,139 

312,760 

618,488 

Carpentering 

21.315 

71.327,047 

123,985 

71,049,737 

142,419,410 

316,101.758 

Carpets  and  rugs, 

other  than  rag.  . 

133 

44.449,299 

28,411 

11,121,383 

27,228,719 

48.192.351 

Carpets,  rag 

1,014 

975.190 

1,504 

492,656 

681,311 

1.993,756 

Carpets,  wood.  .  .  . 

31 

412.357 

608 

362,112 

418,343 

1.056.702 

Carriage    and 

wagon  materials 

588 

19.085,775 

15.387 

5,987,267 

13,048,608 

25,027.173 

Carriage  s  and 
sleds,  children's. 

77 

2.906.472 

2.726 

1,090,296 

1,996,070 

4,289,695 

Carriages  and 

wagons 

7,632 

118,187,838 

62,540 

29.814,911 

56,676.073 

121,537,276 

Cars  and  general 

' 

shop  construc'n 
ancl  repairs  by 

steam     railroad 

companies 

1.295 

119,473,042 

173,595 

96,006.570 

109,472.353 

218,113.658 

Cars,  railroad  and 

street,    and    re- 

pairs,    not     in- 

cluding    estab- 

lishments oper- 

ated  bv  steam 
railroad      com- 

panies   

193 

106,721,188 

44,063 

23,342,763 

70,046,354 

107,186,359 

Celluloid  and  cel- 

luloid goods  (1890) 

12 

3,158,487 

939 

447,120 

856,180 

2,575.736 

Charcoal 

,        183 

811,225 

1,786 

431,381 

405,339 

1.133.638 

262 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY.    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Con/tntted. 


Industry. 


Cheese,  butter, 
and  condensed 
milk 

Chemicals 

China  decorating . 

Chocolate  and  co- 
coa products.  .  . 

Cleansing  and  pol- 
ishing prepara- 
tions  

Clocks. .  .     

Cloth,  sponging 
and  refinishing.  . 

Clothing,  horse.  . . 

Clothing,  men's  .. . 

Clothing,  women's 
dressmaking 

Clothing,  wom'n's, 
factory  product. 

Coffee  and  spice, 
roasting  and 
grinding 

Coffins,  burial 
cases,  and  un- 
dertiUcers'  goods 

Coke 

Collars  and  cuffs, 
paper  (1890). .  . 

Combs 

Confectionery.  . .  . 

Cooperage 

Copper,  smelting 
and  refining  .... 

Cordage  and  twine 

Cordials  &  syrups 

Cork,  cutting.  . . .  . 

Corsets 

Cotton,  compress- 
ing  

Cotton,  ginning  .. 

Cotton  goods  .... 

Cotton  waste  ... 

Crucibles 

Cutlery  and  edge 
tools 

Dentistry  .Mechan 
ical  (1890)    .... 

Dentists'  materi'ls 

DruiSSists'  prepa- 
rations, not  in- 
eluding  pre- 
scriptions   

Druf;  grinding  .... 

Dyeing  and  clean- 
m^ 

Dyeing  and  finish- 
ing textiles 

Dye  stuffs  and  ex- 
tracts  

Electrical  appara- 
tusand  suppUes. 

Electricalcon- 
struction  and 
repairs 

Electroplating. . .  . 

Emery  wheels  .  .  . 

Enameling  and. 
enameled  goods. 


Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


9,355 
459 
169 

24 


154 

46 

46 

26 

28,014 

14.479 

2.701 

458 


217 
241 

3 

34 

4,297 

2,146 

47 

105 

39 

62 

216 

111 

11,369 

1.055 

26 

11 

309 

3,214 

68 


250 

26 

1,810 

298 

77 

580 


1,162 

422 

34 

129 


Capital. 


$36,508,015 

89,091,430 

372,017 

6.890.732 


943.328 
8,792,653 

288,894 

653,545 

173,034,543 

13,815,221 

48.431.544 

28.436,897 


13.585,162 
36,502,679 

237,764 

832,791 

35,155,361 

22,568.873 

53.063,395 

29,275.470 

1,153,006 

2,683,683 

7,481,048 

8.323,558 

23,228,130 

467,240,157 

2,560,759 

1,843,616 

16.532,383 

4,019,637 
2,112,236 


16,320,120 
2,837,911 

4,673,211 
60,643,104 

7,839,034 
83,130,943 


5,438,087 
1,460,692 
1,489,527 

9,184,178 


Wage-earners. 


Average 

Num- 
ber. 


12,865 

19,054 

360 

1,314 


508 
6,037 

534 

575 

191,043 

45,595 

83,739 

6,387 


6,840 
16,999 

82 

1.399 

33.583 

22,938 

11.324 

13,114 

362 

2,340 

12,729 

2,742 

14.135 

302.861 

1.116 

671 

12.069 

1.486 
1.017 


6.766 
644 

5.424 
29,776 

1,647 
40,890 


5,949 

2.275 

546 

7,675 


Total  Wages. 


$6,170,670 

9.401,467 

148,004 

525,875 


209,438 
2.650.703 

268.191 

176.687 

79.434,932 

14.352.453 

32.586.101 

2.486.759 


3.077.481 
7.085,736 

35.125 

572,467 

10.867,687 

9.200,303 

8,529,021 

4,113.112 

116,917 

687,796 

3,791,509 

738,288 

1.930,039 

86,689,752 

336,827 

250.654 

5,673,619 

768.401 
508,603 


2,041,061 
291,823 

2,271,066 

12,726,316 

787,942 

20,190,344 


3.312,126 

1,036.750 

303,091 

2,259.003 


Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 


$109,151,205 

34,564,137 

261,819 

6,876,682 


965.242 
3,028.606 

17.490 

847.846 

197,742,067 

16.503.754 

84.704.592 

55.112.203 


6,945,348 
19,665,532 

223,077 

951,514 

45,534.153 

23,299,312 

122,174,129 

26,632,006 

1,505.096 

2,403,829 

6,555.467 

353,910 

3,912.303 

176,551,527 

4.950,490 

1,673,290 

5.116.042 

1,475,255 
2,109,231 


11,022.417 
3,315,228 

1.484,292 
17,958,137 

4,745,912 
48,916,440 


7,673,507 
836,726 
508.753 

5.466,971 


Value  of  Prod- 
ucts. Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 


$131,199,277 

62.676,730 

693.800 

9.666.192 


2,193.019 
7.157.856 

566.000 

1.305.164 

415,256,391 

48,356.034 

159,339,539 

69.527408 


13,952.308 
35.585.445 

301,093 

1,976,129 

81,290,543 

40.576.462 

165.131.670 

37,849.651 

2.107.132 

4.392.364 

14.878,116 

2,629,590 

14,748,270 

339,200,320 

5,880,024 

2.607.308 

14,881,478 

7,864,209 
3,721,150 


23.192.785 
4.308.144 

7,567,358 
44,963,331 

7,350,748 
91,348.889 


15.907.420 
3.007.455 
1.381.675 

9,978,509 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


263 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Industry. 


Engravens'  ma^ 
terials 

En^avin^  and 
die-sinking 

Engraving,  steel, 
including  plate 
printing. 

Engraving,  wood. 

Elnvelopes 

Explosives 

Fancy  articles,  not 
elsewhere  spec- 
ified  

Felt  goods 

Fertilixers.  , 

FUes 

Firearms 

Fire  extinguish- 
ers, chemical.  . . 

Fireworks 

Fish,  canning  and 
preserving.  .'.  .  . 

Flags  and  banners 

Flavoring  extractt- 

Flax,  dressed 

Flouring  and  grist 
mill  products .  . 

Food  preparations 

Foundry  and  ma- 
chine shop  prod- 
ucts   

Foundry  supplies. 

Fruits  and  vege- 
tables, canning 
and  preserving.  . 

Fur  goods 

Furnishing  goods, 
men's 

Furniture,  includ- 
ing cabinetmak- 
ing,  repairing,  A 
upholstering . .  . 

Furs,  dressed 

Galvanizing 

Gas  and  lamp  fix- 
tures  

Gas  and  oil  stoves 

Gas,  illuminating 
and  heating  ..  .  . 

Gas  machines  and 
meters 

Glass 

Glass,  cutting, 
staining,  and  or- 
namenting  . . . . 

Gloves  ana  mit- 
tens  

Glucose. 

Glue 

Gold  and  silver, 
leaf  and  foil.  .  . . 

Gold  and  silver, 
reducing  and  re- 
fining, not  from 
the  ore 

Graphite  and 
ipraphite  refin- 
ing  


Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


Capital. 


12 
414 


286 

145 

51 

97 


392 
36 

422 
86 
32 

17 
46 

312 

36 

352 

4 

25.258 
644 


9.324 
30 


1,808 
994 

470 


7,972 
92 

28 

223 
35 

877 

114 
355 


417 

394 

8 

61 

93 


57 


11 


1104,741 
790,461 


5,061,520 

231,817 

5,612,509 

19,465.846 


5,081,806 
7,125.276 
60,685.753 
3,857,647 
6,916,231 

136,933 
1,086,133 

16,310,987 

666,033 

3.319,716 

71,496 

218,714,104 
20,998,102 


665,038,245 
981,817 


27,743,067 
13,373,867 

20,163.222 


117.982.091 

798.030 

1,775,770 

10,009,239 
3,766,065 

567,000,506 

4,605,624 
61.423.903 


4,013,534 

9,089,809 

41,011,345 

6,144,407 

1,086,854 


1,944,124 


411,128 


Wage-earners. 


Average 
Num- 
ber. 


79 
1,034 


3,299 
337 

2,984 
4,502 


5,718 
2,688 
11.581 
3.160 
4,482 

64 
1.638 

11,318 

509 

1.264 

211 

37,073 
8.154 


350,327 

278 


36,401 

8,588 

30.216 


100,018 
835 
535 

7,642 
2,471 

22,459 

2,167 
52,818 


4,931 

14,345 

3,288 
1,618 

1,163 


219 


137 


Total  Wages. 


146,064 
572,874 


2.006,824 

206,537 

1,150,463 

2,383,756 


1,921,578 
1,024,835 
4,185,289 
1,277,199 
2,542.366 

•  32,828 
506,990 

2,986,996 

148,933 

478,975 

46,000 

17,703,418 
3,051,718 


182,232,009 
135,877 


8,050,793 
4,273,192 

9,680,077 


42,638,810 
478,190 
229,406 

3,504,301 
1,138,442 

12,436,296 

1,185,959 
27,084,710 


2,403,591 

4,182,518 

1,755,179 

685,096 

498,692 


141,400 


64,376 


Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 


$143,270 
225,637 


1,206,462 

63,272 

3.665.275 

10.334.974 


4.061,400 
3,801,028 
28,958,473 
1,166,414 
1,305,421 

70,874 
627,761 

11,644,118 

547,165 

3,294,380 

91,032 

475.826,345 
23,675,165 


286,357.107 
628,160 


37,524,297 
15,113,365 

23.404.969 


65,499,877 

519,699 

1,677,584 

5.013,597 
2,501,568 

20,605,356 

1,943,769 
16,731,009 


3,540,097 

9,483,130 

15.773,233 

3,767,023 

1.604.013 


10.932,361 


216,560 


Value  of  Prod- 
ucts. Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 


$289,339 
1.683,690 


5,068,558 

616,166 

6,299,330 

17,125,418 


9,046,342 
6,461,691 
44,657,385 
3,403,906 
5,444,659 

217,833 
1,785,271 

18,432,613 

1,038,052 

6,314,552 

158,650 

560,719,063 
38,457,651 


644,990,999 
1,128,856 


56,668,313 
27,735,264 

43,902,162 


153,168,309 
1,400,455 
2,470,703 

12,677,806 
4,579,700 

75,716,693 

4,392,730 
56,539,712 


8,776,006 

16,926,156 

21,693,656 

5,389,006 

2,666,224 


11,811,537 


429,173 


264 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     l900-~Cantiniied. 


Industry. 


Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


Wage-earners. 


Capital. 


Grease  and  tallow. ' 

Grindstones i 

Hairwork [ 

Hammocks I 

Hand  knit  goods.  .  I 

Hand  stamps 

Hardware | 

Hardware,      sad-  I 
dlery 

Hat  and  cap  ma- 
terials   

Hats  and  caps,  not 
including  wool 
hats 

Hones  and  whet- 
stones   

Hooks  and  eyes.  . . 

Horseshoes,  fac- 
tory product. .  . 

Hosiery  and  knit 
goods 

House  furnishing 
goods,  not  else- 
where specified  . 

Ice,  manufact'd  .. 

Ink 

Instruments,  pro- 
fessional and 
scientific 

Iron  and  steel.  . .  . 

Iron  and  steel, 
bolts,  nuts, 
washers,  and 
rivets.  .  .     

Iron  and  steel, 
doors  and  shut- 
ters  

Iron  and  steel, 
forgings 

Iron     and     steel, 
nails  and  spikes, 
cutand  wrought, 
including     wire 
nails 

Iron  and  steel, 
pipe,  wrought.  . 

Ironwork,  archi- 
tectural and  or- 
namental   

Ivory  and  bone 
work 

Japanning 

Jewelry 

Jewelry  and  in- 
strument cases. . 

Jute  and  jute 
goods 

Kaolin  and  other 
earth  grinding.  . 

Kindling  wood.  .  . 

Labels  and  tags.  . . 

Lamps  and  re- 
flectors  

Lapidary  work.  .  . 

Lard,  refined 

Lasts 

Lead,  bar,  pipe, 
and  sheet 


289 
25 

397 1 
13 
86! 

268 

381 

80 
70 

816 

18 
9 

6 

921 


210 
775 
104 


265 
668 


13 
91 

102 
19 

672 

70 

38 

908 

63 

I 
18, 

145 

85 
47 

156 
60 
19 
65 

34 


Average 
Num- 
ber. 


$7,080,692 

903,348 

1,009,908 

308,254 

205,488 

1,203,910 

39,311,745 

3,335,274 

1,744,419 


2,046 

1,167 

1,101 

339 

304 

1,052 

26,463 

2,940 

1,371 


25,095,798  !   31,425 


216,836 
1,382,394 

344,151 

81,860,604 


10,638,248 

38,019,507 

3,821,514 


4,491,627 
573,391,663 


72    10,799,692 


261,958 
9,677,193 

10,751,359 
18,343,977 


189 
300 

167 

83,387 


5,212" 
6,880 

787 


2,786 
I  222,490 


7,660 

117 
4,688 

4,477 
5,536 


33,062,409  i   20,646 


939,714 

117,639 

28,120,939 

547,753 

7,027,293 

12,212,341 

1,775,272 

848,115 

6,375,474 
3,087,390 
1,335,759 
1,484,966 

3,949,330 


1,334 

160 

20,676 

819 

4,506 

2,094 

1,525 

754 

4,725 
498 
499 

1,131 

605 


Total  Wages. 


$1,069,683 
407,153 
375,156 
101,626 
75,870 
490,036 

11,422,758 

1,217,202 
434,148 


14,144,552 

72,879 
127,518 

90,527 

24,358,627 


1,837,552 

3,402,745 

412,140 


1,433,715 
120,820,276 


2,991,857 

85,683 
2,559,433  | 


2,042,250 
2,495,898 

11,111,226 

529,051 

75,453 

10,746,375 

322,566 

1,181,790 

820,678 
566,635 
289,273 

2,076.980 
498,715 
237,930  , 
649,654 

321,598 


Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 


$8,761,857 
263.811 
673,004 
242.950 
124.009 
522.659 

14,605,244 

1,690,168 
2,797,756 

24,421.052 

64.278 
255,427 

172,237 

51,071.859 


9,198,803 
3,312,393 
2,109,142 


1,385,292 
522,398,932 


8,071,071 

115,718 
5,213,550 


8,561,571 
15,523,858 

31,140,636 

930,224 

55,305 

22,356,067 

435,717 

3,015,362 

1,651,335 
735,844 
387,517 

3,497,236 

4,655.765 

7,496,845 

526,670 

6,279,497 


Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 


$11,969,821 

1,088,909 

1,952,792 

480.114 

352,226 

1.937,628 

35,846,656 

4.149.489 

3,849,116 

49,205,667 

196,323 
499,543 

387,619 

95,482.566 


14,280,575 

13,780,978 

4,372,707 


4,896,631 
803,968,273 


13,978,382 

319,629 
10,439,742 


14,777.299 
21,292,043 

53,508,179 

1,873.357 

215,506 

46,501,181 

1,156,977 

5,383,797 

3,722,151 
1,784,690 
1,104,652 

8.341,374 
5.786,281 
8,630,901 
1,879.742 

7.477.824 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


265 


COMl>ARATIVE     SUMMARY.    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Conrtnuerf. 


Num- 

ber of 

Industry. 

Estab- 

lish- 

ments. 

Lead,    smelting 

and  refining .... 

39 

Leather  board.  .  . . 

3 

Leather  goods  ..  . . 

313 

Leather,    tanned. 

curried,  and  fin- 

ished   

1,306 

Lime  and  cement . 

1,000 

Linen  goods 

18 

liiquors,  distilled. 

967 

Liquors,  malt.  .  .  . 

1,509 

Liquors,  vinous. .  . 

359 

Lithographing 

and  engraving.  . 

263 

Lock      and  gim- 

smithing 

Looking-glass  and 
picture  frames .  . 

2,103 

1,629 

Lumber  and  tim- 

ber products  . .  . 

33,010 

Lumber,    planing 

mill      products. 

including    sash. 

doors,  and  blinds 

4,204 

Malt 

146 

Mantels,   slate, 

marble,  and 

marbleized 

36 

Marble  and  stone 

work 

6,070 

Masonry,       brick 

and  stone 

8,333 

Matches 

22 
9 

Mats  and  matting 
Mattresses    and 

spring  beds 

797 

Millinery  and  lace 

goods 

591 

Mulinery,  custom 

work 

16,151 

Millstones 

3 

Mineral  and  soda 

waters 

2,816 

Mirrors 

103 

Models   and   pat- 

terns   

532 

117 

Mucilage  &  paste. 

Musical  i  n  s  t  r  u- 

ments  and  ma- 

terials, not  spec- 

ified  

229 

Musical  instru- 

ments,   organs, 

and  materials.  . . 

129 

Musical  instru- 

ments,     pianos 

and  materials.  . . 

261 

Needles  and  pins.  . 

43 

Nets  and  seines.  . . 

19 

Oakum 

7 
3 

Oil,  castor 

Oil,    cotton    seed 

and  cake 

369 

Oil,  essential 

70 

Oil,  lard 

7 

Oil,  linseed 

48 

OU,  not  elsewhere 

jspecified 

193 

172,148,933 

49,500 

5,467,294 


173,977,421 

48,833,730 

5,688,999 

32,551,604 

415,284,468 

9,838,015 

22,676,142 

2,250,300 

7.747.382 

611,429,574 


119,271,631 
39,288,102 


811,995 

67,509,533 

48,070,239 

3,893,000 

994,155 

8,298,772 

10,764,813 

27,740,386 
49,238 

20,518,708 
3,184,426 

2,250,484 
1,265,426 


3,896,101 


5,011,987 


38,790,494 

3,235,158 

1,160,782 

416,199 

539,221 

34,451,461 
612.657 
369.773 

15,460,512 

9,441,984 


Wage-earners. 

Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 

$144,195,163 

49,451 

6,162,148 

Value  of  Prodr 
ucts.  Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Average 

Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

8,319 

71 

6,253 

$5,088,684 

24,350 

2,256,280 

$175,466,304 

108,734 

11,717,401 

52,109 

19,107 

3,283 

3,722 

39,532 

1,163 

22,591,091 
7,749,815 
1,036,839 
1,733,218 

25,826,211 
446,055 

155,000,004 
11,041,577 

2,550,517 
15,147,784 
51,674,928 

3.689,330 

204,038,127 

28,689,135 

4,368,159 

96,798,443 

237,269,713 

6,547,310 

12,994 

6,882,168 

7  886,045 

22,240,679 

1,553 

769,351 

929,700 

3,703,127 

7,712 

3,370,072 

6,887,331 

15,570,293 

283,179 

104,563,603 

317,832,865 

566,621,755 

73,627 
1,990 

32,685,210 
1,182,513 

99.927,707 
14,816,741 

168,343,003 
19,373,600 

449 

291,050 

487,965 

1,153,540 

54,370 

28,663,241 

30,443,297 

85,101,591 

93,568 
2,047 
1,197 

53,152,258 
612.715 
237,282 

87.280.964 

3,420,740 

516,137 

203,593,634 
6,005,937 
1,165,330 

7,959 

3,213,268 

10,444,009 

18,463,704 

16,871 

5,817,855 

15,654,295 

29,469,406 

33,298 
37 

9,570,536 
20,957 

36,455,043 
30,995 

70,363,752 
75,922 

8,985 
2,555 

4,169,113 
1,231,689 

8,801,467 
4,995,671 

23,874,429 
8,004,301 

2,608 
480 

1,565,728 
205,082 

825,111 
1,657,342 

3,836,518 
2,629,299 

2,405 

1,232,039 

1,205,337 

3,394,734 

3,435 

■     1,720,727 

2,220,165 

5,691,504 

17,869 

2,353 

748 

171 

49 

9,818.996 

939,846 

222,146 

51,343 

29,068 

15,147,520 
972,570 
865,908 
283,862 
293,408 

35,324.090 

2,738,439 

1,476,022 

440,237 

395,400 

• 

11,007 
199 

78 
1,328 

3,143,459 

69,100 

42,205 

693,311 

45,165,823 
596,112 
971.647 

24,395,775 

58,726,632 

850,093 

1.221,841 

27,184,331 

1.353 

679,730 

9,807,859 

17,089,799 

266 


SCIENTIFIC    AME3RICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— CorUinued. 


Industry. 


Oil,  resin 

Oilcloth,  enamel'd 

Oilcloth,  floor.  . . . 

Oleomargarine.  . . 

Optical  goods.  .  .  . 

Ordnance  and  ord- 
nance stores  .... 

Oysters,  canning 
and  preserving  .. 

Painting  and  pa- 
per hanging. .  . . 

Paints 

Paper  and  wood 
pulp 

Paper  goods,  not 
elsewhere  spec- 
ified   

Paper  hangings.  .. 

Paper  patterns.  .  . 

Patent  medicines 
and  compounds. 

Paving  and  pav- 
ing materials.  .  . 

Pencils,  lead 

Pens,  fountain  and 
stylographic.  . .  . 

Pens,  gold 

Pens,  steel 

Perfumery  and 
cosmetics 

Petroleum  refining 

Phonographs  and 
graphophones  .. 

Photographic  ap- 
paratus  

Photographic  ma- 
terials   

Photography 

Photouthograph  - 
ing  and  photo- 
engraving  

Pickles,  preserves, 
and  sauces 

Pipes,  tobacco. . .  . 

Plated  and  britan- 
.  nia  ware 

Plumbers'  s  u  p  - 
plies 

Plumbing.and  gas 
and  steam  fitti'g 

Pocketbooks 

Pottery,  terra  cot- 
ta,  and  fire-clay 
products 

Printing  and  pub- 
lishing  

Printing  materials 

Pulp,  from  fiber 
other  than  wood 

Pulp  goods 

Pumps,  not  in- 
cluding steam 
pumps 

Refrigerators 

Regalia  and  so- 
c  1  e  t  y  banners 
and  emblems.  . . 

Registers,  car  fare 


Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


8 

9 

18 

24 

350 

4 

39 

16,939 
419 

763 


190 
51 

16 

2,026 

1.729 

7 

23 

22 

3 

266 
07 

11 

48 

105 
7,553 


204 

474 
98 

66 

174 


Wage-earners. 


Capital. 


$284,110 
1,702,904 
7,176,198 
3,023,646 
5,567,809 

3,468,713 

1,240,696 

27,217,086 
42,501,782 

167,507,713 


11.370,585 

8,889,794 

256,075 

37.209,793 

37,888,412 
2,227,406 

590,629 
496,246 
357,460 

3,499,168 
95,327,892 

3,348,282 

1,849,724 

3,668,026 
13,193,589 


1,999,921 

10,656.854 
1,111,144 

16,486,471 

13,59^,528 


11,870 
68 

47,111,264 
991,876 

1,000 

65,951,885 

22,312 
70 

292,517,072 
905,603 

3 

22 

479,158 
2,316,985 

130 
95 

1,260,710 
4,782,110 

120 
5 

1,795,858 
104,408 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 


90 

512 

2,718 

1.084 

4,341 

989 

2,779 

59.191 
8,151 

49,646 


6,117 

4,172 

836 

11,809 

34,090 
2,162 

318 
378 
473 

1,768 
12,199 

1,267 

1,961 

1,483 
8,911 


2,698 

6,812 
1,585 

6,392 

8,024 

53,916 
1,653 

43,714 

162,992 
560 

121 
691 


632 
3,329 


1,586 
52 


Total  Wages. 


$53,596 
300.878 

1.327,235 
534,444 

1,935,219 

615,280 

630,016 

34,822,819 
3,929,787 

20,746,426 


2,242,702 

2.074,138 

262,559 

4,407,988 

14,570,408 
683,281 

141,012 
229,679 
138,433 

569,286 
6,717,087 

608,490 

779,890 

662,958 
4,013,018 


1,756,578 

2,161,962 
737,647 

3,088,224 

3,930,594 

31,873,866 
588,595 

17,691,737 

84,249,954 
232,799 

28,462 
283,835 


247,193 

1,287,488 


476,580 
25,775 


Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 


$535,320 
2,696,412 
4,853,260 
7,639,501 
3,233,430 

802,706 

2,608,757 

26,304,784 
33,799,386 

70,530,236 


9,819,820 

6,072,809 

124,854 

18,185,613 

20,152,477 
1,030,917 

351,932 

312,537 

52,466 

3,136,853 
102,859,341 

827,529 

595,925 

2,782,285 
6,841,853 


728,743 

12,422,432 
1,106,299 

5,875,312 

7.289,867 

65,334,689 
1,278,226 

11,915.236 

86,856,290 
406,357 

42,204 
646,639 


637,768 
2.476,518 


1,608,415 
17,403 


Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 


$733,680 
3,595.515 
7,807,105 
12,499,812 
7,790,970 

2,239.797 

3,670,134 

88,396,852 
50,874,095 

127,326,162 


16,785,269 

10,663.209 

563,653 

59.611,335 

46.447,719 
2,222,276 

906.454 
799,078 
294,340 

7,095,713 
123,929,384 

2,246,274 

2,026,063 

5,773,325 
23,238,719 


4,226,106 

21,507,046 
2,471,908 

12,608,770 

14,771,185 

131,852,567 
2,495,188 

44,263,386 

347,055  050 
1,088,432 

103,204 
1,267,013 


1,341.713 
5,317.886 


3,077,945 
80,865 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBFERBNCB    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY.    BY    SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— CoBiiiitierf. 


268 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Industry. 


Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


Wage-earners. 


Capital. 


Tinfoil I 

Tinsmithin^,  cop-  I 
persm  i  t  h  i  n  g, 
and     sheet-iron 
working ' 

Tobacco,  chewing,  : 
smoking,     and! 

.    snufif 

Tobacco,  cigars 
and  cigarettes.  . 

Tobacco,  8  t  e  m  - 
mine  and  re- 
handling I 

Tools,  not  else-  , 
where  specified. 

Toys  and  games .  . 

Trunks  and  valises 

Turpentine  and 
rosin 

Type  founding.  .  . 

Typewriter  r  e  - 
pairing 

Typewriters  and 
supplies 

Umbrellas  and 
canes 

Upholstering  ma- 
terials   ' 

Varnish 

Vault  lights  and 
ventilators 

Vinegar  and  cider. 

Washing  machi'es  i 
and  clothes  \ 
wringers 

Watch  and  clock  ' 
materials 

Watch  cases 

Watch,  clock,  and  i 
jewelry    repair- 


15;       $2,094,327 


and 


ing 

Watches. .  . 

Whalebone 
rattan 

Wheelbarrows.  . .  . 

Whips 

Windmills 

Window  shades. .  . 

Wire 

Wirework,  includ- 
ing wire  rope 
and  cable 

Wood,  preserving 

Wood,  turned  and 
carved  

Woodenware,  not 
elsewhere  speci- 
fied  

Wool  hats 

Wool  pulling 

Wool  scouring  .... 

Woolen  goods .... 

Worsted  goods,  .  . 

Zinc,     smelting  i 
and  refining  . .  .  .  < 

All    other    indus 
tries 


12,466 

437 
14,539 

276 

448 
170 
391 

1,503 
22 

85 

47 

261 

270 
181 

14 
1,152 

118 

20 
30 


12.229 
13 

3 
15 

60 

6S 

207 

29 


597 

21 

1,171 


104 

31 
25' 
1,035' 

186 

31 


Average 
Num- 
ber. 


55,703,509 

43.856.570 
67,706,493 

12,526,808 

13,690.047 
3,289,445 
7,046,649 

11,847,495 
2,269,370 

134,123 

8,400.431 

4,677,917 

7,593,598 
17,550,892 

120,750 
6,187,728 

2,401.569 

367,291 
8,119,292 


12,741,973 
14,235,191 

56,200 
513,467 
1,893,703 
4,308,666 
5,507,842 
4,242,173 


16,374,629 
1,229,746 


3,824,512 

2,050.802 

944,715 

1,061,123 

124.386,262 

132,168,110 

14,141,810 

447,959 


582 


45,575 

29,161 
103,462 

9.654 

7,615 
3,330 
7,084 

41,864 
1.424 

185 

4.340 

5,695 

5,098 
1.546 

138 
1,801 

1,509 

331 
3,907 


8,380 
6,880 

14 
321 

1,287 
2,045 
2,012 
1,603 


9,255 

478 


Total  Wages. 


10,278,418  '      11,569 


3,206 

2,108 

475 

720 

68,893 

57,008 

4,869 

132 


$227,774 


22,155,039 

7,109,821 
40,925,596 

1,817.067 

3,781,763 
1,123,593 
2,834,892 

8.393,483 
803,470 

116,220 

2,403,604 

1,889,673 

1.715,073 
995.803 

81,184 
720,316 

548.707 

152.234 
1.924,847 


4,683,086 
3,586,723 

7,856 
127,398 
478,176 
940,474 
871,532 
859,645 


3,934,525 
205,105 

4.375,345 


I 


1,073,303  , 

937,855 

247.950 

338.606 

24,757,006 

20,092,738 

2,355,921 

58,661 


Cost  of 

Materials 

Used. 


$1,074,192 


50.329,282 

35.038.287 
57.946.020 

14,198,349 

4,657,200 
1.668,199 
6,045,387 

6.186,492 
863,689 

110,603 

1,402,170 

8,457,167 

5,881,621 
10,939.131 

140,719 
3,272.565 

2,174,762 

105.549 
4.393.647 


4,432,108 
1,291,318 

98,875 
180,036 
1,278,324 
2,172,098 
6,046,062 
7,014,319 


10,858.229 
1,825,355 

5,835,492 


1,468,383 

2,042,202 

53,975 

193.826 

71,011,956 

77,075.222 

13.286,058 

299,339 


Value  of  prod- 
ucts. Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 


$1,593,169 


100,310,720 

103.754,362 
160,223,152 

19,099,032 

13,360,920 

4.024,999 

12,693.225 

20,344.888 
2,842,384 

367,176 

6,932,029 

13,855,908 

10,048,164 
18,687,240 

338.111 
6,454,524 

3,735,243 

345,347 
7,783,960 


20,235,039 
6,822.611 

135,000 

454.441 

2,734,471 

4,354.312 

8,868.259 
9,421,238 


19,942.882 
2.395.748 

14,338,503 


3,585.542 

3.591,9^0 

531.287 

889.809 

118,430,158 

120,314,344 

18,188,498 

503,449 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


^9 


INDUSTRY    GROUPS    RANKED    BY    CAPITAL,    NUMBER    OF    WAGE- 
EARNERS.  WAGES,  AND  GROSS  AND  NET  VALUE 

OF  PRODUCTS:   1900. 


[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  page  clxiv,  and  Vol.  VIII,  page  18.] 


Industry  Group. 


Total 

Food  and  kindred  products. . . . 

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  prod- 
ucts  

Lumber  and  its  remanufact'res. 

Leather  and  its  finished  prod- 
ucts  

Paper  and  printing 

Liquors  and  beverases. 

Chemicals  and  allied  products. . 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products. 

Metatis  and  metal  products, 
other  than  iron  and  steel. . .  . 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  transportati'n 

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous  industries 

Hand  trades 


Number 
of  Estab- 
lishments. 


512,191 


Rank. 


61.266 
30,048 

13,896 
47.054 

16,989 

26,747 

7,861 

5,443 

14,809 

16,305 
15.252 
10,112 
1,116 
29.479 
215,814 


2 
4 

11 
3 

7 

6 

13 

14 

10 

8 
9 
12 
15 
5 
1 


Capital. 


$9,813,834,390 


Rank. 


937,686,610 
1,366,604,058 

1,528,979.076 
945,934,565 

343,600,513 
657,610,887 
534,101,049 
498,282.219 
350,902,367 

410,646,057 
124,089,871 
396,671,441 
77,362,701 
1,348,920,721 
392,442,255 


5 
2 

1 
4 

13 
6 
7 
8 

12 

9 
14 
10 
15 

3 
11 


Average 
Number 
of  Wage- 
earners. 


5,306,143 


311.717 
1,029,910 

733.968 
546,872 

238.202 
297.551 
63,072 
101,489 
244,987 

190,757 
142,277 
316,157 
46,781 
483,273 
559,130 


Rank. 


7 
1 

2 
4 

10 

8 

14 

13 

9 

11 

12 

6 

15 

5 

3 


Industry  Group. 


Total. 


Food  and  kindred  products. 

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their 
products 

Lumber  and  its  remanu- 
factures 

Leather  and  its  finished 
products 

Paper  and  printing 

Liquors  and  beverages 

Chemicals  and  allied  prod- 
ucts  

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  prod- 
ucts  

Metals  and  metal  products, 
other  than  iron  and  steel . 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  transpor- 
tation  

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous  industries.  . . 

Hand  trades 


Wages. 


Rank. 


$2,320,938,168  < $13,000,149,159 


Value  of  Products. 


Gross. 


128,667,428 
341,734.399 

38i  ,875,499 

212.124.780 

99,759,885 

140,092,453 

36,946,557 

43,850,282 

109,022.582 

96.749,051 
49.852.484 

164.559,022 

24,839.163 

202,746,162 

288.118,421 


8 
2 

1 

4 

10 

7 

14 

13 

9 

11 
12 

6 

15 

5 

3 


Rank. 


$8,367,997,844 


2,273,880,874 
1,637.484,484 

1,793.490.908 

1,030,695,350 

583,731.046 
606,317,768 
425,504,167 

552,797,877 

293,564,235 

748,795,464 
283,076,546 

508,524.510 

74,578,158 

1,004.092,294 

1,183,615,478 


1 
3 

2 

5 

9 

8 
12 

10 

13 

7 
14 

11 

15 

6 

4 


Net. 


Rank. 


1.750,811.817 
1.081,961.248 

983,821,918 

547,227.860 

329.614.996 
419.798,101 
349,157.618 

372,538,857 

245,447,118 

371,154,446 
264,052,573 

250,622,377 

42,492,518 

638,191.538 

721.104,859 


1 
2 

3 

6 

11 

7 

10 

8 

14 

9 
12 

13 

15 

5 

4 


m 


sotEKTiiPio  AMERICAN  repehence  book. 


BANK  OF  INDUSTRIES  WITH  PRODUCTS 

[Twelfth  Censiis,  Vol.  VII,  page 


Industry. 


Iron  and  steel 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  not  including  retail 
butchering 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

Clothing,  men's 

Printing  and  publishing 

Cotton  manufactures 

Carpentering 

Woolen  manufactures 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product 

Sugar  and  molasses,  renning 

Liquors,  malt 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam  railroad  companies 

Leather,  tanned,  cumed,  and  finished 

Masonry  brick  and  stone 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products 

Lead,  smeltin|i;  and  refining 

Lumber,  planmg  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds 

Copper,  smelting  and  refining 

Tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes 

Clothing,  women's,  factory  product 

Furniture,    including    cabinetmaking,    repairing,    and 
Upholstering     '. 

Plumbing,  and  gas  and  steam  fitting 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk    . 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Petroleum,  refining 

Carriages  and  wagons 

Silk  and  silk  goods 

Cars,  railroad  and  street,  and  repairs,  not  including  es- 
tablishments operated  by  steam  railroad  companies.  . 

Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking,  and  snuff 

Agricultural  implements 

Tinsmithing,  coppersmithing,  and  sheet-iron  working .  . 

Liquors,  distilled 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

Electrical  apparatus  and  supplies 

Painting  and  paper  hanging. 

Blacksmithing  and  wheel wrighting 

Marble  and  stone  work 

Confectionery 

Gas,  illuminating  and  heating 

Shipbuilding 

Millinery,  custom  work 

Coffee  and  spice,  roa.sting  and  grinding 

Chemicals 

Saddlery  and  harness 

Patent  medicines  and  compound.s 

Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake 

Fruits  and  vegetables,  canning  and  preserving 

Glass 

Ironwork,  architectural  and  ornamental 

Soap  and  candles.  .      

Rubber  and  elastic  goods 

Brick  and  tile 

Paints 


Number 
of  Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


668 

1,134 

9,324 

33.010 

25,258 

28,014 

22,312 

1,055 

21,315 

1,414 

1,600 

832 

1,509 

1,295 

1,306 

8,333 

14,917 

39 

4,204 

47 

14,539 

2,701 

7,972 

11,876 

9,355 

763 

67 

7,632 

483 

193 
437 

715 

12,466 

967 

921 

580 

16,939 

51,771 

6,070 

4,297 

877 

1,116 

16,151 

458 

459 

12,934 

2.026 

369 

1,808 

355 

672 

558 

262 

5,423 

419 


Rank. 

1 

Capital. 

Rank. 

41 

$573,391,663 

3 

31 

190.706.927 

10 

15 

665,058,245 

1 

2 

611,429,574 

2 

4 

218,714,104 

9 

3 

173,034,543 

13 

5 

292,517,072 

8 

33 

467,240,157 

5 

6 

71,327,047 

31 

28 

310,179,749 

7 

26 

101,795,233 

21 

37 

184.245.519 

11 

27 

415,284,468 

6 

30 

119,473,042 

16 

29 

173,977,421 

12 

16 

48,070,239 

39 

9 

81,049,553 

28 

55 

72,148,933 

30 

22 

119,271,631 

17 

54 

53,063,395 

37 

10 

67.706,493 

32 

23 

48,431,544 

38 

17 

117,982,091 

19 

13 

47,111,264 

40 

14  1 

36,508,015 

47 

38 

167,507,713 

14 

53 

95,327,892 

22 

18 

118,187,838 

18 

44 

81,082,201 

27 

52 

106,721,188 

20 

47 

43,856,570 

41 

39 

157,707,951 

15 

12 

55,703.509 

35 

34 

32,551,604 

51 

35 

81,860,604 

26 

42 

83,130.943 

24 

7 

27,217,086 

55 

1 

54,976,341 

36 

19 

67,509,533 

33 

21 

35,155.361 

48 

36 

567,000,506 

4 

32 

77,362,701 

29 

8 

27,740,386 

54 

46 

28,436,897 

52 

45 

89,091,430 

23 

11 

43.354,136 

42 

24 

37,209.793 

46 

49 

34,451,461 

49 

25 

27,743,067 

53 

50 

61,423,903 

34 

40 

33.062,409 

50 

43 

38,068,334 

45 

51 

39,304,853 

44 

20 

82,086.438 

25 

48 

1   42,501.782 

43 

•M 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


271 


VALUED    AT    OVER    $50,000,000:     1900. 
cixiii,  and  Vol.  VIII,  page  18.] 


Average 

Value  of  Products. 

Number 

Rank. 

Wages. 

Rank. 

of  Wage- 

earners. 

Net. 

Rank. 

Gross. 

Rank. 

222,490 

4 

$120,820,276 

2 

$432,687,119 

3 

$803,968,273 

1 

69,441 

17 

33,923,253 

15 

684,119,221 

1 

790,252,586 

2 

350,327 

1 

182,232,009 

1 

377,812,876 

4 

644,990,999 

3 

283,179 

3 

104,563,603 

3 

307.838,590 

5 

566,621,756 

4 

37,073 

34 

17,703,418 

35 

540,052,649 

2 

560,719,063 

5 

191,043 

5 

79,434,932 

7 

220,140.823 

8 

415,256,391 

6 

162,992 

7 

84,249,954 

6 

264.859,062 

7 

347,055,050 

7 

302.861 

2 

86,689,752 

5 

296,633,150 

6 

339,200,320 

8 

123,985 

10 

71,049,737 

8 

176,611,706 

12 

316,101,758 

9 

159,108 

8 

57,933,817 

10 

218,637.292 

9 

296,990,484 

10 

142,922 

9 

59,175.883 

9 

93,701,767 

19 

261,028,580 

11 

14,262 

45 

6.945,811 

46 

49,216,847 

40 

240,969,905 

12 

39,532 

33 

25,826,211 

23 

202,582,268 

10 

237,269,713 

13 

173,595 

6 

96,006.570 

4 

111,622,240 

16 

218,113,658 

14 

52,109 

26 

22,591.091 

27 

186,389,057 

11 

204.038,127 

15 

93,568 

13 

53,152,258 

11 

125,356,555 

14 

203,593,634 

16 

60,271 

21 

27,893,170 

21 

89,262,303 

23 

175,657,348 

17 

8,319 

52 

5,088,684 

49 

97,425,341 

18 

175,466,304 

18 

73,627 

16 

32,685,210 

16 

74,205.166 

28 

168,343,003 

19 

11,324 

49 

8,529,021 

42 

76,502,702 

26 

165,131,670 

20 

103,462 

11 

40.925,596 

13 

152,300,012 

13 

160,223,152 

21 

83,739 

14 

32,586,101 

17 

75,315,179 

27 

159,339,539 

22 

100,018 

12 

42,638,810 

12 

91,151,488 

22 

153,168,309 

23 

53,916 

24 

31,873,866 

18 

•      68,035,688 

30 

131,852,567 

24 

12,865 

46 

6,170.670 

48 

124,008,573 

15 

131.199,277 

25 

49,646 

27 

20,746,426 

32 

77,954,480 

25 

127,326,162 

26 

12,199 

47 

6,717,087 

47 

107,512,092 

17 

123,929,384 

27 

62,540 

19 

29,814.911 

19 

67,172.479 

31 

121,537,276 

28 

65,416 

18 

20,982,194 

31 

86,483,994 

24 

107,256,258 

29 

44,063 

31 

23,342.763 

26 

39,326,856 

47 

107,186,359 

30 

29,161 

39 

7,109,821 

45 

92,915,542 

20 

103,754,362 

31 

46,582 

29 

22,450,880 

28 

60,535,599 

36 

101,207,428 

32 

45,575 

30 

22,155.039 

29 

51,638,038 

38 

100,310,720 

33 

3,722 

55 

1,733,218 

55 

91,451,293 

21 

96,798,443 

34 

83,387 

15 

24,358,627 

25 

54,544,999 

37 

95,482,566 

35 

40,890 

32 

20,190,344 

33 

44,583,830 

41 

91,348,889 

36 

59,191 

22 

34,822,819 

14 

62,541,861 

35 

88,396,852 

37 

36,193 

36 

17,974.264 

34 

63,764,914 

34 

85,971,630 

38 

54,370 

23 

28,663.241 

20 

69,097,079 

29 

85,101,591 

39 

33,583 

37 

10.867.687 

38 

44,179,706 

42 

81,290,543 

40 

22,459 

41 

12.436,296 

36 

64,276,431 

33 

75,716,693 

41 

46,781 

28 

24,839,163 

24 

42,492,518 

46 

74,578,158 

42 

33,298 

38 

9,570,536 

40 

34,529,813 

51 

70,363.752 

43 

6,387 

54 

2,486.759 

54 

64,741,832 

32 

69,527,108 

44 

19,054 

44 

9,401,467 

41 

36,918,124 

48 

62,676,730 

45 

24,123 

40 

10,725.647 

39 

30,677,173 

52 

62,630,902 

46 

11,809 

48 

4,407.988 

50 

43,819,968 

44 

59,611,335 

47 

11,007 

50 

3,143,459 

53 

43,196,446 

45 

58,726,632 

48 

36.401 

35 

8,050,793 

44 

36,668,635 

49 

56,668,313 

49 

52,818 

25 

27.084,710 

22 

43,905,999 

43 

56,539.712 

50 

20,646 

42 

11,111.226 

37 

23,398,179 

54 

53,508,179 

51 

9,487 

51 

3.754,767 

52 

24.228.062 

53 

53.231,017 

52 

20,405 

43 

8.082.738 

43 

35.278,808 

50 

52,627,030 

53 

61,979 

20 

21.883,333 

30 

50,312,022 

39 

51,270,476 

54 

8,151 

53 

3,929,787 

51 

18,545,525 

55 

50,874,995 

55 

373  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 

ESTABLISHMENTS   AND  PRODUCTS  CLASSIFIED   BY  CHARACTER 
OF  ORGANIZATION,  BY  GROUPS  OF  INDUSTRIES:    1900.* 

ITwelfth  Census.  Vol.  VII,  paces  Ixvi  and  503.] 

Charncter  at  Ortsnintioo. 


Vehicles' for  I 
Shipbuilding 


69.353,112 
"8fl',ii7,7M' 


Character  o 

t  Organiiation 

Industry  Group. 

Firm 

and  Limited 
rtnenibip. 

— 

,™" - 

Coopenttire  and 

>f  um- 
ber uf 

li-^h- 

Value  of 
Products. 

?i 

Value  iif 
Producld. 

lis'h- 

F^rSrl 

■rnwl 

WI.TIH 

-.■.-,.,-.  J13,473 

(0,70,1 

S7,73H,530,S4S 

2.093 

(30.959.755 

Food  and  kindred  products 

11,90,1 
3,329 

!'S 

3m 

4,107 

2!079 
217 
6,171 

394,387.019 

gSiSS 

309,571.042 
100,830,193 

!:S 

2)132 

•1 

257.808,524 

SSffi 

450,008,084 
167,330.458 

678.172,577 

3ii 

100,046.741 

1.798 
2 

24.904,735 

Iron  and  steel  snd  their  prod- 

Leather  and  its  finished  prod- 

Paper  and  printing. 

Liquors  and  bevenwes 

3,453.940 

«el327l820 

8S.U3.271 
74,456,334 

at.-d"i~'p's'.s 

752,003 

22L238 

sis 

Hand  trades 

10 
10 

215,032 

pmitted  wherever  tbeydi 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


273 


ESTABLISHMENTS  CLASSIFIED  BY  NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES,  NOT 

INCLUDING  PROPRIETORS  AND  FIRM  MEMBERS:   1900. 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  pages  Ixxiii  and  582.J 


Industry  Group. 


Total. 


Food  and  kindred  prod- 
ucts  

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their 
products 

Lumber  and  its  remanu- 
factures 

Leather  and  its  finished 
products 

Paper  and  printing 

Liquors  and  beverages.  .. 

Chemicals  and  allied 
products 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone 
products 

Metals  and 'metal  prod- 
ucts, other  than  iron 
and  steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  trans- 
portation  

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous  industries. 

Hand  trades 


Total 
Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


512,191 


61,266 
30,048 

13,896 

47,054 

16,989 

26,747 

7,861 

5,443 

14,809 


16,305 
15,252 

10,112 

1,116 

29,479 

215,814 


Number  of  Establishments  Reporting. 


No. 
Em- 
ploy- 


110,509 

14,611 
1,300 

783 

2,069 

5,028 

2.400 

671 

643 

1,022 


2,950 
3,637 

1,183 

198 

5,191 


Under 
5. 


232,716 


34.759 
11,036 

3,102 

16,836 

8,163 

12.628 

4,185 

1,607 

3,876 


8,029 
7,273 

3,772 

211 

10,403 


5 

to 

20. 

21 
to 
50. 

32,403 

51 

to 

100. 

11,658 

101 

to 

250. 

251 

to 

500. 

2,804 

112,120 

8,475 

8,129 
9,722 

1,888 
3.458 

912 
1,828 

696 
1,620 

161 
669 

4,349 

2,186 

1,395 

1,244 

513 

20,039 

4,814 

1,892 

1,128 

218 

1,644 
7,962 
2,070 

857 

2,139 

569 

560 
874 
228 

472 
565 
103 

196 

143 

27 

1,689 

806 

390 

224 

64 

6.121 

2,186 

857 

562 

134 

3,542 
3,004 

951 
672 

386 
309 

291 
233 

85 
85 

3,080 

361 

8,026 

2  32,382 

829 

152 

3,123 

3  7,773 

467 

83 

1,477 

416 

56 

865 

229 

29 

251 

501 

to 

1000. 


Over 
1000. 


1,063 


8r 

295 

221 

51 

50 
30 

6 

10 
42 


51 

28 

88 
17 
93 


443 


-2ff 
120 

loi 

7 

19 
6 
2 

10 

9 


20 
11 

48 

9 

50 


*  Includes  establishments  with  1  to  5  employees. 

2  Includes  establishments  with  6  to  20  employees. 

3  Includes  establishments  with  over  20  employees. 


AMERICAN   IRRIGATION. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  some 
500,000,000  acres  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Arid  Belt.  These  are  not  avail- 
able for  agriculture  until  they  have 
been  irrigated.  "It  is  now  estimated 
that  at  least  15,000,000  acres  will  be 
added  to  the  available  domain  of  the 
country  during  the  first  ten  years" 
following  the  enactment  of  a  new  law, 
"while  the  authorities  in  charge  of  the 
work  insist  that  under  its  operations 
it  will  be  possible  to  bring  into  actual 
cultivation  and  use  some  years  earlier 
than  had  been  anticipated  the  100,000 
square  miles  included  in  the  original 
estimate." 

The  new  law  referred  to  "repealed 
the     previous    enactment     permitting 


single  individuals  to  take  up  land  to 
the  amount  of  160  acres  under  the 
Homestead  timber  culture  and  pre- 
emption systems,  making  480  acres  in 
all."  It  provided,  among  other  things, 
that  160  acres  should  be  the  maximum. 
—London  "Times,"  October  31,  1903. 

POPULATION  OF  EUROPE. 

The  population  of  Europe  has  been 
carefully  estimated  at  recent  dates  by 
MM.  Levasseur  and  Bodio  with  these 
results : 

YEAR.  POPULATION. 

1900 401,098  000 

1886 346,700,000 

1880 331,000,000 

1878 325,700.000 

1860 289,000,000 

— Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


an 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COST  OF  MATERIALS  USED   IN  EACH  OF  THE  FIFTEEN  GROUPS 

OF  INDUSTRIES:  1900. 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII.  page  cxxxvii.] 


Cost  of  Materials  Used. 

Per  Cent  of  Cost  of 
Materials  to  Gross 
Value  of  Products. 

Per  Cent 
of  Cost  of 

Materials 
Purchased 

Ipdustry  Group. 

Purchased 
in  Raw 
State. 

Purchased 
in  Partially 

Manufac- 
tured Form. 

Fuel, 

Freight, 

etc. 

$322,337,732 

Purchased 
in  Partial- 
ly Manu- 
factured 
Form. 

Purchased 

in  Raw 

State. 

in  Raw 
State  of 
Net  Value 
of  Prod- 
ucts. 

Total 

$2,389,138,828 

$4,632,151,315 

35  6 

18.4 

28.6 

Food    and    kindred 

products 

Textiles 

1,279.450.388 
314,089,230 

74,781.646 

64,502,232 

134,809,625 
11,396,844 

37,340,408 

154,470,332 

18.971,906 

98,737,311 
86,709,511 

1.342,802 

523,069.057 
555,523,236 

809.668.990 

483,467.490 

254.116,050 
186.519.667 

76.346,549 

180,259.020 

48,117,117 

377,641,018 
19,023.973 

257.902,133 
32,085,640 

365,900.756 
462,510,619 

35,148,815 
26,372,330 

102,747,734 

13,440,897 

6,625,557 
16.241.912 

8.531.116 

21,422,432 

27,526,258 

20,601,039 
1.449,172 

8.966.610 
1.401,132 

20,487,518 
11,375,210 

23.0 
33.9 

45.1 

46.9 

43.5 
30.8 

17.9 

32.6 

16.4 

50.4 
6.7 

50.7 
43.0 

36.4 
39.1 

56.3 
19.2 

4.2 

6.3 

23.1 
1.9 

8.8 

27*.  9 

6.5 

13.2 
30.6 

0.3 

73.0 
29.0 

Iron  and  steel  and 
their  products.  . .  . 

Luml>er  and  its  re- 
manufactures.  . .  . 

Leather  and  its  fin- 
ished products. . .  . 

Paper  and  printing. . 

Liquor   and    bever- 
aares 

7.6 
11.8 

40.9 

2.7 

10.7 

Chemicals  and  al.ied 
products 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone 
products 

Metals    and    metal 
products,       other 
than      iron     and 
steel 

41.5 
7.7 

26.6 

Tobacco 

82.8 

Vehicles     for     land 

transportation.  .  . 

Shiobuildinir 

0.5 

Miscellaneo\i8       in- 
dustries  

103,685.431 
8.851.162 

10.3 
0.7 

16.2 

Hand  trades 

•     1.2 

.TOURISTS  IN  SWITZERLAND. 

The  following  figures  with  regard 
to  tourists  in  Switzerland  have  been 
compiled  by  Herr  Freuler,  of  Zurich. 

Money  paid  annually  by  visitors  to 
hotel  proprietors — between  $15,000,000 
and  $20,000,000 ;  paid  to  railway  com- 
panies, etc.,  $3,375,000;  gross  profit 
is  estimated  at  $12,375,000,  from 
which  $8,000  has  to  be  taken  for  de- 
preciation and  improvements.  The 
capital  outlay  is  estimated  at  $120,- 
000,000. 

There  are  some  1,896  hotels  and 
pensions,  etc.,  with  104,800  beds ;  945 
are  only  open  in  the  season,  951  are 
open  all  the  year,  22,000  people  find 
.egular  employment  in  these  hotels, 
and  5,000  irregularly,  with  wages 
totaling  9  to  11  million  francs  and 
gratuities  amounting  to  3  1-2  to  4 
million  francs.— "  Daily  Mail"  Year 
Book. 


JURA  TUNNEL. 

The  Grand  Council  of  the  Canton 
of  Berne,  in  the  year  1903,  agreed  to 
grant  a  subvention  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  projected  Jura  Tunnel  for 
a  line  between  Soleure  and  Munster, 
which  will  give  access  to  the  proposed 
tunnel  through  the  Bernese  Alps  for 
communication  with  the  Simplon  Tun- 
nel. An  agreement  has  also  been  ar- 
rived at  between  the  Federal  Council 
and  the  Simplon  Tunnel  Company  by 
which  the  latter  will  receive  an  in- 
creased amount  for  the  cons|:ruction 
of  the  Simplon  Tunnel,  but  will  not 
be  liberated  from  its  obligation  to  con- 
struct a  second  tunnel.  The  company 
agrees  to  transfer  the  tunnel  to  the 
Federal  Government. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


275 


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DIVISION    OP    INDUSTRIES.  —  SEGMENTS 

ARE  BASED  ON  PRODUCTION  IN 

THE  CENSUS  YEAR  1890. 


276 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    EXPORTS    OF    DOMESTIC    MERCHANDISE    DURING 

THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1903. 
(Bureau  of  Statistics). 


Articles. 


Agricultural.  Implements: 

Mowers  and  reapers,  and  parts  of.  . 
Plows  and  cultivators,  and  parts  of. 
All  other,  and  parts  of 


Quantities. 


Total 

Aluminum,  and  manufactures  of. 

Animals: 
Cattle 


Hogs. 


No. 

No. 


Horses No. 

Mules. , No. 

Sheep No. 

All  other,  including  fowls 


Total. 


402,178 

4,031 

34,007 

4,294 

176,961 


Art  works :  Paintings  and  statuary 

Asbestos,  and  manufactures  of 

Asphaltum,  and  manufactures  of 

Babbitt  metal 

Bark,  and  extract  of,  for  tanning 

X^GOS  ^r  &  JC  •    •••• 

Billiard  balls 

Bird  skins. 

Blacking  : 

^    Stove  polish 

^  All  other 

Wones,  hoofs,  horns,  and  horn  tips,  strips,  and  waste 

Books,  maps,  engravings,  etchings,  and  other  pointed  matter 

Brass,  and  manufactures  of 


lbs. 


70,811 


Breadstuffs  : 

Barlev bush. 

Bread  and  biscuit lbs. 

Buckwheat bush- . 

Com bush. , 

Corn  meal bbls. , 

Oats bush. , 

Oatmeal lbs. , 

Rye bush. . 

Rye  flour bbls. . 

Wheat bush. . 

Wheat  flour bbls. , 

Preparations  of,  for  table  food 

All  other,  for  animal  feed — 

Bran,  middlings,  and  mill  feed tons. . 

Dried  grains  and  malt  sprouts tons. 

All  other 


8,429.141 

11,104,575 

117,953 

74,833,237 

451,506 

4,613,809 

67,823,935 

5,422,731 

3,757 

114,181,420 

19,716,484 


49,513 
73,104 


Total. 


Bricks: 

Building M. 

Fire 


3,725 


Total. 


Bristles 

Broom  com 

Brooms  and  brushes 

Candles lbs. . 

Carbon 


6,323,554 


Values. 


Dollars. 
10,326.641 
3,169.961 
7,510,020 

21,006,622 

133,256 


29,848,936 

40,923 

3.152,159 

521,725 

1.067,860 

149.590 


34.781,193 

512,558 

133,427 

104,586 

44,635 

239,786 

21,337 

4,228 

650 

198.152 

511,136 

193,817 

4,442.653 

2,000,432 


4,662,544 

589,536 

75,713 

40,540,637 

1,382,127 

1,850,728 

1,839,106 

3,143,910 

12,818 

87,795,104 

73,756,404 

2,667,409 

945,053 

1.320,065 

661,131 


221,242,285 


26,310 
403,598 


429,908 

515 

211,253 

283.994 

514,753 

44,494 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


277 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con^inu«rf. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Carriages,  Cars,  Other  VEHiciiBS,  and  Parts  of: 

Automobiles,  and  parts  of 

Care,  passenger  and  freight,  and  parts  of — 

For  steam  railways 

For  other  railways 

Cycles,  and  parts  of 

All  other  carriages  and  parts  of 


Values. 


Total. 


Celluloid,  and  manufactures  of 

Cement bbls. .  .  , 

Chalk,  crayons,  etc I 

Charcoal I 


Chewing  gum. 


Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and  Medicines: 

Acids 

Ashes,  pot  and  pearl lbs. 

Baking  powder lbs. 

Copper,  sulphate  of lbs. 

Dyes  and  dyestulTs 

Ginseng lbs. 

Lime,  acetate  of lbs. 

Medicines,  patent  or  proprietary 

Roots,  herbs,  and  barks,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Washing  powdere  or  mixtures,  etc lbs. 

All  other.  . . : 


X  O v*ti«  •■•••• 


Cider galls. 

Clays: 

Fire 


All  other 

Clocks  and  Watches: 
Clocks,  and  parts  of .  . . 
Watches,  and  parts  of. 


Total. 


Coal  and  Coke: 
Coal- 
Anthracite tons. 

Bituminous tons. 


Total  coal. 


Coke tons. 

Coal  tar bbls. 

Cocoa,  ground  or  prepared,  and  chocolate 

Coffee : 

Raw  or  green lbs. 

Roasted  or  prepared lbs. 

Coins,  United  States: 


Copper. 
Nickel. 


271,272 


1,193,258 

1,178,540 

18,101,320 


151,985 
59,449,811 


6,322,357 


598,119 


1,388,653 
5.210.322 


6,598,975 


380.038 
4,834 


29,233,837 
535,108 


Copper  and  Manufactures  of: 

Ore tons. 

Ingots,  bare,  plates,  and  old lbs. 

in 


All  other  manufactures  of. 

Total,  not  including  ore 

Copper  residue lbs. . 

Cork,  manufactures  of 


297.056,122 

. .  . » 


522.280 


Dollare. 
1.207,065 

2,687,303 

915.273 

2.132,629 

3,556,925 

10,499,195 

249.488 
419,361 

37,238 
5.118 

27,242 


219,568 
60,376 
397,965 
736,137 
619,645 
796,008 
987,067 

3,407.696 
320,122 
352,537 

5,800,480 


13,697,601 

84,084 

4,402 
149,897 

1,091,724 
1,041,805 


2,133,529 


6,732,571 
14,473,927 


21,206.498 

1,912,459 

15,531 
213,476 

3,295,968 
89,899 

41 
2,650 


927,417 


37,354,061 
2,313,135 


39,667,196 


42.385 
33,844 


378 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Conftnued. 


Articles. 


Cotton,  and  Manufactures  op: 
Unmanufactured — 

Sea  Island (  bales. 

)  lbs.  . 

Upland  and  other j  bales. 

1  lbs.  . 

Total  unmanufactured (  bales. 

)  lbs.  . 

Waste lbs. 

Manufactures  of — 
Cloths- 
Colored yds. 

Uncolored yds. , 

Total  cloths 


Quantities. 


51,688 

20.205,080 

6.886.591 

3,522.837,942 


6.938,279 
3,543,043,022 


26,098,947 


169,511,667 
325,867,530 


495,379,197 


Wearing  apparel 

Waste,  cop  and  mill lbs. .  .  \ 

All  other i 


22.997,428 


Total  manufactures. 


Curios,  antiques,  etc.  . 
Dental  goods 


Earthen,  Stone,  and  China  Ware: 

Earthen  and  stone  ware 

China  ware 


Total. 


Eggs. 

Egg  yolks.  . 

Emery,  and  Manufactures  of: 


doz. 


Emmery. 


Manufactures  of — 

Cloth 

Paper 

Wheels 

Feathers 

Fertilizers  : 

Phosphates,  crude tons. . 

All  other tons, . 

Fibres,  Vegetable,  and  Textile  Grasses,  Manufactures  op: 


Bags 

Cordage lbs. 

Twine 

All  other 


Total. 


Fish:  ,  ,  ,, 

Fresh,  other  than  salmon lbs. 

Dried,  smoked,  or  cured — 

Cod,  haddock,  hake,  and  pollock lbs. 

Herring }bs. 

All  other lbs. 

•     Pickled- 
Mackerel bbls. 

All  other bbls. 

Salmon —  ,. 

Canned ■ lbs. 

All  other,  fresh  or  cured. r  \:\iAV 

Canned  fish,  other  than  salmon  and  shellhsh 

Caviare 


1,517,189 


817,503 
16,677 


9,119.620 


1,568.753 

3.043,497 

1.202.680 

467.525 

524 
19,167 

50,353,334 


Values. 


Dollars. 


4,038,370 


[312,142. 


059 


[316.180,429 


884.842 


8,443,148 
16.909,436 


25,352,584 


2,600.136 
1,294,064 
2,969.520 


32.216.304 

1.698 
401,761 


519,159 
63,900 


583.059 

325,571 
48,108 

19,975 

9,654 

1,389 

216,345 

141.257 

6,344.224 
380.077 


387,840 

935.587 

3.331.101 

636.420 


5.290,948 


60,692 

148,557 
33,632 
23.020 

7.360 
74.346 

4,350.791 

869,352 

105,228 

39,278 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


279 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con/tntied. 


Articles. 


Fish —  (Continued). 
SheUfish— 

Oysters 

All  other 

All  other  fish  and  fish  products. 

Total 


Flowers,  cut. 
Fly  paper. . . 


Fruitb  and  Nutb: 
Fruits — 

Apples,  dried lbs 

Apples,  green  or  ripe bbls. 

Apricots,  dried lbs. 

Oranges 

Prunes lbs. 

Raisins lbs. 

All  other  green,  ripe,  or  dried 

Preserved — 

Canned 

All  other 

Nuts 


Quantities. 


Total 


Furniture  of  metal 

Furs  and  fur  skins 

Ginger  ale doz.  qts. 

Glass  and  Glassware: 

Window  glass 

All  other 


Total. 


Glucose  or  grape  sugar lbs. 

Glue lbs. 

Goldbeaters'  skins 

Graphite 


Grasses,  dried  (Pampas  plumes,  etc.).  .  . 
Grease,  grease  scraps,  and  all  soap  stock. 


Gunpowder  and  Other  Explosives: 

Gunpowder lbs. 

All  other  explosives 


Total. 


Hair,  and  manufactures  of 

Hay tons. 

Hides  and  skins,  other  than  furs lbs. 

Honey 


lbs. 


Hops. 

Household  and  personal  effects 

Ice tons. 

India  Rubber,  Manufactures  of: 

India  rubber,  reclaimed 

India  rubber,  scrap  and  old 

Belting,  hose,  and  packing 

Boots  and  shoes pairs. 

All  other 


39,646,297 
1,656,129 
9.190,081 


66.385,215 
4.280,028 


1,501 


126.239.981 
2,569,164 


1,112,490 


50,974 
12,859,549 


7,794,705 
"*i9,'628" 


Total 

Ink: 
Printers'.  . . . 
All  other.  . . . 


2,307,401 


Values. 


Dollars. 
630,935 
296,307 
77,776 


6,717,274 

5,290 
38,579 


2,378.635 

4.381,801 
713,887 
465,397 

3,512,507 
284,530 

4,215.034 

1,739,571 

66,757 

299,558 


18,057,677 

124.856 

6,188.115 

1,911 


59,519 
2.091.180 


2,150,699 

2,460,022 

253,768 

1  140 

1 2^246 

15,294 

2,926,565 


151,658 
2,302,852 


2,454,510 

616,133 

828,483 

1,224,409 

64,220 

1,909,951 

2,652,783 

41,073 


93,265 

404,586 

819,985 

1.056,491 

2,299,875 

4,674.202 


220,544 
138,103 


280 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con/tnu«rf. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  Scientific  Purposes:  | 

Electrical  appliances,  including  telegraph  and  telephone  in-  i 

struments ' 

All  other I 


Iron  and  Steel,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Iron  ore tons. 

Pig  iron — 

Ferro-manganese tons. 

All  other tons. 

Scrap  and  old,  fit  only  for  remanufacture tons. 

Bar  Iron lbs. , 

Bars  or  rods  of  steel — 

Wire  rods lbs. . 

All  other lbs. , 

Billets,  ingots,  and  blooms tons. . 

Hoop,  band,  and  scroll lbs. , 

Rails  for  railways — 

Iron tons. , 

tons. 


Steel 

Sheets  and  plates — 

Iron lbs. , 

Steel lbs. 

Tin  plates,  teme  plates,  and  taggers  tin lbs. 

Structural  iron  and  steel tons. 

Wire lbs. . 

Builders'  hardware,  saws,  and  tools — 

Locks,  hinges,  and  other  builders'  hardware 

Saws. 


Tools,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Car  wheels No. 

Castings,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Cutlery — 

Table 

All  other 

Firearms > 

Machinery,  machines,  and  parts  of — 

Cash  registers No. 

Electrical  machinery 

Laundry  machinery 

Metal  working  machinery 

Printing  presses,  and  parts  of 

Pumps  and  pumping  machinery 

Sewing  machines,  and  parts  of 

Shoe  machinery 

Steam  engines,  and  parts  of — 

Fire. No. 

Locomotive No. 

Stationary No. 

Boilers,  and  parts  of  engines 

Typewriting  machines,  and  parts  of 

All  other 

Nails  and  spikes — 

Cut lbs. 

Wire lbs. 

All  other,  including  tacks lbs. 

Pipes  and  fittings 

Safes No. 

Scales  and  balances 

Stoves,  ranges,  and  parts  of 

All  other  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 


77,220 

18,198 

6,043 
40,583,205 

71,360,171 

30,447.664 

2,127 

3.740,234 

81 
22,896 

6,491,690 

31,680,206 

1,555,146 

32.952 

224,153.085 


22,106 


16,786 


10 

289 

1,459 


16,129.436 

62.997,105 

5.556.014 


2,933 


Total,  not  including  ore 

Ivory,  manufactures  of,  and  scrap 

Jewelers'  ashes  and  sweepings 

Jewelry,  and  other  Manufactures  of  Gold  and  Silver: 

Jewelry 

All  other  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver 

Lamps,  chandeliers,  and  all  other  devices  for  illuminating  purposes. 


Values. 


Dollars. 
4.206.617 
2.923.891 


266.982 

362.068 

96.107 
721.284 

1,059.130 

802,173 

68.064 

78.745 

3.154 
710,886 

191,332 

734,151 

66,010 

1.963.797 

5.172.140 

7.461.594 
413.679 

4.189.551 
156.601 

1,916.091 

69.848 

253.662 

1.002,410 

1,475.199 
5.779.459 

512,108 
2.826.111 
1.050.773 
2.715.553 
5.105.852 

719,797 

19,650 

3,219,778 

725.294 

2.485.226 

3,966.741 

20,387.065 

347,007 

1,245,946 

290,862 

5,4^1,459 

184,706 

650,250 

961,562 

9,048,992 

96,642.467 

^.816 
174.158 

939.797 

353.224 

1.133.290 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REPERENOE    BOOK. 


281 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE>— Con/int«ed. 


Articles. 


Lead,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Pigs,  bars,  and  old lbs. 

Type lbs. , 

AU  other  manufactures  of 


Leather,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Sole  leather lbs. . . 

Upper  leather — 

Kid,  glazed 

Patent  or  enameled 

Splits,  bu£f,  grain,  and  all  other  upper 

All  other  leather 

Manufactures  of — 

Boots  and  shoes pairs. .  . 

Harness  and  saddles 

All  other 


37,428,437 


Total 

Lime bbls. . 

Malt bush. . 

Marble  and  Stone,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Unmanufactured 

Manufactures  of — 

Roofing  slate 

All  other 


Total. 


Matches 

Metal  polish 

Mica 

Mineral  specimens. . 
Moss  and  seaweeds. 
Mucilage 


Musical  Instruments: 

Organs No. .  . 

Pianofortes.  . No. .  . 

All  other,  and  parts  of 


Total. 


Natural  history  specimens. 

Naval  Stores: 

Rosin 

Tar. 


bbls. 

bbls. 

Turpentine  and  pitch bbls 

Turpentine,  spirits  of galls. 


Total. 


15,986 
2,019 


2,396,498 
18,622 
15,972 

16,378,787 


?,997,400 


Nickel: 

Oxide  and  matte lbs. . 

Manufactures  of 

Notions,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Nursery  stock 

Oakimi 


Oil  Cake  and  Oil-cake  Meal: 

Corn-oil  cake lbs. 

Cotton-seed lbs. 

Flaxseed  or  linseed lbs. 


8,093,222 

1.100,392,988 

570,908.149 


Total '  1,679,394,359 


Oilcloths : 
For  floors. 
All  other. 


Values. 


Dollars. 
15,527 
137,875 
299,300 


6,920,467 

1,995,200 

122,782 

13,493,499 

982,251 

6,665,017 

373,677 

1.064,496 

31.617,389 

32,694 
252,801 


194,879 

628,612 
641,753 


1.465,244 

56.330 
32,274 
4,615 
10,306 
46,499 
12,563 


1,137,713 

419,029 

1,824,767 


3,381,509 
13,119 


4,817,052 
50,802 
36,379 

8,014.322 


12,918,708 


864,221 

97.787 

186,653 

158,959 

26,740 


95,568 

12,732,497 

7,011,214 


19,839,279 


56,902 
164,515 


282 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con^nwcd. 


Articles. 


Oils: 

Animal — 

Fish galls. , 

Lard galls. , 

Whale galls. , 

All  other galls. 


Total  animal. 


Mineral,   crude,   including  all   natural  oils,  -without  regard  to 
gravity galls. . . 

Mineral,  refined  or  manufactured — 

Naphthas,  including  all  lighter  products  of  distillation .  galls. .  . 

Illuminating galls. .  . 

Lubricating,  and  heavy  paraffin galls. .  . 

Residuum,  including  tar,  and  all  other,  from  which  the  light 
bodies  have  been  distilled bbls. . . 

Total  refined  or  manufactured 


Vegetable — 

Corn galls. 

Cotton  seed galls. 

Linseed galls. 

Volatile  or  essential — 

Peppermint lbs. 

All  other 

All  other  vegetable 

Total  vegetable.  .  . , 


Paints,  Pigments,  and  Colors: 

Carbon  black,  gas  black,  and  lamp  black 

Zinc,  oxide  of lbs. 

All  other 

Total 


Paper,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Paper  hangings 

Printing  paper lbs. . 

Writing  paper  and  envelopes 

All  other 

Total 

Paraffin  and  paraffin  wax lbs. . 

Paste 


Pencils 

Pens  and  penholders 

Perfumery  and  cosmetics 

Photographic  materials 

Plaster,  builders' 

Plaster  of  Paris 

Plated  ware 

Platinum,  and  manufactures  of,  and  scrap. 


Provisions,  Comprising  Meat  and  Dairy  Products: 
Meat  products — 
Beef  products — 

Beef,  canned lbs. . 

Beef,  fresh lbs. . 

Beef,  salted  or  pickled lbs. . 

Beef,  other  cured lbs. . 

Tallow lbs. . 

Hog  products — 

Bacon lbs. . 

Hams lbs. . 

Pork,  canned lbs. . 

Pork,  fresh lbs. . 

Pork,  salted  or  pickled lbs. . 

Liard lbs. . 


Quantities. 


1.293.393 

356.658 

19.092 

221,669 


1.890,812 


134.892,170 


13,139.228 

699.807,201 

93.318.257 

542,893 


3.788.035 

35,642,994 

182.330 

13.033 


97,880,037 


11,091.960 


201.325,210 


76,307,114 

254.795.963 

52,801,220 

1,126,032 

27,368.924 

207.336.000 

214,183,365 

13,590,897 

20,966.113 

95,287,374 

490,755.821 


Values. 


Dollars. 

377.551 

306.334 

13,174 

159.505 


856,564 


6.329.899 


1,225,661 
47,078,931 
12,052,927 

566,115 


60.923.634 


1,467.493 

14.211.244 

98.116 

34.943 
252,770 
169.796 

16.234,362 


299,587 

446,786 

1.604,564 

2,350,937 


256,243 
2,613,117 

901,700 
3.408,954 

7,180,014 

9,411,294 

5,631 

186,363 

66,317 
390.502 
758.320 

50.427 

21.459 
662,708 

15.786 


7.916.928 

25.013.323 

3,814,671 

102.184 

1,623,852 

22,178,525 

25,712,633 

1,369,687 

2,035,491 

9,959,762 

50.854.504 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


^ 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE--Con<in««f. 


Articles. 


Provisions,  Comprisino  Meat,  etc, — Continued. 

Lard  compounds,   and  substitutes  for  (cottolene,   lardine, 

etc.) ,. lbs. . . 

Mutton lbs. . . 

Oleo  and  oleomargarine — 

Oleo,  the  oil lbs. . . 

Oleomargarine,  imitation  butter lbs. . . 

Poultry  and  game 

Sausage  and  sausage  meats lbs. .  . 

Sausage  casings 

All  other  meat  products — 

Canned 

All  other \ 

Dairy  products — 

Butter lbs. . . 

Cheese lbs. . . 

Milk 


Total. 


auicksilver lbs. 
uills,  crude  and  prepared 

Rags  and  paper  stock 

Rice lbs. 

Rice  bran,  meal,  and  polish lbs. 

Rice  root. 


Roofing  felt  and  paper 

Root  beer doz.  qts. . . 

Salt lbs. . . 

Sand 


Seeds: 

Clover lbs. 

Cotton lbs. , 

Flaxseed  or  linseed bush. 

Timothy lbs. 

Other  grass  seeds 

All  other , 


Total. 


Shells 

Shoe  findings. 


Silk  : 

Manufactures  of 

Waste lbs. 

Soap: 

Toilet  or  fancy 

All  other lbs. 


Total. 


Spermaceti  and  spermaceti  wax lbs. . 

Spices 


Spirits,  Wines,  and  Malt  Liquors: 
Malt  liquors — 

In  bottles doz.  qts. , 

In  other  coverings galls. , 

Total  malt  liquors 


Spirits,  distilled — 
Alcohol — 

Wood proof  galls. . 

All  other,  including  pure,  neutral,  or  cologne  spirits 

proof  galls. . 

Brandy proof  galls. . 

Rum proof  galls. . 


Quantities. 


46,130,004 
6,144,020 

126,010,339 
7,645.652 


5,264,648 


8,896,166 
18,987,178 


1.415.464 


532,092 
19,218.356 


949 
16,446,380 


15,522,527 

51,622,370 

4,128,130 

18,289,917 


149,400 


46,590,354 


197,966 


759,027 
400,072 


833,629 

120,697 

18,117 

1,096,719 


Values. 


Dollars. 
3.607,542 
532.476 

11.981.888 

798,273 

1.079.056 

585.088 

1.964,524 

1,831,940 
2,101,785 

1,604,327 

2,250,229 

921,026 


179,839.714 

762,201 

3,976 

89,710 

27,048 

122,589 


104.280 

834 

70,296 

73,956 


1,549,687 
532.732 

5.698.492 
853.829 
581,773 
238.770 


9,455,283 

94,766 
57,406 


412,415 
19,968 

573.588 
1,879,189 


2,452,777 

44.915 
36,787 


1.082,982 
95,758 


1,178,740 


452,892 

23,510 

19,213 

1,458,393 


284 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con/tn««rf. 


Articles. 


Spirits,  etc. — Continued. 
Whisky — 

Bourbon ^.  proof  galLs. . 

Rye ....'.  proof  galls. . 

All  other proof  galls. . 


Total  spirits,  distilled 

Wine- 
In  bottles doz.  qts. . 

In  other  coverings galls. , 


Total  wines 

Total  spirits,  wines,  and  malt  liquors. 


Sponges lbs. 

Starch lbs. 

Stereotype  and  electrotype  plates 

Straw 


Straw  and  palm  leaf,  manufactures  of 

Sugar,  Molasses,  and  Confectionery: 

Molasses galls. 

.  Sirup galls. 

Sugar — 

Brown lbs. 

Refined lbs. 


Total 


Candy  and  confectionery. 


Teasels 

Teeth,  artificial 

Theatrical  effects,  etc. 
Tins: 

Matte  and  scrap.  .  . 

Manufactures  of.  .  . 


Tobacco,  and  Manufactures  of: 
Unmanufactured — 

I^af 

Stems  and  trimmings 

Total  unmanufactured 


lbs. 
lbs. 


Manufactures  of — 

Cigars M. 

Cigarettes M. 

Plug lbs. 

All  other 


Total  manufactures. 


Toys 

Tripoli 

Trunks,  valises,  and  traveling  bags 

Varnish galls. 

Vegetables : 

Beans  and  pease bush. 

Onions bush. 

Potatoes bush. 

Vegetables,  canned 

All  other,  including  pickles  and  sauces 

Total 


Vessels  Sold  Abroad: 

Steamers No. 

Sailing  vessels No. 

Total 


Quantities. 


169,369 

104,236 

48,014 


2,390.808 

5,232 
678,150 


95,159 
27,759,599 


3.413,387 
12,265,295 

99,101 
10.421.055 


Values. 


Dollars. 
203.137 
223,480 
62,358 


2.442,983 

24.624 
290.552 


315,176 


3.936.899 

50,306 

832.943 

37,419 

1,747 
480.569 

492.260 
1,714,899 

3,545 
358,537 


357,496,342 
10,687.742 


2,569.241 

535.412 

34,258 

4.715 

41,656 

6.611 
656.096 


34.972.033 
278.860 


368,184,084 


1,966 
1.456,452 
7,335.640 


660,553 

232.841 
145.509 
843.075 


123 


35.250,893 


46.962 
2.281,531 
1,683,152 
1,182,151 


5,193.796 

281.591 
20.262 

188,875 
667,475 

530,875 
116,624 
552.533 
597,759 
745.697 


2,543,488 


196.164 


123 


196.164 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


285 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Con/tnt^erf. 


Articles. 


Vinegar galls. 

Vulcanized  fiber 

Wax,  shoemakers' 

Whalebone lbs. 

White  metal 


113,204 


Wood,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Timber  and  unmanufactured  wood — 

Sawed M  feet 

Hewn cubic  feet. .  . 

Logs,  and  other 

Lumber — 

Boards,  deals,  and  planks M  feet. .  . 

Joists  and  scantling M  feet. .  . 

Shingles M. .  . 

ShooKs — 

Box 

All  other No. .  . 

Staves No. .  . 

Heading 

All  other 


530.059 
3,291,498 


1,065,771 
46,894 
38,211 


Values. 


Dollars. 

18,072 

9,331 

5,961 

507,552 


566,205 
55,879,010 


Total  unmanufactured. 


Manufactures  of —  I 

Doors,  sash,  and  blinds 

Furniture,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Hogsheads  and  barrels,  emptv 

Trimmings,  moldings,  and  other  house  finishings 

Wooden  ware 

Wood  pulp lbs. .  . ' 

All  other , 


22,464,472 


Total  manufactures 

Total  wood,  and  manufactures  of. 


7,462,111 

787,082 

4,506,728 

20.965,328 
647,920 

86.245 

779,777 
829,248 

4,740,680 
134,383 

3,732,782 

44,672,284 

1,727.387 
4,454.309 
175,020 
565,213 
886.080 
445.228 
4,818,014 


Wool,  and  Manufactures  of: 

Wool,  raw lbs. . 

Manufactures  of — 

Carpets ^ yds. . 

Dress  goods yds. . 

Flannels  and  blankets 

Wearing  apparel 

All  other 

Total  manufactures 


518,919 


69,337 
7,719 


Yeast 

Zinc,  and  Manufactures  of: 
Unmanufactured — 

Dross 

Ore tons. 

Manufactures  of — 

Pigs,  bars,  plates,  and  sheets lbs. 

All  other 


48,731 


3,539.071 


13,071,251 
57,743,535 


71,818 

57,979 

6,442 

48,141 

1,290,853 

318-,713 

1,722,128 
24,675 


674,262 
1,386,694 


186,192 
99,481 


Total  manufactures 

All  other  articles 

Total  value  of  exports  of  domestic  merchandise. 

Carried  in  cars  and  other  land  vehicles 

Carried  in  American  Vessels: 

Steam 


Sailing 

Carried  in  Foreign  Vessels: 

Steam 

Sailing 


285,673 

150,315 

1,392,231,302 

129.189,875 

77,671,627 
10.688,035 

1,114,951.632 
59,730.133 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MERCHANDISE    IMPORTED    AND    EXPORTED,    AND    THE    ANNUAL. 

EXCESS  OF  IMPORTS  OR  OF  EXPORTS,  1860  TO  1903— 

SPECIE    VALUES. 


DuUorfi. 
897.192,178 
SOS  ,881 ,375 
380,027,178 


316,447,21 
2»E,74g,SI 
434,812,01 

41 7, 608, 3' 
43.J,nr.S.4( 


.SiBi  1,319,71 


27.910,3771  1,420,141,879  11 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


287 


UNITED    STATES    TRADE-IN    1903. 

INCREASED  TRADE  WITH  CANADA — TRADE  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  THE  EMPIRE. 


By  Hon.  O.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


The  commerce  of  the  United  States 
in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1903, 
has  been  the  largest  in  the  history  of 
the  country.  This  is  true  both  of  in- 
ternal and  foreign  commerce.  In  the 
case  of  foreign  commerce  it  is  easily 
shown  from  the  official  figures  of  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  year.  In 
the  case  of  internal  commerce,  conclu- 
sions can  be  drawn  from  certain  great 
facts  of  production,  transportation, 
and  importation  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

The  total  foreign  commerce  of  the 
year  amounted  to  practically  2  1-2  bil- 
lions of  dollars,  and  the  internal  com- 
merce to  fully  twenty  billions  of  dol- 
lars. 

As  already  indicated,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
country  is  not  easy,  but  there  are  cer- 
tain great  factors  of  production,  trans- 
portation, and  the  activity  of  the  man- 
ufacturing industry,  which  make  pos- 
sible a  fair  statement  of  the  internal 
commerce. 

The  Census  states  the  value  of  the 
great  products  of  the  country,  such  as 
manufactures,  agricultural  products, 
the  products  of  the  forests,  the  fisher- 
ies, etc. ;  and  by  taking  these  great  fac- 
tors as  a  basis  and  calculating  for  but 
a  single  transaction  in  each  of  them,  we 
get  a  grand  total  of  20  billions  of  dol- 
lars value,  a  sum  practically  equal  to 
the  international  commerce  of  the 
world. 

The  last  census  showed  the  gross 
value  of  manufactures  in  1900  to  be 
13  billions  of  dollars ;  the  value  of  the 
agricultural  products,  nearly  4  bil- 
lions ;  products  of  the  mines,  a  billion 
dollars ;  and  adding  to  these  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  forests,  fisheries  and  mis- 
cellaneous, and  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion to  the  consumer,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  a  single  transaction  in 
each  article  would  bring  the  total  up  to 
20  billions  of  dollars.  And  all  of  the 
records  of  production  and  transporta- 
tion for  1903  show  that  its  activities 
were  even  greater  than  those  of  the 
census  year.  Every  factory  was  busy  ; 
the  railroads,  even  though  equipped 
with  additional  carrying  facilities, 
were  working  up  to  the  limit  of  their 
capacity,  and  the  reports  of  the  Bu- 


reau of  Statistics  from  the  great  lake- 
carrying  trade  showed  a  larger  busi- 
ness than  in  any  preceding  year. 

This  record  of  the  freight  movement 
on  the  Great  Lakes  is  an  important 
index  to  the  activities  of  the  country, 
both  in  production  and  manufacturing. 
The  section  of  the  country  fronting  on 
Lake  Superior  is  a  great  producer  of 
wheat  and  of  iron  ore  and  copper.  So 
the  record  of  movements  of  freight 
through  the  canals  connecting  Supe- 
rior with  the  lower  lakes  is  an  impor- 
tant indication  of  the  demand  of  the 
great  manufacturing  section  for  iron 
and  copper,  and  of  the  supply  which 
that  great  region  has  of  agricultural 
products  for  distribution  to  the  world. 
The  records  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics for  the  month  of  June  and  the 
portion  of  the  navigation  year  ending 
with  June  shows  a  greater  movement 
of  freight  through  these  canals  than  in 
any  preceding  year. 

That  the  iron  furnaces  and  works  of 
the  country  were  working  up  to  their 
highest  capacity  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  despite  the  high  prices  which  pre- 
vailed, the  consumers  of  the  country 
were  compelled  to  turn  to  foreign 
countries  to  obtain  a  part  of  the  iron 
and  steel  which  they  required ;  the  im- 
ports of  iron  and  steel  being  greater  in 
1903  than  in  many  years. 

The  pig  iron  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  the  calendar  year  1902 
amounted  to  17,821,307  gross  tons. 
This  makes  the  pig-iron  production  of 
the  United  States  in  1902  larger  than 
that  of  any  two  other  countries  of  the 
world.  The  pig-iron  production  of 
1902  is  double  that  of  1896.  and  more 
than  three  times  that  of  1886. 

Yet,  despite  this  unparalleled  pro- 
duction, the  importations  of  iron  and 
steel  were  greater  in  value  in  the  fiscal 
year  1003  than  in  any  year  since  1891, 
and  with  that  single  exception,  greater 
than  in  any  year  since  1883.  The 
above  facts  regarding  the  production 
and  importation  of  iron  and  steel  are 
stated  somewhat  in  detail  because  of 
the  general  belief  that,  in  the  United 
States  at  least,  the  consumption  of  iron 
and  steel  is  a  reliable  index  of  the 
business  activity  of  the  country.     If 


288 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


this  be  true,  it  may  be  safely  asserted 
that  the  business  of  the  year  1903  has 
exceeded  in  value  that  of  any  of  its 
predecessors. 

Labor. — Another  indication  of  the 
general  activity  was  the  difficulty  re- 
ported everywhere  in  obtaining  labor. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  during 
the  harvest  season.  The  crop  was 
abundant,  and  the  demand  for  labor 
far  in  excess  of  the  supply,  so 
much  so  that  reports  from  the  West 
showed  that  in  some  cases  farmers 
flagged  railroad  trains  and  after  stop- 
ping them  passed  through  the  trains 
soliciting  the  passengers  to  step  off 
and  accept  employment  in  the  harvest 
field.  Curiously  these  incidents  were 
reported  especially  from  the  State  of 
Kansas,  which  a  few  years  ago  was 
the  scene  of  the  greatest  discontent 
because  of  the  crop  shortage,  heavy 
farm  indebtedness,  and  general  con- 
ditions of  financial  depression.  But 
the  same  general  reports  of  difficulty 
of  obtaining  labor,  especially  in  the 
agricultural  districts,  came  from  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

Immigration. — One  effect  of  the 
prosperity  and  general  demand  for  la- 
bor in  the  United  States  in  the  past 
few  years  is  noticeable  in  the  in- 
creased immigration.  The  number  of 
immigrants  entering  the  United  States 
in  1903  was  larger  than  in  any  pre- 
ceding year.  The  total  number  of  im- 
migrants entering  the  United  States 
in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1903, 
was  857,056.  This  was  25  per  cent,  in 
excess  of  any  preceding  year,  practi- 
cally twice  as  many  as  in  1900,  and 
about  four  times  as  many  as  in  1898. 

The  attractions  in  the  United  States 
seem  to  have  resulted  in  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  immigration  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  though  the  largest 
increase  is  from  the  countries  of  south- 
ern Europe  and  Russia.  The  arrivals 
from  England  in  the  fiscal  year  1903 
were  26,219  against  13,571  in  1902; 
those  from  Scotland,  6,153  against 
2,560  in  1902;  and  those  from  Ire- 
land, 35,300  against  29,138  in  1902. 
From  Germany  the  number  was  40,- 
086  against  28,304  in  the  preceding 
year.  The  largest  increase,  however, 
was  from  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Russia.  The  number  from  Italy  was 
230  622,  against  178.375  in  the  pre- 
ceding year ;  from  Anstria-Hungary, 
206,011  against  171,889  in  the  pre- 
ceding year ;  and  from  Russia,  136,093 
against  107.347  in  1902. 

The  reviews  of  the  statistics  of  im- 
migration   which    this    unprecedented 


flood  of  arrivals  has  suggested  show 
that  the  total  number  of  immigrants 
arriving  in  the  United  States  since 
1800  is  over  21  millions,  and  the  num- 
ber of  persons  of  foreign  birth  now 
residing  in  the  country,  over  10  mil- 
lions. Notwithstanding  the  demand 
for  labor  in  the  agricultural  sections, 
however,  the  bulk  of  this  large  im- 
migration remains  in  the  cities.  There 
is  a  great  demand  for  labor  in  the 
manufacturing  towns  and  cities,  and 
they  absorb  a  large  proportion  of  the 
arrivals,  while  the  mining  regions  also 
draw  largely  upon  the  new  arrivals. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  people 
from  southern  Europe  and  Russia,  the 
chief  additions  to  the  agricultural  pop- 
ulation being  those  from  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Germany. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  year 
1903,  as  already  indicated,  was  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  the  country. 
This  statement,  however,  relates  to  the 
commerce  as  a  whole,  combining  im- 
ports and  exports  under  that  term. 
In  imports  the  figures  of  the  year 
were  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  but  in  exports  the  figures 
were  slightly  below  the  high  record  of 
1900.  The  total  imports  were  $1,025,- 
000,000,  and  the  total  exports  $1,420,- 
000,000.  These  figures,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, are  stated  in  round  millions, 
because  they  are  more  readily  assim- 
ilated in  this  form. 

This  increase  of  imports  and  de- 
crease of  exports  was  doubtless  due  in 
both  cases  to  the  general  prosperity 
and  business  activity  already  noted. 

Imports. — The  increase  in  imports 
was  chiefly  in  material  for  use  in 
manufacturing,  though  there  was  a  very 
considerable  increase  in  importation  of 
finished  manufactures.  This  is  quite 
natural  in  a  time  of  business  prosper- 
ity, when  money  is  plentiful.  The  in- 
crease in  importations  of  manufac- 
tures ready  for  consumption  amounted 
to  about  28  million  dollars  compared 
with  the  preceding  year,  and  of  dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones,  about 
7  millions.  In  manufacturing  mate- 
rial, however,  the  importations  showed 
the  greatest  growth.  In  raw  material 
for  use  in  manufacturing  the  importa- 
tions of  the  year  were  48  million  dol- 
lars in  excess  of  the  preceding  year, 
and  in  partly  manufactured  material 
for  use  in  manufacturing,  the  increase 
was  23  millions,  making  the  total  in- 
crease in  manufacturing  materials  im- 
ported over  70  million  dollars  as  com- 
pared with  the  preceding  year. 

The  increase  in  partly  manufactured 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


289 


materials  was  chiefly  in  pig-iron,  plates 
and  bars  of  iron,  etc.  The  increase  in 
raw  materials  was  chiefly  in  raw  silk, 
fibres,  tin,  chemicals,  india-rubber,  and 
other  articles  of  this  character. 

Exports. — In  exports  the  reduction 
was  doubtless  due  to  the  unusual  home 
demand  both  for  foodstuffs  and  manu- 
factures. Exports  of  iron  and  steel 
were  25  million  dollars  below  those  of 

1900,  and  those  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts were  70  millions  below  those  of 

1901.  Yet  the  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facturing establishments  of  the  coun- 
try were  turning  out  more  of  their 
products  than  ever  before,  and  the  ag- 
ricultural production  of  1903  was 
quite  up  to  the  usual  total  in  most  of 
the  great  staples. 

IJ.  S.  Colonial  Trade. — One  inter- 
esting development  of  the  j^ear  1903, 
and  one  which  attracted  some  atten- 
tion because  of  its  novelty,  was  the 
announcement  that  the  commerce  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  its  non- 
contiguous territory  amounted  to  100 
million  dollars  in  1903.  This  was 
the  first  time  that  the  country  had 
a  clear  view  of  the  value  of  its  com- 
merce with  the  colonies,  or  noncon- 
tiguous territory,  as  they  are  general- 
ly designated. 

Soon  after  the  annexation  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  Porto  Rico, 
they  were  made  customs  districts  of 
the  United  States,  and  as  there  was  no 
kw  authorizing  the  collection  of  the 
statistics  of  commerce  between  the 
customs  districts,  the  persons  engaged 
in  that  commerce  refused  to  furnish 
statements  of  the  value  of  their  ship- 
ments to  and  from  the  islands.  As  a 
result  the  country  was  without  any 
information  regarding  the  value  or 
growth  in  this  commerce. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics,  seeing  the 
importance  of  some  system  by  which 
this  commerce  could  be  measured,  pre- 
pared a  bill,  which  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress, authorizing  the  collection  of 
these  statistics  in  the  same  manner  as 
those  of  the  commerce  with  foreign 
commerce.  As  a  result,  the  country 
has  now,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
annexation,  a  record  of  the  commerce 
between  the  United  States  and  all  of 
its  noncontiguous  territorv.  This  shows 
a  grand  total  of  100  million  dollars. 
Of  this  fifrand  total  of  100  millions, 
about  37  millions  was  merchandise 
shipped  to  the  territory  in  question,  58 
millions  merchand'pe  received  from  it, 
and  nearly  5  millions  gold  bullioTi 
produced  in  Alaska  territory.  The  ter- 
ritories included  in  this  statement  are 


Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  the  Philippines.  It  is  a 
novel  experience  for  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  and  they  find  it  espec- 
ially interesting  to  observe  their  own 
territory  furnishing  them  a  market  for 
37  million  dollars'  worth  of  merchan- 
dise, while  their  sales  to  the  same  ter- 
ritory in  1893  were  less  than  8  million 
dollars. 

U.  S.  A.  AND  Great  Britain. — The 
development  of  the  commerce  of  1903, 
with  reference  to  the  United  Kingdom 
and  British  territory  in  general,  was 
of  marked  interest.  The  exports 
to  the  United  Kingdom  fell  24  million 
dollars,  while  the  imports  from  that 
country  increased  26  millions.  This  is 
especially  interesting  because  of  the 
fact  that  to  practically  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries  the  exports  increased. 
The  total  exports  to  all  Europe  were 
1,039  million  dollars  against  1,008  mil- 
lions in  1902,  but  those  to  the  United 
Kingdom  were  524  millions  against 
548  millions  in  1902.  To  Germany 
there  was  an  increase  of  20  millions; 
to  Russia  an  increase  of  6  millions ;  to 
France  6  millions,  and  to  Netherlands 

3  millions. 

The  chief  falling  off  in  the  exports 
to  the  United  Kingdom  was  in  cotton 
and  wheat.  The  falling  off  in  cotton 
amounted  to  4  millions,  and  that  of 
vsrheat  19  millions,  though  the  latter 
was  offset  in  part  by  an  increase  of  3 
millions  in  flour. 

Of  the  26  millions  increase  in  im- 
ports from  the  United  Kingdom  about 

4  millions  was  in  coal,  chiefly  due  to 
the  coal  strike  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year,  and  the  remainder,  manufactures 
of  various  sorts,  especially  iron  and 
steel,  of  which  the  total  imports  ex- 
ceeded those  of  last  year  by  24  mil- 
lion dollars. 

U.  S.  A.  AND  British  Colonies. — 
To  practically  all  other  parts  of  the 
British  Empire  the  exports  of  the  year 
showed  an  increase.  Canada,  despite 
the  decrease  in  duty  on  products  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies,  made 
in  1897,  1898  and  1900.  which  was  ex- 
pected to  place  the  United  States  at  a 
great  disadvantage,  increased  her  tak- 
ings of  the  products  of  the  United 
States,  12  millions,  the  total  exports 
to  Canada  in  the  fiscal  year  being  123 
million  dollars.  The  imports  from 
Canada  also  increased,  being  55  mil- 
lions against  48  millions  in  1903. 

Results  of  Canada's  Tariff. — 
The  first  reduction  in  the  Canadian  tar- 
iff on  products  of  the  United  King- 
dom and  most  of  the  Colonies  occurred 


290 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  April,  1897,  a  reduction  of  12%  per 
cent,  in  the  tariff  on  merchandise  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  her  Colonies, 
while  there  was  no  reduction  on  mer- 
chandise from  the  United  States.  On 
June  30th,  1898,  another  reduction 
of  12%  per  cent  occurred,  and  in 
1900  the  reduction  was  made  33  1-3 
per  cent.  Yet,  comparing  the  imports 
for  consumption  in  1902  with  those  of 
1896,  as  shown  by  the  Canadian  Sta- 
tistical Year  Book,  the  imports  from 
the  United  Kingdom  have  increased 
16  million  dollars  and  those  from  the 
United  States,  62  million  dollars, 
while  the  figures  of  the  United  States 
for  1903  show  ^  further  increase  of 
about  13  millions  in  exports  to  Can- 
ada. 

Canada's  Tbade  with  the  U.  S.  A. 
AND  Great  Britain. — In  1882,  ac- 
cording to  the  Canadian  Statistical 
Year  Book  above  quoted,  the  imports 
of  Canada  from  Great  Britain  were 
50  millions,  and  those  from  the  Uni- 
ted States  48  millions.  In  1902,  20 
years  later,  those  from  Great  Britain 
were  49  millions,  and  those  from  the 
United  States  120  millions,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  tariff  on 
products  from  Great  Britain  had  been 
reduced  one-third  as  against  those 
from  the  United  States. 

Comparing  1902  with  1882,  there  is 
a  slight  reduction  in  the  imports  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  an  increase 
of  about  150  per  cent  in  those  from  the 
United  States.  Of  the  123  million 
dollars'  worth  of  exports  from  the 
United    States    to    Canada    in    1903, 


about  20  millions  were  manufactures 
of  iron  and  steel ;  6  millions  coal ;  8 
millions  wheat,  flour  and  corn ;  4  mil- 
lions agricultural  implements ;  3  mil- 
lions cotton  manufactures;  and  the 
bulk  of  the  remainder  miscellaneous 
manufactures. 

The  convenience  of  buying  from  the 
salesman  who  brings  the  samples  to 
the  door  of  the  purchaser  and  orders 
whatever  is  wanted  by  telephone 
across  the  border  with  the  assurance 
that  the  goods  will  be  delivered  the 
next  day,  if  desired,  apparently  more 
than  balances  the  difference  of  33  1-3 
per  cent  in  duty. 

U.  S.  A.  Trade  with  the  British 
Empire. — In  general  terms  it  may  be 
said  that  the  commerce  between  the 
United  States  and  the  British  Empire 
in  1903  was  over  a  billion  dollars,  of 
which  746  millions  was  exports  and 
325  millions  imports.  Of  the  746  mil- 
lions of  exports  to  British  territory 
524  millions  was  to  the  United  King- 
dom;  123  millions  to  Canada;  33  mil- 
lions to  British  Africa ;  32  millions  to 
Australasia  and  New  Zealand;  10 
millions  to  the  British  West  Indies; 
and  8  millions  to  Hongkong.  Of  the 
325  millions  of  imports  from  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  191  millions  was  from  the 
United  Kingdom ;  55  millions  from 
Canada;  50  millions  from  India;  13 
millions  from  the  West  Indies;  and 
7  millions  from  Hongkong. 

Analysis  of  Commerce,  1893-1903. 
— The  following  tables  present  an 
analysis  of  the  commerre  of  the  United 
States  from  1893  to  1903 : 


ANALYSIS     OF    THE    TRADE     OF    THE    U.  S.  A 
Imports  into  the  United  States. 
(According  to  Continents. )     [In  millions  of  dollars.] 


Europe. 

N.  America. 

Year. 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Dolls. 

Cent. 
52.91 

DoUs. 

Cent. 

1893 

458 

183 

21.21 

1894 

295 

45.05 

166 

25.49 

1895 

383 

52.41 

133 

18.29 

1896 

418 

53.69 

126 

16.27 

1897 

430 

56.26 

105 

13.85 

1898 

305 

40.66 

91 

14.83 

1899 

353 

50.76 

112 

16.09 

1900 

440 

51.84 

130 

15.30 

1901 

429 

52.19 

145 

17.63 

1902 

475 

52.61 

151 

16.73 

1903 

550 

53.63 

188 

18.42 

S.  America. 

As 
Mills. 

ia. 
Per 

Ocef 

inia. 
Per 

Africa. 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Mills. 

Per 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

DoUs. 

Cent 

102 

11.80 

87 

10.11 

25 

3.00 

9 

.97 

100 

15.29 

66 

10.10 

21 

3.28 

3 

.79 

112 

15.32 

77 

10.61 

17 

2.39 

5 

.98 

108 

13.96 

89 

11.49 

24 

3.16 

11 

1.43 

107 

14.04 

87 

11.41 

24 

3.19 

9 

1.25 

92 

14.95 

92 

15.03 

26 

4.36 

7 

1.17 

86 

12.42 

107 

15.30 

26 

3.87 

10 

1.50 

93 

11.02 

139 

16.45 

34 

4.07 

11 

1.32 

110 

13.41 

117 

14.30 

11 

1.38 

8 

1.09 

119 

13.26 

129 

14.35 

14 

1.57 

13 

1.48 

107 

[  10.47 

145 

14.21 

21 

2.05 

12 

1.22 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBFBRENCB    BOOK. 


(According  Ut  Continents). 


Eur 

ono. 

N.  A« 

erip*. 

S,Aaieri 

a. 

Ab 

«. 

o- 

Lnia. 

Afr, 

ca. 

Yeiir 

Milb. 

Per 

Hills, 

Per 

Mills.      Per 

Per 

Mills 

Per 

Mills 

Cent. 

Cent. 

DqUb*. 

DollB. 

2.71 

(Am 

ne 

oclaai 

«s-> 

Yeai 
end- 

Mauufsc- 

'fisSr' 

Products 
Mines. 

Products 
Forests. 

*-£hBri^. 

Miscel- 
Froducts. 

Total. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

W 

■/» 

67 

:m 

Articles  Wholly 

Year 

Food  and 

Cnide  Articles 

KiSi'a 

,Sg3& 

Articles 

Total. 

Milla 

Per 

Mills 

Mills 

Per 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

DoUb. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

eos 

292 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


IMPORTS   OF   MERCHANDISE,   BY  PRINCIPAL   ARTICLES   AND 
CLASSES,  IN  ORDER  OF  MAGNITUDE  IN  1903. 


Articles. 


1903. 


Sugar 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes ; 

Coffee 

Hides  and  skins 

Cotton,  manufactures  of i 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufac-  | 

tures  of 

Silk,  unmanufactured i 

Fibres,  vegetable,  etc.,  manu-  i 

lactures  of I 

Silk,  manufactures  of 

Fibres,  vegetable,  etc.,  unman-  i 

ufactured 

Diamonds,  and  other  precious 

stones 

India  rubber  and  gutta-percha, 

crude 

Wood,  manufactures  of 

Fruits  and  nuts 

Tin,  in  bars,  blocks,  or  pigs 

Wool,  unmanufactured 

Tobacco,  and  manufactures  of .  . 

Wool,  manufactiu-es  of 

Copper,  and  manufactures  of . .  . 
Spirits,     malt      liquors,      and 

wines 

Tea 

Furs,  and  manufactures  of 

Oils 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of.  . 

Cotton,  unmanufactured 

Coal,  bituminous 

Earthen,     stone,     and    china 

ware 

Fish 

Cocoa,  crude,  and  leaves  and 

shells  of 

Glass  and  glassware 


Dollars. 

72,088,973 

64.351,199 

59,200,749 

58,031.613 

52.462.755 

51.617.312 
50.011,050 

39,334,521 
35,963.552 

34,462,513 

31,479,223 

31,004,541 
28,746,271 
23,726,636 
23,618,802 
22.152,961 
20,579.120 
19,546,385 
17,505,247 

17,171,617 
15,659,229 
15,301,912 
12,283,957 
11,294,167 
10,892,591 
10,562,185 

10,512,052 
8,635,583 

7,820,087 
7,255,879 


Articles. 


Articles,  the  growth,  etc.,  of  the 

United  States,  returned 

Metals,  and  manufactures  of. . . . 

Spices 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of .  . . . 
Provisions:     Meat    and    dairy 

products 

Vegetables 

Animals 

Books,  maps,  engravings,  etc . .  . 

Art  works 

Toys 

Lead,  in  ore 

Hats,  bonnets,  and  hoods,  and 

materials  for 

Matting,  for  floors,  etc 

Cement 

Copi>er  ore 

Fertilizers 

Rice 

Breadstuffs 

Paper  stock,  crude 

Household  and  personal  effects . 

Seeds 

Hair,  and  manufactures  of 

Clocks  and  watches,  and  parts  of 

Bristles 

Cork  wood,  or  cork  bark,  and 

manufactures  of 

Feathers  and  downs,  crude,  not 

dressed,  etc 

Iron  ore 

Hay 

Jewelry,  and  manufactures  of 

gold  and  silver 

All  other  articles 


1903. 


Dollars. 

7,170,573 
7,057,202 
4,815.125 
4,733,036 

4,703,536 
4.581,355 
4.533.845 
4.323,938 
4,310,315 
4,232,074 
4,073,099 

3,871.278 
3,780,050 
3,607,666 
3.385,524 
3,100,276 
3,061,473 
3,023.160 
3.015,084 
2,856,007 
2,831.279 
2,775,084 
2.672,310 
2,654,604 

2,567,580 

2,476,659 
2,351,278 
2,238,109 

2,007.433 
55,637.603 


Total '  1,025,719,237 


— Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation,  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


MOTIVE-POWER    APPLIANCES. 
By  Edward  H.  Sanborn,  Expert  Special  Agent  Twelfth  Census. 


The  1,170  establishments  covered 
by  the  report  produced  during  the 
census  year  40,533  steam  boilers,  rep- 
resenting an  aggregate  of  2,928,983 
horsepower,  with  a  total  value  of  $25,- 
663,445.  Of  steam  engines  of  all  types 
there  were  manufactured  29,120,  rep- 
resenting 2,210,727  horsepower,  and 
valued  at  $28,019,971.  The  number 
of  internal-combustion  engines,  using 
gas,  petroleum,  or  other  vapors,  pro- 
duced by  these  establishments  was  18.- 
531,  their  aggregate  horsepower  was 
164,662,  and  their  total  value  amount- 
ed to  $5,579,398.  There  were  also 
manufactured  2,680  water  motors,  in- 
cluding overshot  and  undershot  wheels, 
turbines,  and  impact  wheels,  with  an 
estimated  total  of  367,934  horsepower. 


and  an  aggregate  value  of  $1,520,849. 
The  totals  for  all  primary  powers,  ex- 
clusive of  steam  boilers,  were  as  fol- 
lows :  Number  of  units,  50,331 ;  ag- 
gregate horsepower,  2,743,323 ;  total 
value,  $35,120,218.  The  other  prod- 
ucts of  these  1,170  establishments 
amounted  in  value  to  $84,754,239 ;  the 
amounts  received  for  custom  work  and 
repairing  reached  a  total  of  $26,664,- 
243,  and  the  total  output  of  all  prod- 
ucts and  all  classes  of  work  represent- 
ed a  value  of  $172,202,145. 

The  table  shows  the  number,  ag- 
gregate horsepower,  and  total  value  of 
each  kind  of  motive-power  appliances 
produced  by  these  establishments  dur- 
ing the  census  year. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


293 


NUMBER,  AGGREGATE  HORSEPOWER, 

Number  of  establishments 1,170 

Steam  boilers: 
Fire  tube — 

Number 35,802 

Aggregate  horsepower 1,943,222 

Total  value $18,037,451 

Water  tube — 

Number 4,731 

Aggregate  horsepower 985,761 

Total  value $7,625,994 

Steam  engines: 

Marine — 

Number 767 

Aggregate  horsepower 396,047 

Total  value $7,018,369 

Fixed  cut-off  throttling — 

Number 21,806 

Aggregate  horsepower 658,111 

Total  value $7,963,806 

High  speed  variable  automatic 
cut-off — 

Number 3,823 

Aggregate  horsepower 314,668 

Total  value $3,282,787 


AND  VALUE  OF  PRIMARY  POWERS:  1900. 

Low  speed  variable  automatic 
cut-off — 

Number 2,724 

Aggregate  horsepower 841 ,901 

Total  value $9,755,010 

Internal-combustion  engines: 

Number 18,531 

Aggregate  horsepower 164,662 

Total  value $5,579,398 

Overshot  or  undershot  water  wheels : 


58 

1,257 

$12,250 


1,665 
311,527 


Number 

Aggregate  horsepower 

Total  value 

Turbine  water  wheels: 

•  Number 

Aggregate  horsepower 

Total  value $1,232,090 

Impact  water  wheels : 

Number 957 

Aggregate  horsepower 55,150 

Total  value , $276,509 

Primary  powers,  all  kinds: 

Number 50,331 

Aggregate  horsepower 2,743,323 

Total  value $35,120,218 


POWER,  COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY:    1870  TO  1900. 
[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  pages  cccxvi,  and  582.] 


Power. 


Total  number  of  establishments. 
Total  number  of  establishments 

reporting  power 

Per  cent   oi   establishments 
reporting  power  to   total 

niunber 

Total  horsepower 

Avera^  horsepower  per  es- 
tablishment  

Steam  engines: 

Number 

Horsepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

Gas  engines: 

Number 

Horsepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

Water  wheels : 

Number 

Horaepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

Electric  motors: 

Number 

Horsepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

Other  power: 

Number 

Horsepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

Total  rented  horsepower 

Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power  

EHectric  rented  horsepower. 
All    other    rented    horse- 
power  


Date  of  Census. 


1900. 


512,191 
169,364 


33  1 
11,298,119 

66.7 

156,051 
8,741,338 

77.4 

14,884 
143,850 

1.3 

39,168 
1,726,661 

15.3 

16,912 
310,729 

2.8 

2,144 
54,490 

0.5 
321,051 

2.8 
183.682 

137,369 


1890. 


355,405 
100,726 


28.3 
5,954,204 

59.1 

91,403 
4,581,305 

76.9 

0) 
8,930 

0.1 

39,005 
1,255,045 

21.1 

(1) 
15,569 

0.3 

0) 
4,784 

0.1 

88,571 


1.5 


1880. 


253,852 
85,923 


33.8 
3,410,837 

39.7 

56,483 
2,185,458 

64.1 
0) 


55,404 
1,225,379 

35.9 

0) 
0) 


0) 
0) 


1870. 
252,148 


2,346.142 

29.3 

(1) 
1,215,711 

51.8 

(1) 
0) 


0) 
1,130,431 

48.2 

0) 
0) 


(1) 


0) 


0) 
0) 


(') 


Per  Cent,  of  Increase. 


1890 

to 

1900. 


44.1 

68.1 


89.8 

12.9 

70.7 
90.8 


1,510.9 


1880 

to 

1890. 


1870 

to 

1880. 


40.0 
17.2 


I 


74.6 

48.9 

61.8 
109.6 


0.7 


45.4 
$26.9 

•    ••••• 

79.8 


0.4 
37.6 


1,895.8 


•29.6 
2.4 


8.4 


1,039.0 


0) 
0) 


262.5; 


1  Not  reported.     *  Average  for  all  establishments.     ^  Decrease.     ■*  Not  reported  separately 


2d4 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


METAL-WORKING    MACHINERY    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES— KIND, 
QUANTITY,  AND  VALUE  OF  PRODUCTS:    1900. 


Number  of   establishments   re- 
porting   

Hammers — steam,  power,  and 
drop: 

Number 

Value 

Forging  machines,  including  bolt 
headers,  and  all  other  ma- 
chines for  forging  hot  metal 
with  dies  and  by  pressure: 

Number 

Value 

Stamping,  flanging,  and  forming 
machines  for  plate  and  sheet 
metal: 

Number 

Value 

Punching  and  shearing  machines: 

Number 

Value 

Bending  and  straightening  rolls: 

Number 

Value 

Riveting  machines : 

Number 

Value 


Lathes: 
Hand — 

Number 

Value 

Engine — 

Number 

Value 

Turret,  including  all  automatic 
or  semi-automatic  lathes 
for  making  duplicate 
pieces — 

Number 

Value 


397 


857 
$671,287 


821 
$424,774 


7,895 
$1,180,960 

5,269 
$1,219,605 

914 
$202,230 

202 
$139,295 


3,945 
$306,081 

12,089 
$4,451,867 


3,687 
$2,449,121 


Boring  and  turning  mills  or  verti- 
cal lathes: 

Number .'.... 

Value 

Boring  and  drilling  machinery, 
including  all  machines  using 
drills  or  boring  bars: 

Number 

Value 

Planers,  including  plate-edge 
planers: 

Number 

Value 

Slotters  and  shapers: 

Number 

Value 

Milling  machines,  including  all 
machines  using  a  milling 
cutter: 

Number 

Value 

Sawing  machines: 

Number 

Value 

Grinding  and  polishing  machin- 
ery, including  all  machines 
using  abrasive  cutters: 

Number 

Value 

Bolt,  nut,  and  pipe  threading 
and  tapping  machines: 

Number. 

Value 

Pneumatic  hand  tools: 

Number 

Value 

All  other  metal  working  machines, 

value 

All  other  products,  value 

Amount    received    for    custom 

work  and  repairing 

Total  value  of  all  products 


534 
$1,123,314 


22,890 
$2,779,983 


1,543 
$1,808,955 

3,076 
$1,136,350 


4,119 
$2,171,966 

2,846 
$222,563 


10,014 
$880,965 


2,088 
$698,362 

6,751 
$143,325 

$2,726,901 
$16,375,956 


$3,271,369 
. .     $44,385,229 

U.  S.  Census  Bulletin. 


OUR  IRON  AND  STEEL   PRODUCTION. 


The  statement  that  in  1902  forty 
per  cent,  of  the  pig  iron  in  the  world 
was  produced  in  the  United  States 
gives  one  no  very  definite  realization 
of  the  quantity  of  that  product,  though 
he  be  reminded  on  every  hand  by  iron 
and  steel  ships,  bridges,  railroads, 
buildings,  machinery,  tools,  nails, 
tacks,  etc.,  ad  nauseam^  that  this  is 
the  iron  age.  Even  the  statement  that 
the  United  States  last  year  mined  over 
thirty  million  long  tons  of  iron  ore 
gives  one  no  adequate  impression  of 
the  vastness  of  this  amount.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  one  should  see  the  entire 
iron  ore  production  of  the  year  piled 
up  in  a  single  heap,  he  would  readily 
comprehend  this  quantity  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  pile  with  familiar  ob- 
jects in  the  landscape.  This  shows  us 
that  it   is    large   numbers    instead   of 


large  quantities  which  confuse  the 
mind ;  for  example,  the  statement  that 
a  wagon  holds  over  30,000,000  grains 
of  coal  would  give  a  person  a  very  hazy 
idea  of  the  actual  quantity  specified, 
but  he  would  immediately  comprehend 
the  quantity  if  told  that  it  represent- 
ed two  tons ;  for  a  larger  unit  of 
weight  would  be  used,  thereby  reduc- 
ing the  count  to  a  figure  well  within 
the  mental  grasp.  Thus  in  trying  to 
represent  to  our  readers  just  how  large 
are  the  quantities  of  materials  used  in 
the  iron  and  steel  industry,  we  have 
endeavored  to  choose  larger  units  of 
measurement;  and  finding  that  our 
standard  measures  are  far  too  small 
for  the  purpose,  we  have  resorted  to 
the  use  of  familiar  landmarks  as  bases 
of  comparison. 

As  a  unit  of  bulk,  no  larger  single 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK, 


COMPARATIVE  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  ANNUAL  AMOUNT  OF  RAW 
MATERIAIB  OF  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY  JN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  AS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  FINISHED  PRODUCTS  SHOWN  ON 
PAGES  296,  »7  AND  298. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


man  produced  than  the 

old  pyramid  of  Cheops,  and  large 
though  it  be,  it  is  all  too  small  when 
used  aa  a  unit  by  which  to  measure 
the  stnpeudous  volume  of  material 
used  in  our  pig-iron  production  of  a 
Biogle  year.  In  the  accompanying  il- 
lustration, the  huge  blast  furnace 
shown  at  the  left  represents  a  furnace 
which  would  receive  at  a  siuele  charge 
all  our  li'OD  ore  production  during  the 
year  1902,  together  with  the  fuel  and 
limestone  used.  The  charge  measures 
approximately  two  billion  cubic  feet, 
or  to  use  our  proposed  UDit  of  balk, 
this  would  be  e<iuivalent  to  twenty- 
four  pyramids.  As  many  indiyiduals 
may  have  formed  no  adequate  concep- 
tion of  the  size  of  tlie  Great  Pyramid, 
we  have  used  as  an  additional  basis 
of  comparison  the  tallest   building  in 


umn  400  feet  square,  tbe  column  would 
reach  an  altitude  of  6.500  feet.  No 
human  monument  is  large  enough  to 
give  us,  by  comparison  with  this  col- 
umn, any  idea  of  such  a  height.  If 
the  base  of  the  column  were  situated 
at  sea  level,  a  person  at  tbe  top  could 
look  down  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  N.  H.,  and  it  would  over- 
top every  mountain  in  this  country 
east  of  the  Rockies. 

Our  column  of  coal  includes  both 
anthracite  and  bituminous.  In  the 
last  two  years  there  has  been  a  con- 
siderable falling  off  in  the  use  of  an- 
thracite, while  bituminous  coal  mixed 
with  coke  has  show: 
over  former  years,  s 
would   probably   be 


part 


cite  coal.    Their  combined  bulk  would 


vopTTiEbt.  IKS,  hj  Huns  &  Co- 
proportion    OF    FINISHED    PRODUCTS    FORMED 
INTO    RAIL, 


the  world,  namely,  the  Park  Row 
Building  in  New  York.  This  building 
measures  390  feet  in  height,  and  it 
would  require  thirteen  such  buildings 
placed  one  above  tbe  other,  te  equal 
the  height  of  our  hypothetical  blast 
furnace. 


Of  the  contents  of  the  blast  furnace 
by  far  the  larger  bulk  is  fuel,  though 
the  weight  of  the  iron  ore  is  almost 
twice  that  of  the  fuel.  The  square  col- 
umns in  our  illustration  wilt  serve  to 
give  one  some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
fuel  which  was  consumed  in  1902  by 
the  blast  furnaces  of  the  United 
States.  A  fair  estimate  would  be 
about  16.000.000  tons  of  coke.  l.GOO.- 
000  tons  of  coal,  and  300,000  tons  of 
charcoal.  Coke  is  so  light  that  if  the 
16,000,000  tons  were  built  up  in  a  col- 


form  a  column  200  feet  square  by 
1.300  feet  high — a  midget  in  compari- 
son to  the  coke  column,  but  not  so 
small  after  all  when  compared  with 
the  Park   Row   Building. 

Charconl,  which  is  the  smallest  Item 
in  the  fuel  statistics  tor  1902,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  the  number  of  tons  of  coal, 
yet  forms  a  column  nearly  two-thirda 
the  height  of  the  coal  column,  or  twice 
that  of  the  Park  Row  Building. 


The  amount  of  limestone  used  for 
Huiing  purposes  last  year  amounted 
to  9.490,000  tons.  This  would  make  n 
column  S.-'iOO  feet  high,  with  a  cross- 
section  200  feet  square.  It  may  be  in- 
teresting to  note  here  that  oyster  shells 
are  used  in  one  of  the  furnaces  in 
Slaryland  in  place  of  limestone. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


297 


The  next  columa,  which  is  of  a 
(lelglit  equal  to  that  of  the  coke  col- 
umn, is  composed  of  34,636.121  tons 
of  iron  ore.  However,  thia  represents 
m  bulk  only  one-quarter  that   of   the 


All  the  above-meotioned  materials 
were  used  last  year  to  produce  17,- 
821,307  tons  of  pig  iron.  This  makes 
a  column  twice  the  height  of  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  the  tallest  u  ... 

skill  ID  the  world. 


into  steel;  14,947.250  tons  represent 
the  total  ontpiit  for  last  year.  Of  this, 
j>.138,363  tons  were  made  by  the  Bes- 
eemer  prweaa,  5,087,729  by  the  open- 
hearth  process,  and  121.158  tons  were 
crucible  ^teel. 


Of  the  finished  products  for  the 
year.  2,947,933  tons  represent  the 
amount  of  iron  and  steel  foi-iced  into 
rails.  If  all  this  metal  were  rolled  into 
a  single  rail  of  standard  proportions,  it 
would  measure  approsimately  81  feet 
high,  and  would  be  about  a  mile  and 
one-fiElh  long.  The  base  would,  of 
course,  equal  the  height,  and  the  tread 
\vould  have  a  width  of  43  feet.     In  onr 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


illustration  we  have  EhowQ  tlie  relative 
proportions  of  a  locomotive  of  average 
eixe  placed  on  tbis  rail. 
Next  in.  ijuanticy  to  the  iron  and 


PROPORTION      OF 
DUCTS      FORMED      INTO 
AND    SHEETS. 


steel  rail  production  is  last  year's  out- 
put of  plates  and  Blie<.>ts:  2,i;(i5,409 
ions  of  metal  were  tlius  converted. 
aiiis  amount,  if  rolled  into  a  single 
sheet  of  No.  30  standard  gage,  which  ia 
tbe  thinnest  sheet  steel  commercially 
used,  would  cover  420  square  miles,  or 
nearly  twenty  times  the  area  of  the  isl- 
and of  Maaliattau.  The  extent  of 
this  area  is  Illustrated  in  the  accom- 
panying sketch  plan  of  New  York  city 
and  its  vicinity. 

The  production  of  nails  forms  no 
small  part  of  the  Gnished  products  fur 
the  year.  Wire  nails  represent,  of 
course,  a  much  larger  part  of  the  out- 
put. Tlie  totals  are  10,a82.24B  100- 
pound  kegs  of  wire  nails  and  1,633,763 
100-pound  kegs  of  cut  nails.  Follow- 
ing the  method  in  our  two  previous 
comparisons,  we  have  represented  each 
amount  by  a  single  nail  of  standard 
proportions.  The  cut  nail  would  tow- 
er far  above  tlie  Park  liow  Building. 
measuring  almost  exactly  the  height  of 
the  Washington  Monument,  while  the 
wire  nail  wouid  rise  to  nearly  double 
this  height,  overtopping  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  and  forming  a  solid  column  of 
metal  .54  feet  in  diameter  and  1,000 
feet  high. 


CARRIAGES    AND    WAGONS. 


The  manufacture  of  carriages  and 
wagons  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
United  States  practically  since  the 
time  of  the  early  settlers.  In  the 
Census  year  1900  there  were  7,(32  es- 
tablishments, haviug  a  capital  of  $118,- 
187,838.  The  industry  gave  employ- 
ment to  66.842  persons  (officials, 
clerks,  wage-earners)  and  the  salaries 
and  wages  were  $33,888,843.  The  cost 
of  materials  used  was  |i56,676,073.  The 
value  of  products,  including  custom 
work  and  repaii'ing.  was  $121„537,27<1. 
The  increase  lu  product  of  the  Census 
year  1900  over  Census  year  1890  was 
.'(:i8,856,835. 

The  trend  of  the  industry  is  toward 
the  Central  States,  where  land  is 
cheaper,     where    suitable     lumber     is 


abundant  and  prices  are  therefore  fa- 
vorable, and  where  also  the  developed 
railroad  systems  afford  abundant 
means  of  transportation.  The  same 
rapid  development  of  the  industry  is 
seen  in  certain  of  the  Southern  States, 
such  as  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and 
Virginia,  where  lumber  is  cheap  and 
where  manufactures  are  fast  gaining 
industrial  predominance.  The  increase 
in  Massachusetts,  New  .Jersey,  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  is  due  partly 
to  tbe  growing  use  of  the  automobile, 
to  the  diminishing  use  of  the  bicycle, 
and  materially  to  the  more  perfect 
segregation  of  the  "factory  product" 
and  that  formerly  classed  as  "custom 
work  and  repairing." 


PHONOGRAPHS    AND    TALKING    MACHINES. 


In  1900  there  were  eleven  establish- 
ments engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
phonographs  and  other  talking  ma- 
chines. The  capital  invested  was  S3,- 
348,282,  and  the  industry  gave  em- 
ployment to   1,2(37  wage-earners  and 


144  salaried  officials  and  clerks.  The 
value  of  the  product  was  52,246.274. 
The  number  of  completed  machines 
was  iniAOn,  tbe  number  of  horns,  28,- 
423,  and  the  number  of  records  pro- 
duced was  2,703,277. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


399 


VALUE  OF  EXPORTS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS,  1896  TO  1900,  INCLUSIVE. 


Countries  and  Classes. 


1896. 


Aggregate '$5,176,775 

Mowers,  reapers,  and  parts  of  same : 
Total 


France 

Germany 

Russia 

United  Kingdom 

Canada 

Argentina 

British  Australasia 

All  other  countries 

Plows,  cultivators,  and  parts  of  same: 
Total 


France 

Germany 

Russia 

United  Kingdom 

Canada 

Argentina 

British  Australasia 

All  other  countries 

other  implements,  and  parts  of 
same: 
Total 


All 


France 

Germany 

Russia 

United  Kingdom .  . 

Canada 

Argentina 

British  Australasia. 
All  other  countries. 


3,212,423 


360,577 
480,773 
387,316 
333,791 
132.945 
570,332 
195,533 
751,156 

746,604 


15,048 
6,402 
23,777 
43.105 
40,533 

161,347 
32,450 

423,942 


1,217  748 


91,359 

94,552 

65,236 

211,654 

186,166 

122,488 

57,739 

388,554 


1897. 


$5,240,686 


3,127,415 


494.469 
538,430 
265,442 
360.079 
248,359 
228,391 
302,586 
689,659 

590,779 


7,992 

11,206 

3.129 

36.142 

73,023 

104.072 

39,527 

315,688 


1,522,492 


121,495 
161,182 
253,495 
246,096 
143,455 
82.849 
148,872 
365,048 


1898. 


1899. 


$7,609,732  $12,432,197 


5,500,665 


1,146,551 
1,100,210 
409,368 
874,296 
440,878 
182,283 
421,975 
925,104 

927,250 


49,330 

15.450 

29,566 

74,763 

182,809 

151,737 

108,116 

315,479 


1,181,817 


56,286 
116,582 

19,653 
195.966 
157,728 

43,034 
167,474 
425,094 


9,053,830 


1,678,865 
1,503,968 

863,476 
1,040,059 

934,962 
1,074,749 

358,862 
1,598,889 

1,545,410 


59,105 

38,898 

14,902 

69,737 

207.480 

440.996 

166,035 

548,257 


1,832,957 


43,689 
103.845 

59,848 
262,597 
378,612 
163,274 
243,775 
677,317 


1900. 


$16,099,140 


11,243,763 


2,652,795 

2,529,422 

710,066 

982,188 

1,192,458 

1,194,961 

466,397 

1,515,476 

2.178,098 


68,197 
227.378 

45,993 
179,950 
247,306 
388,903 
162,109 
858,262 


2,677,288 


189.583 
129,654 
271,671 
188,305 
571.442 
221,880 
269,776 
834,977 


— United  States  Treasury  Department:   Report  on  Commerce  and  Navigation,  1900. 


VALUE  OF  IMPLEMENTS  ON  FARMS,  BY  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES,  1900. 


States  and  Territories. 


United  States.  . . . 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut.  ...;... 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia, 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Territory. .  . . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 


Value  of 

Implements 

on  Farms. 


$749,776,660 


$8,675,900 

690 

765,200 

8,750,060 

21,311,670 

4,746,755 

4,948,300 

2,150,560 

136,060 

1,963,210 

9,804,010 

3.295.045 

44,977.310 

27,330.370 

3,939.480 

57,960,660 

29,490,580 

15,301.860 

28,536,790 

8,802,720 

8,611,220 

8,828,950 

28,795,380 

30,099,230 

9,556,805 


States  and  Territories. 


Value  of 

Implements 

on  Farms. 


Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska , 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico.  .  .  . 

New  York , 

North  Carolina.  , 
North  Dakota.  ■ 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon , 

Pennsylvania.  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  , 
South  Carolina.  , 
South  Dakota.  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.  ... 
West  Virginia. . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming , 


$28,602,680 

3,671,900 

24,940,450 

888,560 

5,163,090 

9,330,030 

1,151.610 

56,006,000 

9,072,600 

14,055.560 

36,354,150 

6.573.015 

6.506.725 

50,917,240 

1.270,270 

6,629,770 

12.218.680 

15,232,670 

30,125.705 

2.922,550 

7,538,490 

9,911,040 

6,271,630 

5.040,420 

29,237,010 

1,366,000 


800 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  PROGRESS   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

Compiled  from  "Territorial  and  Commercial  Expansion  of  the  United  States," 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 


Area  and  Population: 

Area* 

Population  ^ 

Per  square  mile  ^ 

Weal/th: 

Total  3 

Per  capita 

Public-debt  Statement: 

Public  debt,  less  cash  in  the  Treasury  ^ 

Per  capita,  less  cash  in  Treasury 

Interest-bearing  debt  • 

Annual  interest  charge 

Per  capita 

Coinage: 

Gold  coined 

Silver  coined , 

Commercial  ratio  of  silver  to  gold 

Monet  in  Circulation: 

Gold  in  circulation  ^ I 

Silver  in  circulation  ^ ( 

Gold  certificates  in  circulation 

Silver  certificates  in  circulation 

United  States  notes  (greenbacks)  in  circulation.  . 

National-bank  notes  in  circulation  (October  31). 

Miscellaneous  currency  in  circulation  ® 

Total  money  in  circulation 

Per  capita 

National  Banks: 

Reporting  nearest  June  30.    

Capital 

Loans  and  discounts 

Bank  Clearings: 

New  "York. ... 

Total  United  States."  ''.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. 
Bank  Deposits: 

National  banks  (individual) 

Savings  banks 

State  banks 

Loan  and  trust  companies 

Private  banks  i° 

Totai  bank  deposits 

Depositors  in  savings  banks 

Government  Receipts: 

Net  ordinary  " 

Customs 

Internal  revenue 

Government  Expenditures: 

Net  ordinary  ^^ 

War 

Navy 

Pensions 


In 


Sq.  miles. 

Number. 

Number. 


Dollars , 
Dollars , 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 

Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 

Dollars . 

Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Number. 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Number. 

Dollars . 
Dollars. 
Dollars . 

Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 


1800. 


827,844 

5,308.483 

6.41 


82,976,294.35 

15.63 

82,976,294 

3,402,601 

0.64 

317,760 

224,296 

15.68 

8  16,000,000 


1850. 


2,980,959 

23,191,876 

7.78 

7,135,780,000 
307^69 

63,452.773.55 

JJ./4 

63,452,774 

3,782,393 

0.16 

31.981.739 

1,866,100 

15.70 


8  147,395,456 


10,500,000 

26,500,000 

5.00 


131,366,526 

278,761,982 

12.02 


43,431,130 
109,586,595 


10,848,749 

9,080,933 

809,397 

7,411,370 

2,560,879 

3,448,716 

64,131 


251,354 

43,592,889 
39,668,686 


37,165,990 
9.687,025 
7,904,725 
1,866,886 


—      I 


1  Exclusive  of  Alaska  and  islands  belonging  to  the  United  States. 

2  No  official  figures  in  other  than  census  years. 

3  True  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property. 

*  Estimated. 

*  1800  to  1840,  outstanding  principal  of  the  public  debt  January  1 ;  1850  to  1855,  out- 
standing principal  of  the  public  debt  July  1. 

®  Figures  for  the  yeai-s  1800  to  1855  include  the  total  public  debt. 

7  Gold  and  silver  cannot  be  stated  seoarately  prior  to  1876.  From  1862  to  1875,  inclu- 
sive, gold  and  silver  were  not  in  circulation  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  average  soecie  circulation  was  about  $25,000,000,  and  this  estimate  is 
continued  for  the  three  following  years  under  the  head  of  gold.  After  that  period  gold 
was  available  for  circulation. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBFBBBNCE    BOOK. 


IN  ITS  AREA,  POPULATION.  AND  MATERIAL  INDUSTRIES. 
luued  by  Che  Bure&u  of  Stalistica,  Dspsrtiiunt  of  Conimercs  nnd    Labor. 


1860. 

„.. 

,». 

1890. 

'" 

1903. 

3,025,609 

•'•"a 

iSS 

i!|| 

3,025,800 
62,622,250 

85,037,091,009 
1,038.57 

25.22 

«ffl 

'  228,304,n5 

2,046,466,721 

„,,...» 

25,000,000 

'■  7e;833;981 

62,308,279 
27,41  l,89f 

'  lii 

327',895'.46; 
337,415.178 

725,313,110 
29.117,803 

1,023,478,881 
33,515, 13( 

36:315:321 

610,806,472 
112,050,334 
200,733.019 
108. 185 ,57' 

309:iI6:ili 

79.008,042 

2,055,150,091 

621.538:48: 
2,023:512:201 

13.883,971 

38-10 

817,280,739 
165,117.931 

ii'i 

2S8!648'081 

.SS 

i,8i: 

27,804,630,406 

19.076,618 
2,387,692,169 

435,407,252 

973,382,228 

165,9091581 
094,712,640 

37,182,128,621 

22.82 

1,933:500:333 

37,880,688.672 
68.846,279,505 

1,621.716.865 
336,458.602 

..£;|:|i 

Si 
lis 

743.506,018 

7,231,113,067 

.Itimi-t^ 

BS 

833,701,034 
819,106,97! 

SS 

2,131,231,881 
2,335,682 

333.528,501 
186,522,066 
121,090,374 

119.090,062 
38,118,016 
13.536,086 
66,777  171 

2,158,092,758-     3.209,903,600 

jsas 

98.206,049,        133,217,990 

!!K!!S 

rsi 

'lis 

^■^8;io7:o8i 

567.240,862 
447.653,468 

111 

in,512,858 
118,610,620 

lnclu<£»  BOU 

™^ 

bank  of 

n™'* 

vat. 

■i«S5 

1800, 

mi  t. 

tboft 

nlpr 

'  indude  I 

Vf.v, 

T..t 

p>^e.U  for 

302 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY   OF    PROGRESS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 


Government  Expenditures — Continued. 

Interest  on  public  debt 

Pensioners 

Imports  of  Merchandise: 

Total 

Per  capita  ^ 

Exports  of  Merchandise: 

Total 

Per  capita  * 

Imports  of  Gold  and  Silver: 

Gold 

Silver 

Exports  of  Gold  and  Silver: 

Golds 

Silver  3 

Imports  for  Consumption,  Grouped  According 

to  Degree  of  Manufacture  and  Uses: 
Food  and  liye  animals 

Per  cent  of  total 

Crude  articles  for  domestic  industries 

Per  cent  of  total 

Articles  manufactured  whoUv  or  partially  for  use 
as  materials  in  the  mecBanic  arts 

Per  cent  of  total 

Articles  manufactured  ready  for  consumption . . . 

Per  cent  of  total 

Articles  of  voluntary  use,  luxuries,  etc 

Per  cent  of  total 

Total  imports 

Domestic  Merchandise  Exported,  Grouped  Ac- 
cording TO  Sources  of  Production: 
Agricultural  products 

Per  cent  oi  total 

Manufactures 

Per  cent  of  total 

Mining 

Per  cent  of  total 

Forest 

Per  cent  of  total 

Fisheries 

Per  cent  of  total 

Miscellaneous 

Per  cent  of  total 

Total  domestic  exports 

Imports  by  Grand  Divisions  of  the  World:  ^ 
Europe 

Per  cent  of  total 

North  America 

Per  cent  of  total 

South  America 

Per  cent  of  total 

Asia 

Per  cent  of  total 

Oceania  * 

Per  cent  of  total 

Africa 

Per  cent  of  total 

Exports  by  Grand  Divisions  of  the  World:  *.  . 
Europe 

Per  cent  of  total 

North  America 

Per  cent  of  total 


In 


Dollars. 
Number. 

Dollars. 
Dollars. 

Dollars. . 
Dollars. , 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 

Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars , 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars. 

Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars , 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars 
Dollars . 


Dollars , 
Dollars . 
Dollars. 


Dollars . 
boilars! 


1800. 


3,402,601 


91,252,768 
17.19 

70,971,780 
13.37 


25,590,534 

80.37 

2,493,755 

7.83 


2,228,863 

7.00 

1,098,511 

3.45 

429,240 

1.35 

31,840,903 

46,857,960 
51.35 

32,116,092 
35.19 


11,560,810 

12.67 

142,969 

0.16 

551.496 

0.60 

41,348,088 
58.26 

27,208,618 
38.34 


1850. 


3.782,393 


173,509,526 

7.48 

144,375,726 
6.23 

1,776,706 
2,852,086 

4,560,627 
2,962.367 


32,718,076 
18.86 

18,105,147 
10.44 

30,857,522 
17.78 

65,887,552 
37.97 

25,941.229 

14.95 

173,509,528 


108,605,713 

80.51 

17,580,456 

13.03 

167,090 

0.12 

4,590,747 

3.40 

2,824,818 

2.10 

1,131,409 

0.84 

134,900,233 

124,954,302 

70.14 

24,136,879 

13.55 

16,647,637 

9.35 

10,315,486 

5.79 

1,401,340 

0.79 

682,151 

0.38 

113.862,253 

74.96 

24,722,610 

16.27 


\n 


^  Based  on  total  imports  to  1800 ;  after  that  on  imports  for  consumption  only. 

2  Based  on  total  exports  to  1860 ;  after  that  on  domestic  exports  only. 

3  Gold  and  sib/er  cannot  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  before  1864,  but  it 
probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold.     Gold  and  silver  contained 


in  ore  are  included  under  gold  and  silver  since  1894. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


808 


AREA,  POPULATION,  AND 

MATERIAL    INDUSTRIES— Continued. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

3.144,121 

129,235,498 

95,757.575 

36.099,284 

40,160,333 

28,556,349 

8,636 

198,686 

250.802 

537.944 

993,529 

996,585 

353,616.119 

435,958,408 

667,954.746 

789.310,409 

849,941.184 

1,025,719.237 

11.25 

11.06 

12.51 

12.35 

10.88 

12.54 

333,576,057 

392,771,768 

835.638,658 

857,828.684 

1,394,483.082 

1.420,141.679 

10.61 

9.77 

16.43 

13.50 

17.96 

17.32 

2,508,786 

12,056,950 

80.758.396 

12.943.342 

44.573,184 

44.982.027 

6,041,349 

14,362,229 

12,275,914 

21,032,984 

35,256,302 

24,163,491 

58,446,039 

33,635,962 

3,639,025 

17.274,491 

48.266,759 

47.090.595 

8,100,200 

24,519,704 

13,503.894 

34,873,929 

56,712,275 

44.250.259 

78,338,514 

139,213,092 

199,165,963 

288.600.646 

216,107.303 

212,057.293 

22.15 

32.65 

31.72 

32.13 

26.02 

21.04 

61,570,477 

66,909.565 

160,055,876 

178,435.512 

299.351,033 

383.634.293 

17.41 

15.69 

25.52 

23.06 

36.04 

38.06 

31,939,551 

53,658,296 

73,186.963 

84,700.568 

80.575.042 

97,194,094 

9.03 

12.59 

11.66 

10.94 

9.70 

9.64 

123,741,654 

119,298,235 

130,004.643 

154,469,354 

130,577,155 

169,259,497 

35.00 

27.98 

20.72 

19.96 

15.72 

16.79 

58,025,923 

47,266,822 

65,141.826 

107,468,732 

103,908,719 

145,814,933 

16.41 

11.09 

10.38 

13.91 

12.51 

14.47 

353,616,119 

426,346,010 

627,555.271 

773,674,812 

830.519.252 

1,007.960.110 

256,560,972 

361,188,483 

685,961.091 

629,820,808 

835,858,123 

873.322,882 

81.13 

79.35 

83.25 

74.51 

60.98 

62.73 

40,345,892 

68,279,764 

102,856.015 

151,102,376 

433.851,756 

407.526,150 

12.76 

15.00 

12.48 

17.87 

31.65 

29.28 

999,465 

5,026,111 

5.863.232 

22.297,765 

37,843.742 

39.311.239 

0.31 

1.10 

0.71 

2.64 

2.76 

2.81 

10.299,959 

14,897,963 

17,321,268 

29,473,084 

52,218.112 

57.835.896 

3.26 

3.27 

2.11 

3.49 

3.81 

4.16 

4,156,480 

2,835,508 

5,255,402 

7,458,385 

6,326,620 

7,805.538 

1.31 

0.62 

0.64 

0.88 

0.46 

0.56 

3,879,655 

2,980,512 

6.689.345 

5,141,420 

4.665.218 

6,429,588 

1.23 

0.66 

0.81 

0.61 

0.34 

0.46 

316,242,423 

455,208,341 

823,946,353 

845.293,828 

1,370,763,571 

1,392,231,302 

216,831,353 

249.540,283 

370.821,782 

449,987.266 

440,567,314 

547.226.887 

59.87 

53.98 

55.52 

57.14 

51.84 

53.35 

75,082,583 

126,544,611 

130.077,225 

148,368,706 

130,035,221 

189.736,475 

20.73 

27.42 

19.47 

18.84 

15.30 

18.49 

35,992,719 

43,596,045 

8£;,  120,922 

90,006.144 

93,666,774 

107,428,323 

9.94 

9.41 

12.30 

11.43 

11.02 

10.48 

26,201,603 

31,413,378 

67.008,793 

67,506.833 

139,842,330 

147.702.374 

7.24 

0.78 

10.02 

8.57 

16.45 

14.40 

3,495,226 

1,423,212 

«  14.130,604 

28,356,568 

34,611,108 

21.043.527 

0.96 

0.31 

2.13 

3.60 

4.07 

2.05 

3,798,518 

7  9.860.058 

3.789.420 

3.321,477 

11.218,437 

12.581,651 

1.05 

2.10 

0.56 

0.42 

1.32 

1.23 

310,272,818 

420,184.014 

719.433,788 

683,736,397 

1,040.167,763 

1.029.256,657 

77.54 

79.35 

80.10 

79.74 

74.60 

72.48 

53,325,937 

68.962.006 

69.437.783 

94.100.410 

187.594.625 

215,482,769 

13.33 

13.03 

8.31 

10.98 

13.45 

15.16 

^  In  1870  specie  is  included  in  totals,  but  excluded  in  following  years. 
^  Hawaiian  Islands  not  included  since  1900. 
^  Includes  *  'All  other  Spanish  possessions. ' ' 
7  Includes  '*AI1  other  countries. " 


304 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  PROGRESS   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 


-Cont'd. 


I  In  American  vessels. 
I  In  foreign  vessels .  . . 


Exports  by  Grand  Divisions  of  the  World- 
South  America 

Per  cent  of  total 

Asia 

Per  cent  of  total 

Oceania  ^ 

Per  cent  of  total 

Africa 

Per  cent  of  total , 

Transportation  of  Foreign  Commerce: 
Imports — 

Bv  qfta  -I  ^^  American  vessels.  , 

ny  sea  ^  j^^  foreign  vessels 

Total , 

Share  carried  in  American  vessels.  .  . 

By  land  vehicles 

Total  by  land  and  sea.  .  , 

Exports— 

By  sea 

'  Total 

Share  carried  in  American  vessels 

By  land  vehicles 

Total  By  land  and  sea 

Foreign  Commerce  of  Principal  Customs  Dis- 
tricts : 

Boston |g^?SS::: 

New  York 1  ^^^^S.'  ! ! ! 

PhUadelphia j  ^"^^Jtl:  1 ! ! 

Baittoo« U^^r^';;:: 

New  Orleans ]  ^^^^S."  ! !  i 

San  Francisco Ux^?S;  ! ! ! 

Farm  Statistics: 

Farms 

Persons  engaged  in  agriculture 

Value  of  farms  and  farm  property 

Value  of  farm  products 

Farm  Animals: 

Tot£a  value 

Cattle 

Horses 

Sheep 

Mules 

Swine 

Production  of  Principal  Commodities: 

Wool 

Wheat 

Corn 

Cotton 

Cane-sugar 

Production  of  Principal  Minerals: 

Precious  metals — 

Gold 

Silver 

Coal  ft. 

Petroleum 

Pig  iron 


In 


1800. 


1850. 


Dollars 
Dollars . 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Dollars .  . 
Dollars,  . 
Dollars. , 
Per  cent. 
Dollars. . 
Dollars . . 


Dollars. . 
Dollars . . 
Dollars . . 
Per  cent. 
Dollars . . 
Dollars . . 


Dollars. 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars , 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 


Number. 
Number. 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 


Dollars . , 
Number. 
Number. 
Number. 
Number. 
Number. 

Pounds. 
Bushels. . 
Bushels. , 
Bales. .  .  , 
Tons 


Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Tons . . . 
Gallons. 
Tons . . . 


1  Hawaiian  Islands  not  included  since  1900. 

2  Includes  *  'All  other  Spanish  possessions." 

*  Includes  *  'All  other  countries." 

*  Gold  values. 

^  Does  not  include  value  of  products  fed  to  live  stock. 


1,177,846 

1.66 

14,112 

0.02 

1,110,374 
1.56 


9,076,724 

5.98 

3,051,720 

2.01 

208,129 

0.14 

977,284 

0.64 


139,657,043 

38,481,275 

178,138,318 

78.4 


155,556 


178,138,318 

99,615,041 

52,283,679 

151,998,720 

65.4 


151,998,720 


1,449,073 


3,967,343,580 


544,180,516 

17,778,907 

4,336,719 

21,773,220 

559,331 

30,354,213 

52,516,959 

100,485,944 

592,071,104 

2,333,718 

110,526 


50.000,000 

50,000 

3,358,899 


563,765 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AREA,  POPULATION.  AND  MATERIAL  INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


18(10. 

..» 

1860. 

ISBD. 

,». 

1903. 

lfl.7«,100 

21, SSI,  499 

23,190.220 

38,752.048 

38  046  763 

41.137,8  3 

4-18 

4.09 

2.77 

4.53 

2.79 

2.90 

11,007.92: 

10,972,004 

11,645.70; 

19.696.82 

04.913.807 

58.339.0  a 

1.39 

s,37a,iB: 

4.334,991 

'  6,846,698 

16,400,26 

43,391,27( 

37,468.5  2 

0,82 

0.82 

1,02 

3.11 

2.64 

3,237!™ 

'5,084,460 

4,813.702 

lB.48B,S4t 

38.430.853 

0,04 

b.Rl 

0,54 

22S,lfl4.B55 

153.237,077 

14B,317.3a 

124,948,948 

104,304.940 

123,600.832 

134,001,309 

309,I4D..5I0 

363, 106.  M^ 

462,377.&S7 

959:511:042 

S3.0 

33.1 

22.9 

12.9 

15.142.4155 

40.621.36 

44,413,.»! 

66,208.195 

'iei,m.m 

402,377.587 

607.954,748 

789.310.409 

849.B4I.184 

1.026.719,237 

279,081,801 

199,732.324 

100.039,209 

-91,023,200 

121,039,39. 

329.786.978 

720.770.531 

747;37a:fl4. 

1.193;220;lJ89 

1.190,262,178 

400,122, 201 

529,510.302 

839,709,731 

834,878.78; 

1,283.899,041 

1.281,290,378 

5,338,92) 
835.fl3S,fi58 

8S7;828;il84 

110,483,141 
1.394,483.082 

138.861,301 

■466,122.298 

■'■  529,519.363 

1.420,141.079 

39  383  684 

47.484.060 

68.503,136 

82,876.606 

72,195,939 

86. 3 10.680 

14.120.420 

59.238,241 

71,201.944 

112,195,505 

88,126.444 

381.048.81! 

459,937.153 

516,420,093 

SS7 .237.282 

OIS.705.662 

S0iO47>7l 

3S2,iaO,DQI 

349,061,791 

S  18.834,471 

505,829.694 

]4:4S3l2l] 

53,930,316 

59,996.431 

lfl.B27.610 

49:B4b;69: 

37,410,683 

78|4Oa:03' 

73.531.908 

19.512,468 

19,945.1189 

13,140.203 

19,045.279 

27.803.167 

S|940il0fl 

14,510,733 

78,263,501 

73.983,69 

116.530.378 

81,704,497 

20.636.310 

14377  471 

17.490.811 

28,880.744 

10s.1e4.s1  a 

107.5'W.fl52 

eo;44i:Dii 

1081126:89 

115,858,764 

149.072.519 

7.367.01(1 

is.e»2,s4{ 

35.231.751 

48.751,223 

47.809.028 

36.4S4.2SI 

4,808.090 

32,358.929 

36.870.09 

40,368.288 

33.602.816 

2.044.077 

a.«59,9S6 

4.008.907 

4,5M.6*! 

6.739.657 

S.B22,M1 

7.713.876 

8,505.920 

10.438.219 

■  i,m.m.m 

12.180.501.538 

16.082,267.689 

2O.514.00l.8SS 
•  8,704,177,700 

•  UB58!03Di921 

2,212.S40.927 

I,DS9.S2!I.01G 

1,524.000, 1 4[ 

1,578.  17.55h 

2.4)8,700,028 

2.228.123,134 

3.102.515,540 

25,016,01! 

33,  58,00 

iim.m 

43:902:41. 

61:764:433 

6,249,17: 

S!24S|S0( 

13,537.521 

22,471,27S 

40,853.000 

44;336;07i 

41,883,065 

63:964:876 

1.1B1.148 

1,179.500 

1.  29.50 

2,331.021 

3.080.027 

2.72S.088 

33.al2.8B7 

26,7S1.400 

37.079.356 

46,022,024 

KI.2M,913 

162.000,000 

232,800,000 

276.000,000 

288,036,621 

287,450,000 

173.104.924 

235.884 ,70( 

498,549.801 

39a,2|12,00( 

523,229,505 

837,821,835 

838,792,740 

1,717.434,54; 

3,10i.!02,Sl( 

2.244.176.925 

4,361,292 

Siiulso! 

10,727,559 

119,040 

46,800 

92.802 

136,503 

'i4s:i9: 

2B3,3B7 

46.000.600 

50.000.000 

30  000  000 

32  845  000 

79171000 

74.425,340 

loO.ODO 

16,000,000 

3  .'200,'DO 

7o;4a.V7i. 

T4:S33:49l 

73,076,108 

1S.S13.12 

32.8B3.000 

03,822.830 

140.866.931 

240,798,309 



220.(151.290 

1,10  ,017, IC 

1,024,5,52.22. 

2,061,233,5M 

. .      ...... 

'  PennBylvan 
<  to  1B02. 
'  In  addition 


ahipmeDts  ooly  [roni  1820  to 
estimated  that  10,000,000  bi 


306 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  PROGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 


Production  of  Principal  Minerals — Continued. 

Steel 

Copper 

Total  value  all  mineral  production  in  U.  S. .  . . 
Manufacturing  Industries  of  the  U.  S.  : 

Manufacturing  establishments  ^ 

Average  employees  i 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  ^ 

Value  of  products  ^ 

Manufactures  of  Iron  and  Steel:  i 

Establishments 

Wages  and  salaries  paid 

Value  of  products 

Imports 

Exports 

Tin  Plates: 

Imports 

Production 

Manufactures  op  Cotton  :3 

Establishments  i 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  i 

Value  of  products  ^ 

Exports. .  . 

Imports 

Cotton  Movement: 

Domestic  cotton  taken  by  United  States  mills .  .  . 

Exports  of  domestic  cotton -J 

Raw  cotton  imported 

Manufactures  of  Wool:  3 

Establishments  * 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  ^ 

Value  of  products  ' 

Imports 

Raw  wool  imported 

Manufactures  of  Silk: 

Establishments  * 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  * 

Value  of  products  i 

Imports.  .1 

Raw  silk  imported 

Imports  of  nViidft  r^|hhftr 

Sugar: 

Imports j 

Average  cost  per  pound  in  foreign  countries.  .  .  . 
Wholesale  prices  of  granulated,  at  New  York .  .  . 

Total  consumption 

Consumption  per  capita - .  .  . 

Coffee: 

Imports \ 

Average  import  price  per  pound  at  New  York. . . 

Consumption  per  capita  ®. 

Tea: 

Imports j 

Average  import  price  per  pound  at  New  York.   . 

Consumption  per  capita  ^ 

Railways: 

In  operation. . 

Passengers  carried 

Freight  carried  one  mile 


In 


Tons.  .. 
Tons . . . 
Dollars . 


Number. 
Number. 
Dollars. , 
Dollars . , 


Number. 
Dollars. 
Dollars . 
Dollars. 
Dollars . 


Pounds.  . 
Lbs.,  net. 


Number. 
Dollars. 
Dollars . 
Dollars. 
Dollars. 


Bales. . . 
Pounds. 
Dollars . 
Pounds. 


Number. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Poimds. 


Number. 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Dollars . 
Poimds. 
Pounds. 


Pounds. 
Dollars . 
Cents. . . 
Cents. . . 
Tons . . . 
Pounds. 


Pounds. 
Dollars . 
Cents.  . 
Pounds. 

Pounds. 
Dollars . 
Cents.  . 
Pounds. 


Miles.  . . 
Number. 
Tons 


1800. 


52,144 


4,239,987 


1850. 


650 


123,025 

957,059 

236.755.464 

1,019,106,616 


20,145,067 
1,953,702 


1,094 


61,869,184 

4,734,424 

20,108,719 

595.000 

635,381,607 

71,984,616 

269jll4 

1,675 


48,608,779 
19,620,619 
18,695,294 

67 


1,809,476 
17,639.624 


218,430,764 

7,555,603 

3.46 


239,409 
23.1 

145,272,687 

11,234,835 

7.6 

5.60 

29,872,654 

4,719,232 

14.1 

1.22 

9,021 


^  No  official  figures  in  other  than  census  years. 

2  1891,  last  six  months. 

3  Does  not  include  hosiery  and  knit  goods. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


30 


AREA,  POPULATION,   AND  MATERIAL    INDUSTRIES—Continued. 


1860. 


7.200 


140.433 

1,311,246 

378,878,966 

1,885,861,676 


26,158,235 
5,870,114 


1,091 

23,940,108 

115,681,774 

10,934,796 

33,215,541 

979,000 

1,767,686,338 

191,806,555 

2,005,529 

1,476 

11.699,630 

73,454,000 

43,141,988 

(*) 

139 

1,050,224 

6,607,771 

32,726,134 


694,838,197 

31,078,970 

4.38 


428,785 
30.5 

202,144,733 

21,883,797 

10.8 

5.79 

31,696,657 

8,915,327 

26.3 

0.84 

30,626 


1870. 


68,750 

12,600 

218,598,994 

252,148 

2,053,996 

775,584,343 

4,232,325,442 

808 

40,514,981 

207,208,696 

40,273,682 

13,483,163 

150,932,768 


956 

39,044,132 

177,489,739 

3,787,282 

23,380,053 

857,000 

958,558,523 

227,074,624 

1,698,133 

3,208 

35,928,150 

199,257,262 

34,490,668 

49,230,199 

86 

1,942,286 

12,210,662 

23,904,048 

583,589 

^  9,624,098 

1,196,773,569 

56,923,745 

4.95 

13.51 

607,834 

35.3 

235,256,574 

24,234,879 

10.3 

6.00 

47,408,481 

13,863,273 

29.4 

LIO 

52,922 


1880. 


1,247,335 

27,000 

369,319,000 

253,852 

2,732,595 

947,953,795 

5,369,579,191 

1,005 

55,476,785 

296,557,685 

71,266,699 

14,716,524 

379,902,880 


756 

45,614,419 

192,090,110 

9,981,418 

29,929,366 

1,795,000 

1,822,061,114 

211,535,905 

3,547,792 

2,330 
40,687,612 

238,085.686 
33,911,093 

128,131,747 

382 

9,146,705 

41,033,045 

32,188,690 

2,562,236 

16,826.099 

1,829,291,684 

80,087,720 

4.18 

9.80 

956,784 

42.9 

446,850,727 

60,360,769 

13.5 

8.78 

72,162,936 

19,782,631 

27.4 

1.39 

93,262 


1890. 


4,277,071 

115,966 

619,648,925 

355,415 

4,712,622 

2,283,216,529 

9,372,437,283 

719 

95,736,192 

478,687,519 

41,679,591 

25,542,208 

680,060,925 
2  2,236,743 

905 

69,489,272 

267,981,724 

9,999,277 

29,918,055 

2,325.000 

2,471,799,853 

250,968,792 

8,606,049 

1,693 
58,397,470 

270,527,511 
56,582,432 

105,431,285 

472 
17,762,441 
87,298,454 
38,686,374 
7,347,909 
33,842,374 

2,934,011,560 

96,094,532 

3.28 

6.27 

1,476,377 

52.8 

499,159,120 

78,267,432 

16.0 

7.83 

83.886,829 

12,317,493 

15.0 

1.33 

166,703 

520,439,082 

79,192,985,125 


1900. 


10,188,329 

270,588 

1,063,620,548 

512,734 

5,719,137 

2,735:430,848 

13,039,279,566 

725 

134.739.004 

835.759,034 

20,478,728 

121,913,548 

147,963,804 
677,969,600 

1,055 

94,039,951 

339,200,320 

24,003,087 

41,296,239 

3,644,000 

3,100,583,188 

241,832,737 

67,398,521 

1,414 
64,389,312 

296,990,484 
16.164,446 

155,928,455 

483 
20,982,194 
107,256,258 
30,894,373 
13,043,714 
49,377,138 

4,018,086,530 

100,250,974 

2.49 

5.32 

2,219,847 

65.2 

787,991,911 

52,467,943 

6.7 

9.81 

84,845.107 

10,558,110 

12.4 

1.09 

194,334 

584,695,935 

141,162,109,413 


1903. 


51,617,312 
96,642,467 

109,913,293 


32,216,304 
52,462,755 

3,924,000 

3,543,043,022 

316,180,429 

74,874,426 


19,546,385 
177,137,796 


35,963,552 
15,270,600 
55,010,571 

6  4,216,108,106 

72,088,973 

L71 

4.64 

2,549,643 

71.1 

915,086,380 

59,200,749 

6.5 

10.79 

108,574,905 

15,659,229 

14.5 

1.30 


*  Quantity  not  stated 

^  Does  not  include  sugar  from  Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico. 

^  Consumption  per  capita  based  on  net  imfKsrts. 


308 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  PROGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 


Railways — Continued. 

Freight  rates  per  ton  per  mile. 

Passenger  cars ^ 

Freight  cars 

American  Vessels: 

BuUt 

Engaged  in  foreign  trade 

Engaged  in  domestic  trade 

Engaged  in  commerce  of  Great  I^akes 

Vessels  passing  through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal . 
Freight  Rates  on  Wheat,  Chicago  to  New  York 

Lake  and  canal  ^ 

Lake  and  rail 

All  rail 

Consumption  of  Wines  and  Liquors: 
Wines — 

Consimiption 

Consumption  per  capita 

Malt  liquors — 

Consumption 

Consumption  per  capita 

Distilled  spirits — 

Consumption 

Consumption  per  capita 

Total  consumption  of  wines  and  liquors.  . .  . 

Total  consumption  per  capita 

Prices  of  Staple  Commodities  :  ^ 

Pig  iron,  No.  1,  foundry,  per  ton 

Steel  rails,  standard  sections,  per  ton 

Middling  cotton,  per  pound  *.  . 

Standard  sheetings,  per  yard 

Standard  prints,  per  yard 

Wa««hed  Ohio-fleece  wool,  July  1 — 

Fine 

Medium \. 

Coarse 

Commercial  Failures: 

Reported 

Amount  of  liabilities 

Post-office  Statistics: 

Post-offices 

Receipts  of  Post-oflBce  Department.  .    

Telegraph  messages  sent  ^ 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  published 

Public  Schools: 

Pupils  enrolled 

Average  daily  attendance 

Salaries  paid  superintendents  and  teachers 

Total  expenditures 

Students     in     Colleges,     Universities,     and 
Schools  of  Technology: 

Men 

Women 

Total 

Patents  issued 

Immigrants  arrived 


In 


Cents.  .  . 
Number. 
Number. 


Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tonnage. 


Cts.  per  bu. 
Cts.  per  bu. 
Cts.  per  bu. 


Gallons. 
Gallons. 


Gallons. 
GalloDs. 


Gallons.  - .  . 
Gallons.  ..  . 
Proof  galls. 
Proof  galls . 


1800. 


106,261 
669,921 
301.919 


Dollars , 
Dollars . 
Cents.  . 
Cents.  . 
Cents.  . 


1850. 


279,255 
1,585,711 
1,949,743 

108,266 


6,315,871 
0.27 

36,563,009 
1.58 

51.833.473 
2.23 

94.712.353 
4.08 

20.88 


Cents. 
Cents. 
Cents. 


Number. 
Dollars . . 

Number. 
Dollars.  . 
Number. 
Number. 


Nxmiber. 
Number. 
Dollars.  . 
Dollars.  . 


Number. 
Number. 
Number. 
Number. 
Number. 


903 
280,804 


12.34 

7.87 
10.62 

45 
37 
30 


18,417 
5,499,985 


2,526 


993 
310,004 


1  Including  canal  tolls  under  1882,  but  not  Buffalo  transfer  charges. 

2  For  domestic  consumption;  local  rate  for  exports  only  9.08  cents  in  1900. 
^  At  Philadelphia. 

^  Net  prices. 

*  Western  Union  to  1885;  includes  Postal  Telegraph  1885  to  date. 

0  Figures  from  1870  to  date;  from  Rowell's  Newspaper  Directory. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


309 


AREA,    POPULATION,   AND  MATERIAL  INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


1      1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

75 

26,786 

1,350,258 

393,790 

826,694 

4,338.145 

1,565.587 

22,315,834 

1903. 

1 

93 

21,664 

1,099,205 

294,122 

946,695 

3,477,802 

1,063,063 

8.454,435 

12,788 
544.185 

157,409 
1,352.810 
2,715,224 

605,102 
1,734,890 

1   

214,797 

2,546,237 

2,807,631 

467.774 

403,657 

276,953 

1,516,800 

2,729,707 

684,704 

690,826 

436.152 

888.776 

5.198,569 

1.902.698 

27,736,444 

24.83 

i 

17.11 
22.0 
33.3 

12,225,067 
0.32 

12.27 
15.7 
19.9 

28,329.541 
0.56 

5.85 

8.5 

14.31 

28,956,981 
0.46 

4.42 

5.05 

2  9.98 

30,427,491 
0.40 

5.44 
6.17 

11.33 

11,059,141 
0.35 

39.413,201 
0.49 

101,346,669 
3.22 

204,756,156 
5.31 

414,220,165 
8.26 

855,792,335 
13.67 

1,221,500,160 
16.01 

1.449,879.952 
18.04 

89,968,651 

2.86 

202,374.461 

6.44 

79,895,708 

2.07 

296,876,931 

7.70 

63.526,694 

1.27 

506,076,400 

10.09 

87,829,562 

1.40 

972,578,878 

15.53 

97,248,382 

1.27 

1,349,176,033 

17.68 

117,252,148 

1.46 

1.606,545,301 

19.99 

22.75 

33.25 
106.75 
23.98 
14.58 
12.41 

28.50 

67.50 

11.51 

8.51 

7.41 

18.40 

31.75 

11.07 

7.00 

6.00 

19.98 

32.29 

9.25 

6.05 

5.00 

19.92 
28.00 

11.00 
8.73 
9.50 

11.18 
6.25 
5.00 

55 
50 
40 

46 
45 
43 

46 
48 
42 

33 
37 
29 

28^ 

31 

27 

3U 
3U 

27 

3.676 
79,807,000 

3.546 
88,242,000 

4,735 
65,752,000 

10,907 
189,856,964 

10,774 
138,495,673 

12.069 
155,444,185 

28,498 
8,518,067 

1      ■•.•,•.•••., 

28,492 

19,772,221 

9,157,646 

«  5,871 

42.989 

33,315,479 

29,215.509 

9,723 

62,401 
60.882.097 
63.258,762 

16.948 

76,688 

102,354,579 

79,696.227 

20,806 

74.169 

134,224.443 

91,391,443 

4,051 

20,485 

1 

6,871,522 

4,077,347 

37,832,566 

63.396.666 

6,867,505 

6.144,143 

55.942,972 

78,094,687 

12,722.581 

8.153.635 

91.836.484 

140.506,715 

15.503.110 

10.632.772 

137.687.746 

214,964.618 

■ 

44.926 
10,761 
55,687 
26,292 
455,302 

72,159 
26,764 
98,923 
26.499 
448,572 

1 



7  38,227 

13.947 

457,257 

j         4,778 
8  150,237 

i 

13,333 
«  387.203 

31,699 
857,046 

'  Figures  for  the  year  1880  are  for  the  calendar  year  preceding  the  fiscal  year,  and 
include  non-resident  graduates;  figures  of  later  years  are  exclusive  of  non-resident  grad- 
uate students. 

*  Calendar  year. 

^  Years  ending  June  30  to  date. 


310  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REPERENCB    BOOK. 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  WITH  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


Ths  Departments  of  the  Fedebax.  Government. 


The  following  is  a  brief  r6sum6  of  the  work  carried  on  by  the  Depart- 
ments of  the  Goyernment  service,  and  in  many  cases  the  individual  bureaus 
and  divisions  are  noted.  Information  germane  to  the  work  of  the  bureaus, 
etc.,  is  cheerfully  given. 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE. 


The  Attorney-General  is  the  head  of 
the  Department  of  Justice  and  the 
chief  law  oflScer  of  the  Government. 
He  represents  the  United  States  in 
matters  involving  legal  questions ;  he 
gives  his  advice  and  opinion,  when 
they  are  required  by  the  President  or 
by  the  heads  of  the  other  Executive 
Departments,  on  questions  of  law  aris- 


ing in  the  administration  of  their  re- 
spective Departments ;  he  exercises  a 
general  superintendence  and  direction 
over  United  States  attorneys  and  mar- 
shals in  all  judicial  districts  in  the 
States  and  Territories ;  and  he  pro- 
vides special  counsel  for  the  United 
States  whenever  required  by  any  De- 
partment of  the  Government. 


THE  DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 


The  Secretary  of  State  is  charged, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Presi- 
dent, with  the  duties  appertain- 
ing to  correspondence  with  the 
public  ministers  and  the  consuls 
of  the  United  States,  and  with 
the  representatives  of  foreign  powers 
accredited  to  the  United  States ;  and 
to  negotiations  of  whatever  character 
relating  to  the  foreign  affairs  of  the 
United  States.  He  is  also  the  medium 
of  correspondence  between  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  chief  executives  of  the 
several  States  of  the  United  States ; 
he  has  the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal 
of  the  I-nited  States,  and  countersigns 
and  affixes  such  seal  to  all  executive 
proclamations,  to  various  commissions, 
and  to  warrants  for  the  extradition  of 


fugitives  from  justice.  He  is  regard- 
ed as  the  first  in  rank  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Cabinet. 

The  Secretary  of  State  is  also  the 
custodian  of  the  treaties  made  with 
foreign  States,  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  He  grants  and  issues 
passports,  and  exequaturs  to  foreign 
consuls  in  the  United  States  are  is- 
sued through  his  oflSce.  He  publishes 
the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress, 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and 
proclamations  declaring  the  admission 
of  new  States  into  the  Union.  He  is 
also  charged  with  certain  annual  re- 
ports to  Congress  relating  to  commer- 
cial information  received  from  diplo- 
matic and  consular  officers  of  the 
United  States. 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  TREASURY. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
charged  by  law  with  the  management 
of  the  national  finances.  He  prepares 
plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  rev- 
enue and  for  the  support  of  the  public 
credit;  superintends  the  collection  of 
the  revenue,  and  directs  the  forms  of 
keeping  and  rendering  public  accounts 
and  of  making  returns ;  grants  war- 
rants for  all  moneys  drawh  from  the 
Treasury  in  pursuance  of  appropria- 
tions made  by  law,  and  for  the  pay- 
ment of  moneys  into   the  Treasury; 


and  annually  submits  to  Congress  es- 
timates of  the  probable  revenues  and 
disbursements  of  the  Government.  He 
also  controls  the  construction  of  pub- 
lic buildings ;  the  coinage  and  printing 
of  money ;  the  administration  of  the 
Life-Saving,  Revenue-Cutter,  and  the 
Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital 
branches  of  the  public  service,  and  fur- 
nishes generally  such  information  as 
may  be  required  by  either  branch  of 
Congress  on  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  foregoing. 


311 


312 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    WAR. 


The  Secretary  of  War  is  head  of  the 
War  Department,  and  performs  such 
duties  as  are  required  of  him  by  law 
or  may  be  enjoined  upon  him  by  the 
President  concerning  the  military  ser- 
vice. He  is  charged  by  law  with  the 
supervision  of  all  estimates  of  appro- 
priations for  the  expenses  of  the  De- 
partment, including  the  military  es- 
tablishment ;  of  all  purchases  of  army 
supplies :  of  all  expenditures  for  the 
support,  transportation,  and  mainte- 
nance of  the  Army,  and  of  such  expen- 
ditures of  a  civil  nature  as  may  be 
placed  by  Congress  under  his  direction. 
He  also  has  supervision  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point  and  of  military  education  in  the 
Army,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and 
Fortification,  of  the  various  battle- 
field commissions,  and  of  the  publica- 
tion of  the  ofiicial  Records  of  the  War 
of  the  Rebellion.  He  has  charge  of  all 
matters  relating  to  national  defense 
and  seacoast  fortifications,  army  ord- 
nance, river  and  harbor  improvements, 
the  prevention  of  obstruction  to  navi- 
gation, and  the  establishment  of  har- 
bor lines,  and  all  plans  and  locations  of 
bridges  authorized  by  Congress  to  be 
constructed  over  the  navigable  watei's 
of  the  United  States  require  his  ap- 
proval. He  also  has  charge  of  the  es- 
tablishment or  abandonment  of  mili- 
tary posts,  and  of  all  matters  relating 
to  leases,  revocable  licenses,  and  all 
other  privileges  upon  lands  under  the 
control  of  the  War  Department. 

THE    GENERAL    STAFF. 

The  General  Staff  Corps  was  organ- 
ized under  the  provisions  of  an  act  of 
Congress  approved  February  14,  1903. 
Its  principal  duties  are  to  prepare 
plans  for  the  national  defense  and  for 
the  mobilization  of  the  military  forces 
in  time  of  war ;  to  investigate  and  re- 
port upon  all  questions  affecting  the 
efficiency  of  the  Army  and  its  state 
of  preparation  for  military  operations ; 
to  render  professional  aid  and  assist- 
ance to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  to 
general  officers  and  other  -superior 
commanders  and  to  act  as  their  agents 
in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the  ac- 
tion of  all  the  different  officers  who  are 
subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief 
of  Staff,  and  to  perform  such  other 
military  duties  not  otherwise  assigned 
by  law  as  may  be  from  time  to  time 
prescribed  by  the  President.  The 
Chief  of  Staff,  under  direction  of  the 


President,  or  of  the  Secretary  of  War 
under  the  direction  of  the  President, 
has  supervision  of  all  troops  of 
the  line  and  of  the  Adjutant-Gen- 
leral's,  Inspector-Generars,  Judge-Ad- 
vocate-General's,  Quartermaster's,  Sub- 
sistence, Medical,  Pay,  and  Ord- 
nance Departments,  the  Corps  of  En- 
gineers and  the  Signal  Corps,  and  per- 
forms such  other  military  duties  not 
otherwise  assigned  by  law  as  may  be 
assigned  to  him  by  the  President.  Du- 
ties formerly  prescribed  by  statute  for 
the  Commanding  General  of  the  Army 
as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Ord- 
nance and  Fortification  and  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Sol- 
diers' Home  are  performed  by  the 
Chief  of  Staff  or  some  other  officer  des- 
ignated by  the  President. 

SOME  OF  THE  MILITARY  BUREAUS. 

The  chiefs  of  the  military  bureaus 
of  the  War  Department  are  officers  of 
the  Regular  Army  of  the  United  States 
and  part  of  the  military  establishment, 
viz. : 

The  Adjutant-General's  Depart- 
ment is  the  bureau  of  orders  and  rec- 
ords of  the  Army.  Orders  and  instruc- 
tions emanating  from  the  War  De- 
partment and  all  regulations  are  issued 
by  the  Secretary  of  War  through  the 
Chief  of  Staff,  and  are  communicated 
to  troops  and  individuals  in  the  mili- 
tary service  through  the  Adjutant- 
General.  His  office  is  the  repository 
for  the  records  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment which  relate  to  the  personnel  of 
the  permanent  military  establishment 
and  militia  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  to  the  military  history  of  every 
commissioned  officer  and  soldier  there- 
of, and  to  the  movements  and  oper- 
ation of  troops.  The  records  of  all  ap- 
pointments, promotions,  resignations, 
deaths,  and  other  casualties  in  the 
Army,  the  preparation  and  distribu- 
tion of  commissions,  and  the  compila- 
tion and  issue  of  the  Army  Register 
and  of  information  concerning  exami- 
nations for  appointment  and  promo- 
tions pertain  to  the  Adjutant-General's 
Office.  The  Adjutant-General  is 
charged,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  recruiting  service,  the 
communication  of  instructions  to  offi- 
cers detailed  to  visit  encampments  of 
militia,  and  the  digesting,  arranging, 
and  preserving  of  their  reports ;  also 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


313 


the  preparation  of  the  annual  returns 
of  the  militia  required  by  law  to  be 
submitted  to  Congress. 

The  Quartermaster-General,  aided 
by  his  assistants,  provides  transporta- 
tion for  the  Army ;  also  clothing  and 
equipage,  horses,  mules,  and  wagons, 
vessels,  forage,  stationery,  and  other 
miscellaneous  quartermaster  stores 
and  property  for  the  Army,  and  of 
clothing  and  equipage  for  the  mi- 
litia ;  constructs  necessary  buildings, 
wharves,  roads,  and  bridges  at 
military  posts,  and  repairs  the  same ; 
furnishes  water,  heating  and  light- 
ing apparatus ;  pays  guides,  spies,  and 
interpreters,  and  is  in  charge  of  na- 
tional cemeteries. 

The  Chief  of  Engineers  commands 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  which  is 
charged  with  all  duties  relating  to 
construction  and  repair  of  fortifica- 
tions, whether  permanent  or  tempo- 
rary ;  with  all  works  of  defense ;  with 
all  military  roads  and  bridges,  and 
with  such  surveys  as  may  be  required 
for  these  objects,  or  the  movement  of 
armies  in  the  field.  It  is  also  charged 
with  the  river  and  harbor  improve- 
ments, with  military  and  geographical 
explorations  and  surveys,  with  the 
survey  of  the  lakes,  and  with  any  other 
engineering  work  specially  assigned 
to  the  corps  by  acts  of  Congress  or 
orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 


The  Chief  of  Ordnance  commands 
the  Ordnance  Department,  the  duties 
of  which  consist  in  providing,  preserv- 
ing, distributing,  and  accounting  for 
every  description  of  artillery,  small 
arras,  and  all  the  munitions  of  wai* 
which  may  be  required  for  the  for- 
tresses of  the  country,  the  armies  in 
the  field,  and  for  the  whole  body  of  the 
militia  of  the  Union.  In  these  duties 
are  comprised  those  of  determining  the 
general  principles  of  construction  and 
of  prescribing  in  detail  the  models  and 
forms  of  all  military  weapons  employ- 
ed in  war.  They  comprise  also  the 
duty  of  prescribing  the  regulations  for 
the  proof  and  inspection  of  all  these 
weapons,  for  maintaining  uniformity 
and  economy  in  their  fabrication,  for 
insuring  their  good  quality,  and  for 
their  preservation  and  distribution. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  is  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  all  military 
signal  duties,  and  of  books,  papers,  and 
devices  connected  therewith,  including 
telegraph  and  telephone  apparatus  and 
the  necessary  meteorological  instru- 
ments for  use  on  target  ranges  and 
other  military  uses;  the  construction, 
repair,  and  operation  of  military  tele- 
graph lines,  and  the  duty  of  collecting 
and  transmitting  information  for  the 
Army  by  telegraph  or  otherwise,  and 
all  other  duties  usually  pertaining  to 
military  signaling. 


rHE  DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE. 


'n 


The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  all 
public  business  relating  to  the  agricul- 
tural industry.  He  appoints  all  the 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Depart- 
ment, with  the  exception  of  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  and  the  Chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  who  are  appointed 
by  the  President,  and  directs  the  man- 
agement of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions, 
and  offices  embraced  in  the  Depart- 
ment. He  exercises  advisory  super- 
vision over  agricultural  experiment 
stations  deriving  support  from  the  Na- 
tional Treasury.  He  controls  the  im- 
port and  export  of  cattle,  including 
cattle-carrying  vessels,  and  directs  in- 
terstate quarantine  when  rendered  nec- 
essary by  contagious  cattle  diseases. 
His  duties  and  powers  include  the 
preservation,  distribution,  and  intro- 
duction of  birds  and  animals,  game 
birds  and  other  wild  birds  and  ani- 
mals in  the  United  States,  and  the 
protection  of  wild  game  animals  and 
wild  birds  in  the  district  of  Alaska. 


He  is  charged  generally  with  carrying 
out  the  chief  purpose  of  the  Depart- 
ment, which  is  "to  acquire  and  diffuse 
among  the  people  of  the  United  States 
useful  information  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  agriculture,  in  the  most 
comprehensive  sense  of  that  word,  and 
to  procure,  propagate,  and  distribute 
among  the  people  new  and  valuable 
seeds  and  plants." 

THE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 

nie  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  has  charge  of  the  fore- 
casting of  weather ;  the  issue  of  storm 
warnin5?s;  the  display  of  weather  and 
flood  signals  for  the  benefit  of  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  navigation ;  the 
gauging  and  reporting  of  rivers ;  the 
maintenance  and  operation  of  seacoast 
telegraph  lines,  and  the  collection  and 
transmission  of  marine  intelligence 
for  the  benefit  of  commerce  and  navi- 
gation ;   the  reporting  of  temperature 


814 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


and  rain-fall  conditions  for  the  cotton 
interests ;  the  display  of  frost  and  cold- 
wave  signals;  the  distribution  of  me- 
teorological information  in  the  inter- 
ests of  agriculture  and  commerce,  and 
the  taking  of  such  meteorological 
observations  as  may  be  necessary 
to  establish  and  record  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  United  States  or 
as  are  essential  for  the  proper  execu- 
tion of  the  foregoing  duties. 

THE     BUREAU    OF    ANIMAL     INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
makes  investigations  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  dangerous  communicable  dis- 
eases of  live  stock ;  superintends  the 
measures  for  their  extirpation,  and 
makes  original  investigations  as  to  the 
nature  and  prevention  of  such  dis- 
eases. It  inspects  live  stock  and  their 
products  slaughtered  for  food  consump- 
tion ;  has  charge  of  the  inspection  of 
import  and  export  animals,  of  the  in- 
spection of  vessels  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  export  animals,  and  of  the 
quarantine  stations  for  imported  neat 
cattle,  other  ruminants,  and  swine ; 
generally  supervises  the  interstate 
movement  of  animals  and  reports  on 
the  condition  and  means  of  improving 
the  animal  industries  of  the  country. 
It  makes  special  investigations  in  re- 
gard to  dairy  subjects,  inspects  and 
certifies  dairy  products  for  export,  and 
supervises  the  manufacture  and  inter- 
state commerce  of  renovated  butter. 

BUREAU  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  makes  in- 
vestigations of  fertilizers,  and  agricul- 
tural products,  and  such  analyses  as 
pertain  in  general  to  the  interests  of 
agriculture.  It  investigates  the  com- 
position and  adulteration  of  foods  and 
the  composition  of  field  products  in  re- 
lation to  their  nutritive  value  and  to 
the  constituents  which  they  derive 
from  the  soil,  fertilizers,  and  the  air. 
It  inspects  imported  food  products  and 
excludes  from  entry  those  injurious  to 
health.  It  inspects  food  products  ex- 
ported to  foreign  countries  where  phy- 
sical and  chemical  tests  are  required 
for  such  products.  It  co-operates 
with  the  chemists  of  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  the  relations  of  chemistry 
to  agricultural  interests.  It  also  co- 
operates with  the  other  scientific  di- 
visions of  the  Department  in  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  chemistry,  and  con- 
ducts investigations  of  a  chemical  na- 


ture for  other  Departments  of  the  Gov- 
ernment at  the  request  of  their  respect- 
ive Secretaries. 

BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS. 

The  statistician  collects  information 
as  to  crop  production  and  the  numbers 
and  status  of  farm  animals,  through 
a  corps  of  county  and  township  corre- 
spondents, traveling  agents,  and  other 
agencies,  and  obtains  similar  informa- 
tion from  foreign  countries  through 
special  agents,  assisted  by  consular, 
agricultural,  and  commercial  authori- 
ties. He  records,  tabulates,  and  co- 
ordinates statistics  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction, distribution,  and  consumption, 
the  authorized  data  of  governments, 
institutes,  societies,  boards  of  trade, 
and  individual  experts;  and  issues  a 
monthly  crop  report  for  the  informa- 
tion of  producers  and  consumers. 

DIVISION  OF  FOREIGN  MARKETS. 

The  division  of  foreign  markets  has 
for  its  object  the  extension  of  the  ag- 
ricultural export  trade  of  the  United 
States.  It  investigates  the  require- 
ments of  foreign  markets,  studies  the 
conditions  of  demand  and  supply  as 
disclosed  by  the  records  of  production, 
importation,  and  exportation,  inquires 
into  the  obstacles  confronting  trade  ex- 
tension, and  disseminates  through 
printed  reports  and  otherwise  the  in- 
formation collected. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
represents  the  Department  in  its  re- 
lations to  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations,  which  are  now  in 
operation  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories, and  directly  manages  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
and  Porto  Rico.  It  seeks  to  promote 
the  interests  of  agricultural  education 
and  investigation  throughout  the  Uni- 
ted States.  It  collects  and  dissemi- 
nates general  information  regarding 
the  colleges  and  stations,  and  publishes 
accounts  of  agricultural  investigations 
at  home  and  abroad.  It  also  indicates 
lines  of  inquiry,  aids  in  the  conduct  of 
co-operative  experiments,  reports  upon 
the  expenditures  and  work  of  the  sta- 
tions, and  in  general  furnishes  them 
with  such  advice  and  assistance  as  will 
best  promote  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  established.  It  is  also 
charged  with  investigations  on  the  nu- 
tritive value  and  economy    of  human 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


815 


foods  and  on  irrigation  and  agricul- 
tural engineering,  which  are  largely 
conducted  in  co-operation  with  the  col- 
leges and  stations. 

DIVISION   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  entomologist  obtains  and  dis- 
seminates information  regarding  inju- 
rious insects ;  inyestigates  insects  sent 
him  in  order  to  give  appropriate  reme- 
dies ;  conducts  investigations  of  this 
character  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  mounts  and  arranges 
specimens  for  illustrative  and  museum 
purposes. 

DIVISION  OF  BIOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

The  division  of  biological  survey 
studies  the  geographic  distribution  of 
animals  and  plants,  and  maps  the  na- 
tural life  zones  of  the  country ;  it  also 
investigates  the  economic  relations  of 
birds  and  mammals,  recommends  meas- 
ures for  the  preservation  of  beneficial 
and  the  destruction  of  injurious  spe- 
cies, and  has  been  charged  with  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  law  for  the  importation  and 
protection  of  birds,  contained  in  the 
act  of  Congress  of  May  25,  1900. 

BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  gives  prac- 
tical assistance  to  farmers,  lumber- 
men, and  others  in  the  conservative 
handling  of  forest  lands ;  investigates 
methods  and  trees  for  planting  in  the 
treeless  West,  and  gives  practical  as- 
sistance to  tree  planters ;  studies  com- 
mercially valuable  trees  to  determine 
their  special  uses  in  forestry ;  tests  the 
strength  and  durability  of  construction 
timbers  and  railroad  ties ;  investigates 
forest  fires,  grazing,  and  other  forest 
problems ;  and  makes  plans  for  practi- 
cal forestry  in  the  national  forest  re- 
serves at  the  request  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior. 

BUREAU  OF  PLANT  INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  stud- 
ies plant  life  in  all  its  relations  to  ag- 
riculture. It  includes  vegetable  patho- 
logical and  physiological  investigations, 
botanical  investigations  and  experi- 
ments, pomological  investigations, 
grass  and  forage  plant  investigations, 
experimental  gardens  and  grounds,  the 
Arlington  experimental  farm,  Con- 
gressional seed  distribution,  seed  and 
plant  introduction,  and  tea-culture  ex- 
periments. 


VEGETABLE  PATHOLOGICAL  AND  PHYSIO- 
LOGICAL   INVESTIGATIONS. 

These  investigations  have  for  their 
objects  the  study  of  diseases  of  agri- 
cultural crops  and  economic  plants, 
nutrition  of  plants,  rotation  of  crops, 
and  the  general  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  pathology  and  physiology  to 
agriculture,  the  problems  of  crop  im- 
provement, and  the  production  of  bet- 
ter varieties  of  agricultural  plants  and 
of  crops  resistant  to  disease  by  means 
of  bn^eding  and  selection. 

BOTANICAL    INVESTIGATIONS    AND    EX- 
PERIMENTS. 

This  oflSce  investigates  botanical 
problems,  including  the  purity  and 
value  of  seeds ;  methods  of  controlling 
the  spread  of  weeds  and  preventing 
their  introduction  into  this  country; 
the  injurious  effects  and  antidotes  in 
the  case  of  poisonous  plants;  the  na- 
tive plant  resources  of  the  country, 
and  other  phases  of  economic  botany. 

GRASS   AND  FORAGE   PLANT   INVESTIGA- 
TIONS. 

This  office  studies  the  natural  his- 
tory, geographical  distribution,  and 
uses  of  grasses  and  forage  plants,  as 
well  as  their  adaptation  to  special 
soils  and  climates ;  introduces  prom- 
ising foreign  varieties,  and  investigates 
the  methods  of  cultivation  of  native 
and  foreign  sorts. 

POMOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATIONS. 

This  branch  of  the  Bureau  collects 
and  distributes  information  in  regard 
to  the  fruit  interests  of  the  United 
States ;  investigates  the  habits  and  pe- 
culiar qualities  of  fruits ;  their  adapt- 
ability to  various  soils  and  climates, 
and  conditions  of  culture.  It  studies 
the  methods  of  harvesting,  handling, 
and  storing  fruits,  with  a  view  to  im- 
proving our  own  markets  and  extend- 
ing them  into  foreign  countries. 

EXPERIMENTAL  GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS. 

This  branch  is  charged  with  the 
care  and  ornamentation  of  the  parks 
surrounding  the  Department  build- 
ings ;  with  the  duties  connected  with 
the  conservatories  and  gardens,  and 
with  the  testing  and  propagating  of 
economic  plants.  It  carries  on  inves- 
tigations for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing the  best  methods  of  improving  the 


316 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


culture  of  plants  under  glass,  and 
other  lines  of  investigation  connected 
with  intensive  horticulture. 

COKGRESSIONAL      SEED      DISTRIBUTION. 

This  office  is  charged  with  the  pur- 
chase and  distribution  of  valuable 
seed.  The  seed-s  are  distributed  in  al- 
lotments to  Senators,  Representatives, 
Delegates  in  Congress,  and  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations,  and  also 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  as 
provided  for  by  the  law. 

SEED    AND    PLANT    INTRODUCTION. 

This  work  has  for  its  object  the  se- 
curing from  all  parts  of  the  world  of 
seeds  and  plants  of  new  and  valuable 
agricultural  crops  adapted  to  different 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

AlUilNGTOxY    EyPERIMENTAL    FARM. 

The  experiment  farm  is  designed  ul- 
timately to  become  an  adjunct  to  all 
branches  of  the  Department.  It  will 
carry  on  investigations  in  the  testing 
of  agricultural  crops,  fruits,  and  vege- 
tables. 

TEA   CULTURE   EXPERIMENTS." 

This  branch  of  the  Bureau  has  for 
its  object  the  study  of  tea  with  a  view 
to  producing  it  in  this  country.  Ex- 
periments are  conducted  in  tea  cul- 
ture, and  methods  of  growing,  curing, 
and  handling  the  tea  are  being  worked 
out.  The  work  is  carried  on  at  Sum- 
merville,  S.  C,  and  at  Pierce,  Texas. 


BUREAU  OF  SOILS. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  investigation  of  soils  in  their 
relation  to  crops,  the  mapping  of  soils, 
the  investigation,  mapping,  and  re- 
clamation of  alkali  lands,  and  investi- 
gations of  the  growth,  curing,  and  fer- 
mentation of  tobacco. 

OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC-ROAD  INQUIRIES. 

The  Office  of  Public-Road  Inquiries 
collects  information  concerning  the 
systems  of  road  management  through- 
out the  United  States,  conducts  and 
promotes  investigations  and  experi- 
ments regarding  the  best  methods  of 
road  making  and  road-making  ma- 
terials, and  prepares  publications  on 
this  subject. 

DIVISION  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 

The  division  of  publications  edits  all 
publications  of  the  Department,  in- 
cluding Farmers'  Bulletins  and  other 
agricultural  reports  ordered  printed  by 
the  Congress,  with  the  exception  of 
those  issued  by  the  Weather  Bureau. 
It  supervises  all  printing,  binding,  and 
illustration  work  of  the  Department. 
It  directs  the  distribution  of  publica- 
tions with  the  exception  of  those  turn- 
ed over  by  law  to  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents  for  sale  at  the  price 
fixed  -by  him ;  issues,  in  the  form  of 
press  notices,  official  information  of  in- 
terest to  agriculturists,  and  distributes 
to  agricultural  and  other  periodicals 
and  writers  synopses  of  Department 
publications. 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


The  Postmaster-General  has  the  di- 
rection and  management  of  the  Post- 
office  Department.  He  appoints  all 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Depart- 
ment, except  the  four  Assistant  Post- 
masters-General, who  are  appointed 
bv  the  President,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the   Senate ;   ap- 


points all  postmasters  whose  compen- 
sation does  not  exceed  $1,000;  makes 
postal  treaties  with  foreign  Govern- 
ments, by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  President,  awards  and  ex- 
ecutes contracts,  and  directs  the  man- 
agement of  the  domestic  and  foreign 
mail  service. 


THE     DEPARTMENT     OF     THE      NAVY. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs 
such  duties  as  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  who  is  Commander  in 
Chief,  may  assign  him,  and  has  the 
general  superintendence  of  construc- 
tion, manning,  armament,  equipment, 
and  employment  of  vessels  of  war.  , 

BUREAU    OF  NAVIGATION. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 


promulgation,-  record,  and  enforcement 
of  the  Secretary's  orders  to  the  fleets 
and  to  the  officers  of  the  Navy,  except 
such  orders  as  pertain  to  the  Office  of 
the  Secretary  ;  the  education  of  officers 
and  men,  including  the  Naval  A'^ade- 
my  and  technical  schools  for  officers 
TfX^ept  the  War  College  and  Torpedo 
School),  the  apprentice  establishment, 
and  schools  for  the  technical  education 
of  enlisted  men,  and  to  the  supervision 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


317 


and  control  of  tbe  Naval  Home,  Phila- 
delphia; the  enlistment  and  discharge 
of  all  enlisted  persons,  including  ap- 
pointed petty  officers  for  general  and 
special  service.  It  controls  all  rendez-  | 
vous  and  receiving  ships,  and  provides 
transportation  for  all  enlisted  persons 
and  appointed  petty  officers ;  estab- 
lishes the  complement  of  the  crews  of 
all  vessels  in  commission  ;  keeps  the 
records  of  service  of  all  squadrons,, 
ships,  officers,  and  men,  and  prepares 
the  annual  Naval  Register  for  publica- 
tion ;  has  under  its  direction  the  prep- 
aration, revision,  and  enforcement  of 
all  tactics,  drill  books,  signal  codes,  ci- 
pher codes,  and  the  uniform  regula- 
tions. 

BUREAU    OF    YARDS    AND    DOCKS. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards 
and  Docks  comprise  all  that  relates  to 
the  planning,  construction,  and  main- 
tenance of  all  docks  (including  dry 
docks),  wharves,  slips,  piers,  quay 
walls,  and  buildings  of  all  kinds,  for 
whatever  purpose  needed,  within  the 
limits  of  the  navy-yards,  but  not  of 
hospitals  and  magazines  outside  of 
those  limits,  nor  of  buildings  for  which 
it  does  not  estimate.  It  repairs  and 
furnishes  all  buildings,  stores  and  of- 
fices in  the  several  navy-yards,  and  is 
charged  with  the  purchase,  sale,  and 
transfer  of  all  land  and  buildings  con- 
nected with  the  navy-yards ;  has  un- 
der its  sole  control  the  general  admin- 
istration of  the  navy-yards ;  provides 
and  has  sole  control  of  all  landings, 
derricks,  shears,  cranes,  sewers,  dredg- 
ing, railway  tracks,  cars,  and  wheels, 
trucks,  grading,  paving,  walks,  shade 
trees,  inclosure  walls  and  fences,  ditch- 
ing, reservoirs,  cisterns,  fire  engines, 
and  apparatus,  all  watchmen,  and  all 
things  necessary,  including  labor,  for 
the  cleaning  of  the  yards  and  the  pro- 
tection of  the  public  property. 

BUREAU    OF    EQUIPMENT. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Equip- 
ment comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 
equipment  of  all  vessels  with  rigging, 
sails,  anchors,  yeomen's  stores,  furni- 
ture not  provided  by  other  bureaus, 
navigation  stores  and  supplies  of  all 
kinds,  including  nautical  and  navigat- 
ing instruments  and  books,  stationery, 
and  blank  books  for  commanding  and 
navigating  officers  ashore  and  afloat, 
binnacles,  flags,  signal  lights,  running 
lights,  and  standing  lights  on  board  j 
vessels,  ♦including  all  electrical  ap- 
paratus for  lighting  purposes  and 
searchlights,    logs,    leads,    lines,    and 


glasses,  log  books,  ships'  libraries,  il- 
luminating oil  for  all  purposes,  except 
that  used  in  the  engineer  department 
of  steamers,  and  fuel  for  steamers,  the 
ropewalks,  and  the  shops  for  making 
anchors  and  cables,  rigging,  sails,  gal- 
leys, and  cooking  utensils,  the  Naval 
Observatory,  Nautical  Almanac,  com- 
pass offices,  and  pilotage.  It  has  un- 
der its  control  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  the  collection  of  foreign  sur- 
veys, publication  and  supply  charts, 
sailing  directions,  and  nautical  works, 
and  the  dissemination  of  nautical  and 
hydrographic  information  to  the  Navy 
and  mercantile  marine. 

BUREAU  OF  ORDNANCE. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 
torpedo  station,  naval  proving  grounds, 
and  magazines  on  shore ;  to  the  manu- 
facture of  offensive  and  defensive  arms 
and  apparatus  (including  torpedoes), 
all  ammunition  and  war  explosives ; 
procures  all  machinery,  apparatus, 
equipment,  material,  and  supplies  re- 
quired by  or  for  use  with  the  above ; 
recommends  the  armament  to  be  car- 
ried by  vessels  of  the  Navy ;  the  ma- 
terial, kind,  and  quality  of  the  armor ; 
the  interior  dimensions  of  revolving 
turrets  and  their  requirements  as  re- 
gards rotation.  It  fixes,  within  the 
carrying  power  of  vessels  as  deter- 
mined by  the  Bureau  of  Construction 
and  Repair,  the  location  and  command 
of  the  armament,  and  distributes  the 
thickness  of  the  armor ;  inspects  the 
installation  of  the  permanent  fixtures 
of  the  armament  and  its  accessories  on 
board  ship,  and  the  methods  of  stor- 
ing, handling,  and  transporting  am- 
munition and  torpedoes ;  designs  and 
constructs  turret  ammunition  hoists ; 
determines  the  requirements  of  all  am- 
munition hoists,  and  the  method  of 
construction  of  armories  and  ammuni- 
tion rooms  on  board  ship,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  Bureau  of  Construc- 
tion and  Repair,  determines  upon  their 
location  and  that  of  ammunition 
hoists.  It  installs  the  armament  and 
its  accessories  which  are  not  perma- 
nently attached  to  any  portion  of  the 
structure  of  the  hull,  excepting  tur- 
ret guns,  turret  mounts,  and  ammu- 
nition hoists,  etc. ;  has  cognizance  of 
all  electrically  operated  ammunition 
hoists,  rammers,  and  gun-elevating 
gear  which  are  in  turrets,  of  electric 
range  finders,  of  electric  training  and 
elevating  gear  for  gun  mounts  not  in 
turrets,    of    electrically    operated    air 


318 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


compressors  for  charging  torpedoes, 
and  of  all  battle-order  and  range  trans- 
mitters and  indicators ;  designs  inter- 
nal arrangements  of  buildings  at  navy- 
yards  where  ordnance  work  is  per- 
formed ;  designs,  erects,  and  maintains 
all  shops  and  buildings  constructed 
for  its  own  purpose  outside  the  lim- 
its of  navy-yards.  It  is  charged 
with  the  purchase,  sale,  and  transfer 
of  all  land  and  buildings  in  connec- 
tion therewith,  except  at  navy-yards, 
and  with  the  preservation  of  public 
property  under  its  control.  It  deter- 
mines upon  and  procures  all  the  tools, 
stores,  stationery,  blank  books,  forms, 
material,  means,  and  appliances  of 
every  kind  required  in  its  shops,  in- 
cluding fuel  and  transportation.  It 
superintends  all  work  done  under  it, 
and  estimates  for  and  defrays  from  its 
own  tunds  the  cost  necessary  to  carry 
out  its  duties  as  above  defined. 

BUREAU     OF     CONSTRUCTION     AND     RE- 
PAIR. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Con- 
struction and  Repair  comprise  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  structural  strength 
and  stability*  of  all  ships  built  for  the 
Navy;  all  that  relates  to  designing, 
building,  fitting,  and  repairing  the 
hulls  of  ships,  turrets,  spars,  capstans, 
windlasses,  steering  gear,  and  venti- 
lating apparatus,  and,  after  consul- 
tation with  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance, 
and  according  to  the  requirements 
thereof  as  determined  by  that  Bureau, 
the  designing,  construction,  and  in- 
stallation of  independent  ammunition 
hoists,  and  the  installation  of  the 
permanent  fixtures  of  all  other  am- 
munition hoists  and  their  appurte- 
nances ;  placing  and  securing  armor 
after  the  material,  quality,  and 
distribution  of  thickness  have  been  de- 
termined by  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance ; 
placing  and  securing  on  board  ship,  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance, the  permanent  fixtures  of  the 
armament  and  its  accessories  as  manu- 
factured and  supplied  by  that  Bureau  : 
installing  the  turret  guns,  turret 
mounts,  and  ammunition  hoists, 
and  such  other  mounts  as  require 
simultaneous  structural  work  in 
connection  with  installation  or  re- 
moval :  care  and  preservation  of 
ships  in  ordinary,  and  requisitioning 
for  or  manufacturing  all  the  equipage 
and  supplies  for  ships  prescribed  by 
the  authorized  allowance  lists.  The 
Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair 
also,  after  conference  with  the  Bureau 


of  Ordnance,  designs  the  arrangements 
for  centering  the  turrets,  the  character 
of  the  roller  paths  and  their  supports, 
and  furnishes  the  Bureau  every  oppor- 
tunity to  inspect  the  installation  on 
board  of  all  permanent  fixtures  of  the 
armament  and  accessories  supplied  by 
said  Bureau.  It  has  cognizance  of  ail 
electric  turret-turning  machinery  and 
of  all  electrically  operated  ammunition 
hoists  (except  turret  hoists),  the  same 
to  conform  ro  the  requirements  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ordnance  as  to  power, 
speed,  and  control.  It  also  has  cog- 
nizance of  stationary  electrically  oper- 
ated fans  or  blowers  for  hull  ventila- 
tion, boat  cranes,  deck  winches,  cap- 
stans, steering  engines  and  telemotors 
therefor,  and  hand  pumps  not  in  the 
engine  or  fire  rooms,  and  of  electric 
launches  and  other  boats  supplied  with 
electric  motive  power.  It  has  charge 
of  the  docking  of  ships,  and  also  de- 
signs the  slips  and  the  various  build- 
ings and  shops,  so  far  as  their  internal 
arrangements  are  concerned,  where  its 
work  is  executed,  and  is  charged  with 
the  operating  and  cleaning  of  dry 
dockK?. 

BUREAU    OF    STEAM    ENGINEERING. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering  comprise  all  that  relates 
to  the  designing,  building,  fitting  out, 
repairing,  and  engineering  of  the  steam 
machinery  used  for  the  propulsion  of 
naval  vessels,  and  will  also  include 
steam  pumps,  steam  heaters  and  con- 
nections, and  the  steam  machinery 
necessary  for  actuating  the  apparatus 
by  which  turrets  are  turned. 

MARINE    CORPS. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  is  responsible  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  for  the  general  efficiency 
and  discipline  of  the  corps ;  makes 
such  distribution  of  officers  and  men 
for  duty  at  the  several  shore  stations 
as  shall  appear  to  him  to  be  most  ad- 
vantageous for  the  interests  of  the  ser- 
vice ;  .furnishes  guards  for  vessels  of 
the  Navy,  according  to  the  authorized 
scale  of  allowance  ;  under  the  direction 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  issues 
orders  for  the  movement  of  officers  and 
troops,  and  such  other  orders  and  in- 
structions for  their  guidance  as  may 
be  necessary  ;  and  has  charge  and  ex- 
ercises general  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  recruiting  service  of  the 
corps,  and  of  the  necessary  ^expenses 
thereof,  including  the  establishment  of 
recruiting  offices. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


319 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  pub- 
lic business  relating  to  Patents  for  In- 
ventions ;  Pensions  and  Bounty  Lands  : 
the  Public  Lands  and  Surveys ;  the  In- 
dians ;  Education  ;  railroads ;  the  Geo- 
logical Survey ;  the  Hot  Springs  Res- 
ervation, Arkansas ;  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional Park,  Wyoming,  and  the  Yose- 
mite,  Sequoia,  and  General  Grant 
parks,  California  ;  forest  reservations  ; 
distribution  of  appropriations  for  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges  in  the 
States  and  Territories ;  the  custody 
and  distribution  of  certain  public  docu- 
ments ;  and  supervision  of  certain  hos- 
pitals and  eleemosynary  institutions  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  also  ex- 
ercises certain  powers  and  duties  in  re- 
lation to  the  Territories  of  the  United 
States. 

COMMISSIONER   OF   PATENTS. 

The  Commissioner  of  Patents  is 
charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
patent  laws,  and  supervises  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  issue  of  letters 
patent  for  new  and  useful  inventions, 
discoveries,  and  improvements  thereon, 
and  also  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks, prints,  and  labels.  He  is  by 
statute  made  the  tribunal  of  last  re- 
sort in  the  Patent  Office,  and  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  in  the  trial  of  in- 
terference cases,  of  the  patentability 
of  inventions,  and  of  registration  of 
trade-marks.  He  is  aided  by  an 
assistant  Commissioner,  chief  clerk, 
three  examiners  in  chief,  an  examiner 
of  interferences,  and  thirty-nine  prin- 
cipal examiners. 

COMMISSIONER   OF    PENSIONS. 

The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  su- 
pervises the  examination  and  adjudica- 
tion of  all  claims  arising  under  laws 
passed  by  Congress  granting  bounty 
land  or  pension  on  account  of  service 
in  the  Army  or  Navy  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  and  all  subsequent  wars 
in  which  the  United  States  has  been 
engaged.  He  is  aided  by  two  Deputy 
Commissioners  and  the  chief  clerk  of 
the  Bureau,  each  of  whom  has  super- 


vision over  business  arising  in  divi- 
sions of  the  Bureau  assigned,  under  or- 
der of  the  Commissioner,  to  his  imme- 
diate charge. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  THE   GENERAL  LAND 

OFFICE. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  General 
Land  Office  is  charged  with  the  survey, 
management,  and  sale  of  the  public  do- 
main, and  the  issuing  of  titles  there- 
for, whether  derived  from  confirma- 
tions of  grants  made  by  former  govern- 
ments, by  sales,  donations,  or  grants 
for  schools,  railroads,  military  boun- 
ties, or  public  improvements.  He  is 
aided  by  an  Assistant  Commissioner 
and  chief  clerk. 

COMMISSIONER    OF     EDUCATION. 

The  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  are  to  collect  such  statis- 
tics and  facts  as  shall  show  the  condi- 
tion and  progress  of  education  in  the 
several  States  and  Territories,  and  to 
diffuse  such  information  respecting  the 
organization  and  management  of 
schools  and  school  systems  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people 
of  the  United  States  in  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  efficient 
school  sj^stems,  and  otherwise  promote 
the  cause  of  *!ducation  throughout  the 
country. 

DIRECTOR  OF  THE   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  Director  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey has  charge  of  the  classification  of 
public  lauds  and  examination  of  the 
geological  structure,  mineral  resources, 
and  products  of  the  national  domain, 
and  th-3  survey  of  forest  reserves,  in- 
cluding the  prepai'ation  of  topographic 
and  geologic  maps ;  also  the  measure- 
ment of  streams  and  determination  of 
the  water  supply  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  investigation  of  under- 
ground waters  and  artesian  wells ; 
and  also  the  reclamation  of  arid  lands, 
including  the  engiaeering  operations 
to  be  carried  on  by  the  use  of  the  recla- 
mation fund  created  by  act  of  June  17, 
1902,  from  proceeds  of  sales  of  public 
lands. 


THE    BOARD    ON    GEOGRAPHIC    NAMES. 


That  uniform  usage  in  regard  to  geo- 
graphic nomenclature  and  orthography 
shall  obtain  throughout  the  Executive 
Departments-  of  the  Government;  and 
particularly  upon  maps  and  charts  is- 
sued by  the  various  Departments  and 
Bureaus,  this    Board    is    constituted. 


To  it  shall  be  referred  all  unsettled 
questions  concerning  geographic  names 
which  arise  in  the  Departments,  and 
the  decisions  of  the  Board  are  to  be 
accepted  by  the  Departments  as  the 
standard  authority  in  such  matters. — 
Organized  September  4,  1890. 


' 


320 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    NATIONAL    ACADEMY    OF    SCIENCES. 
(Incorporated    by    Act    of    Congress    March  3,  1863.) 


Section  3  of  the  act  of  incorporation 
provides :  *'That  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences  shall  hold  an  annual  meet- 
ing at  such  place  in  the  United  States 
as  may  be  designated,  and  the  academy 
shall,  whenever  called  upon  by  any  de- 
partment of  the  Government,  investi- 
gate, examine,  experiment,  and  report 
upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art, 
the  actual  expense  of  such  investiga- 
tions, examinations,  experiments,  and 
reports  to  be  paid  from  appropriations 
which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose ; 
but  the  academy  shall  receive  no  com- 
pensation   whatever   for    any   services 


to    the    Government    of    the    United 
States." 

In  accordance  with  this  provision, 
the  academy — which  includes  about 
one  hundred  members — has  made  many 
investigations  and  reports,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  legislative  and  executive 
branches  of  the  Government.  The  an- 
nual reports  are  published  by  Congress 
as  House  and  Senate  documents.  Two 
meetings  are  held  each  year.  The  an- 
nual meeting  is  held  in  April,  at 
Washington ;  the  other  in  November, 
at  such  place  as  may  be  determined 
by  the  council. 


THE    CIVIL    SERVICE    COMMISSION. 


The  purpose  of  the  civil-service  act 
(approved  January  16,  1883),  as  de- 
clared in  its  title,  is  "to  regulate  and 
improve  the  civil  service  of  the  United 
States."  It  provides  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  three  Commissioners,  not  more 
than  two  of  whom  shall  be  adherents 
of  the  same  political  party,  and  makes 
it  the  duty  of  the  Commission  to  aid 
the  President,  as  he  may  request,  in 
preparing  suitable  rules  for  carrying 
the  act  into  effect.  The  act  requires 
that  the  rules  shall  provide,  among 
other  things,  for  open  competitive  ex- 
aminations for  testing  the  fitness  of 
applicants  for  the  public  service,  the 
filling  of  classified  positions  by  selec- 
tions from  among  those  passing  with 
highest  grades,  an  apportionment  of 
appointments  in  the  Departments  at 
Washington  among  the  States  and 
Territories,  a  period  of  probation  be- 
fore absolute  appointment,  and  the 
prohibition  of  the  use  of  oflScial  au- 
thority *o  coerce  the  political  action  of 
any  person  or  body.  The  act  also 
provides  for  investigations  touching 
the  enforcement  of  the  rules  promul- 
gated, and  forbids,  under  penalty  of 
fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  the  so- 
licitation by  any  person  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States  of  contributions 
to  be  used  for  political  purposes  from 
I»ersons  in  such  service,  or  the  collec- 
tion of  such  contributions  by  any  per- 
son in  a  Government  building. 

THE  CLASSIFIED  SERVICE. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1002  there 
were  235,854  positions  in  the  executive 
civil  service,  of  which  20,981  were  in 
the  executive  oflSces  at  Washington 
and  214,923  were  outside.    About  120,- 


000  positions  are  classified  subject  to 
competitive  examination  under  the  civ- 
il service  rules.  Persons  merely  em- 
ployed as  laborers  or  workmen  and 
persons  nominated  for  confirmation  by 
the  Senate  are  exempted  from  the  re- 
quirements of  classification.  Within 
these  limits  certain  classes  of  positions 
are  excepted  from  examination,  among 
them  being  employees  at  postoffices  not 
having  free  delivery,  Indians,  attor- 
neys, pension  examining  surgeons, 
deputy  collectors  of  internal  revenue, 
office  deputy  marshals,  and  a  few  em- 
ployees whose  duties  are  of  an  impor- 
tant confidential  or  fiduciary  nature. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  are  held  in  every 
State  and  Territory  twice  a  year.  Full 
information  respecting  these  examina- 
tions is  to  be  found  in  a  manual  issued 
by  the  Commission  in  January  and 
July  of  each  year,  for  free  distribu- 
tion. ITi?  examinations  range  in 
scope  from  technical,  professional,  or 
scientific  subjects  to  those  based  wholly 
upon  the  age,  physical  condition,  ex- 
perience, and  character  as  a  workman 
of  the  applicant,  and  in  some  cases  do 
not  require  ability  to  read  or  write. 
To  insure  practical  tests  of  fitness  654 
difl'orent  kinds  of  examinations  were 
held  during  the  year  ended  June  30, 
1902,  each  of  which  involved  different 
tests  and  more  than  half  of  which 
contained  no  educational  tests,  but 
consisted  of  certificates  of  employers  or 
fellow  workmen.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1903,  80,787  per- 
sons were  examined,  64,439  passed, 
and  26,343  were  appointed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


321 


THE    FILLING    OF    VACANCIES. 

A  vacancy  is  filled  from  among  the 
three  persons  of  the  sex  called  for 
standing  highest  on  the  appropriate 
register,  the  order  being  determined  by 
the  relative  rating,  except  that  the 
names  of  persons  preferred  under  sec- 
tion 1754,  Revised  Statutes,  come  be- 
fore all  others.  Until  the  rating  of 
all  papers  of  an  examination  is  com- 
pleted the  identity  of  no  applicant  is 
known.  A  vacancy  may  also  be  filled 
by  promotion,  reduction,  transfer,  or 
reinstatement. 

MILITARY  PREFERENCE. 

Persons  discharged  from  the  mili- 
tary or  naval  service  by  reason  of  dis- 
ability resulting  from  wounds  or  sick- 
ness incurred  in  the  line  of  duty  and 
who  receive  a  rating  of  at  least  65  are 
certified  first  for  appointment.  All 
others  are  required  to  obtain  a  rating 
of  70  or  more  to  become  eligible.  The 
rule  barring  reinstatement  after  a  sep- 
aration of  one  year  does  not  apply  to 
any  person  honorably  discharged  after 
service  in  the  civil  war  or  the  war  with 
Spain,  or  his  widow,  or  an  army  nurse 
of  either  war, 

THE   PHILIPPINE   CIVIL   SERVICE. 

Appointments  to  the  insular  civil 
service  of  the  Philippines  are  made  un- 
der an  act  passed  by  the  Philippine 
Commission  and  rules  promulgated  by 
the  Governor  of  the  islands.  The  mu- 
nicipal service  of  Manila  is  also  classi- 
fied and  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
the  act  and  rules,  which  are  similar  to 
the  United  States  act  and  rules.    The 


United  States  Commission,  under  an 
Executive  order,  assists  the  Philippine 
Board  by  conducting  examinations  in 
the  United  States  for  the  Philippine 
service  and  in  all  other  practicable 
ways.  These  examinations  are  held 
only  for  positions  for  which  compe- 
tent natives  cannot  be  found,  the  na- 
tives being  preferred  for  appointment. 
The  United  States  rules  permit  the 
transfer  of  classified  employees  who 
have  served  for  three  year's  from  the 
Philippine  service  to  the  Federal  ser- 
vice. 

THE  CIVIL  SERVICE  IN  PORTO  RICO  AND 

HAWAIL 

The  Federal  positions  in  Porto  Rico 
and  Hawaii  by  act  of  Congress  fall 
within  the  scope  of  the  civil  service  act 
and  are  filled  in  the  same  ways  as  com- 
petitive positions  in  the  United  States. 
The  competitive  system .  does  not  ex- 
tend to  the  insular  &nd  municipal  po- 
sitions of  the  islands. 

UNCLASSIFIED  LABORERS. 

Appointments  of  unclassified  labor- 
ers in  the  Departments  at  Washing- 
ton under  Executive  order  are  required 
to  be  made  in  accordance  with  regu- 
lations to  be  approved  by  the  heads  of 
the  several  Departments  and  the  Civil 
Service  Commission.  Such  regula- 
tions have  been  adopted  by  several  of 
the  Departments,  and  the  positions  of 
laborers  are  being  filled  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  those  applicants  who  are 
rated  highest  in  age,  physical  condi- 
tion, and  industry  and  adaptability. 
The  system  is  outside  the  civil  service 
act  and  rules. 


THE    INTERSTATE    COMMERCE    COMMISSION. 


This  Commission,  appointed  under 
"An  act  to  regulate  commerce,"  ap- 
proved February  4,  1887,  has  authori- 
ty to  inquire  into  the  management  of 
the  business  of  all  common  carriers 
who  are  subjei't  to  the  provisions  of 
the  act.  These  are  all  which  are  "en- 
gaged in  the  transportation  of  pas- 
sengers or  property  wholly  by  railroad, 
or  partly  by  railroad  and  partly  by  wa- 
ter when  both  are  used,  under  a  com- 
mon control,  management,  or  arrange- 
ment, for  a  continuous  carriage  or 
shipment,  from  one  State  or  Territory 
of  the  United  States  or  the  District  of 
Columbia  to  any  other  State  or  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States  or  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  or  from  any  place 
in  the  United   States  to  an  adjacent 


foreign  country,  or  from  any  place  in 
the  United  States  through  a  foreign 
country  to  any  other  place  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  also  in  the  transporta- 
tion in  like  manner  of  property  shipped 
from  any  place  in  the  United  States 
to  a  foreign  country  and  carried  from 
such  place  to  a  port  of  transshipment, 
or  shipped  from  a  foreign  country  to 
any  place  in  the  Ignited  States  and 
carried  to  such  place  from  a  port  of 
entry  either  in  the  United  States  or 
an  adjacent  foreign  country."  It  has 
jurisdiction  to  inquire  into  and  report 
upon  the  reasonableness  of  rates  on  in- 
terstate traffic,  to  decide  questions  of 
unjust  discrimination  and  of  undue 
preference,  to  prescribe  the  publicity 
to  be  given  to  joint  tariffs,  and  to  in- 


a22 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


stitute  and  carry  on  proceedings  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  provisions  of 
the  law.  It  has  power  to  call  for  re- 
ports, to  require  the  attendance  of 
witnesses  and  the  production  of  books 
and  papers,  to  hear  complaints  of  a 
violation  of  the  act  made  against  any 
such  carrier,  and  to  determine  what 
reparation  shall  be  made  to  a  party 
wronged ;  to  institute  inquiries  on  its 
own  motion  or  at  the  request  of  State 
railroad  commissions,  and  to  report 
thereon ;  and  it  is  required  to  make 
an  annual  report,  which  shall  be  trans- 
mitted to  Congress. 

The  act  of  March  2,  1893,  known  as 
the  "Safety  Appliance  Act,"  provides 
that  within  specified  periods  railroad 
cars  used  in  interstate  commerce  must 
be  equipped  with  automatic  couplers 
and  standard  height  of  drawbars  for 
freight  cars,  and  have  grab  irons  or 
handholds  on  the  ends  and  sides  of 
each  car. 

A  further  provision  of  this  act  is 
that  locomotive  engines  used  in  moving 
interstate  traffic  shall  be  fitted  with  a 
power  driving  wheel  brake  and  appli- 
ances for  operating  the  train  brake 
system,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  cars 
in  the  train  shall  be  equipped  with 
power  or  train  brakes.  The  act  di- 
rects the  Commission  to  lodge  with  the 


proper  district  attorneys  information 
of  such  violations  as  may  come  to  its 
knowledge.  The  Commission  is  au- 
thorized, from  time  to  time,  upon  full 
hearing  and  for  good  cause,  to  extend 
the  period  within  which  any  common 
carrier  shall  comply  with  the  provi- 
sions of  the  statute.  The  act  of  March 
2,  19()3,  amended  this  act  so  as  to 
make  its  provisions  apply  to  Terri- 
tories and  the  District  of  Columbia,  to 
all  cases  when. couplers  of  whatever  de- 
sign are  brought  together,  and  to  all 
locomotives,  cars,  and  other  equipment 
of  any  railroad  engaged  in  interstate 
traffic,  except  logging  cars  and  cars 
used  upon  street  railways,  and  also  to 
power  or  train  brakes  used  in  railway 
operation. 

The  act  of  March  3,  1901,  "requiring 
common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate 
commerce  to  make  reports  of  all  acci- 
dents to  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,"  makes  it  the  duty  of 
such  carrier  monthly  to  report,  under 
oath,  all  collisions  and  derailments  of 
its  trains  and  accidents  to  its  passen- 
gers, and  to  its  employees  while  on 
duty  in  its  service,  and  to  state  the 
nature  and  causes  thereof.  The  act 
prescribes  that  a  fine  shall  be  imposed 
against  any  such  carrfer  failing  to 
make  the  report  so  required. 


THE     DEPARTMENT     OF     COMMERCE  AND  LABOR. 


The  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  La- 
bor is  charged  with  the  work  of  pro- 
moting the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  mining,  manufacturing, 
shipping,  fishery,  transportation,  and 
labor  interests.  His  duties  also  com- 
prise the  investigation  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  corporations 
(excepting  railroads)  engaged  in  inter- 
state commerce ;  the  gathering  and 
publication  of  information  regarding 
labor  interests  and  labor  controversies 
in  this  and  other  countries ;  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Light  House  Ser- 
vice, and  the  aid  and  protection  to 
shipping  thereby ;  the  taking  of  the 
census,  and  the  collection  and  publi- 
cation of  statistical  information  con- 
nected therewith  ;  the  making  of  coast 
and  geodetic  surveys ;  the  collecting  of 
statistics  relating  to  foreign  and  do- 
mestic commerce ;  the  inspection  of 
steamboats,  and  the  enforcement  of 
laws  relating  thereto  for  the  protec- 
tion of  life  and  property  ;  the  super- 
vision of  the  fisheries  as  administered 
by  the  Federal  Government ;  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Alaskan 
fur  seal,  salmon,  and  other  fisheries; 


the  jurisdiction  over  merchant  vessels, 
their  registry,  licensing,  measurement, 
entry,  clearance,  transfers,  movement 
of  their  cargoes  and  passengers,  and 
laws  relating  thereto,  and  to  seamen  of 
the  United  States ;  the  supervision  of 
the  immigration  of  aliens,  and  the  en- 
forcement of  the  laws  relating  thereto, 
and  to  the  exclusion  of  Chinese ;  the 
custody,  construction,  maintenance, 
and  application  of  standards  of 
weights  and  measurements ;  and  the 
gathering  and  supplying  of  informa- 
tion regarding  industries  and  markets 
for  the  fostering  of  manufacturing. 
He  has  power  to  call  upon  other  De- 
partments for  statistical  data  obtained 
by  them. 

It  is  his  further  duty  to  make  such 
special  investigations  and  furnish  such 
information  ro  the  President  or  Con- 
gress as  may  be  required  by  them  on 
the  foregoing  subject-matters  and  to 
make  annual  reports  to  Congress  upon 
the  work  of  said  Department. 

nURE\U  OF  LAIIOR. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  acquiring  and  diffus- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


323 


ing  among  the  people  of  the  United 
States  useful  information  on  subjects 
connected  with  labor  in  the  most  gen- 
eral and  comprehensive  sense  of  that 
word,  iind  especially  upon  its  relations 
to  capital,  the  hours  of  labor,  the 
earnings  of  laboring  men  and  women, 
and  the  means  of  promoting  their  ma- 
terial, social,  intellectual,  and  moral 
prosperity. 

It  is  especially  charged  to  investi- 
gate the  causes  of  and  facts  relating 
to  all  controversies  and  disputes  be- 
tween employers  and  employees  as  they 
may  occur,  and  which  may  happen  to 
interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the  people 
of  the  several  States. 

LIGHT-HOUSE  BOARD. 

The  Light-House  Board  has  charge, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Commerce  and  Labor,  of  all 
administrative  duties  relating  to  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  light- 
houses, light  vessels,  light-house  de- 
pots, beacons,  fog  signals,  buoys,  and 
their  appendages,  and  has  charge  of 
all  records  and  property  appertaining 
to  the  Light-House  Establishment. 

BUREAU  OF  THE  CENSUS. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  taking  the  periodical 
censuses  of  the  United  States  and  of 
collecting  such  special  statistics  as  are 
required  by  Congress,  including  the 
collection  in  1905  of  the  statistics  of 
manufacturing  establishments  conduct- 
ed under  the  factory  system,  and  the 
collection  annually  of  statistics  of 
births  and  deaths  in  registration  areas, 
statistics  of  the  cotton  production  of 
the  country  as  returned  by  the  ginners, 
and  (by  transfer  from  the  Bureau  of 
Labor)  statistics  of  cities  of  30,000  or 
more  inhabitants.  Under  the  procla- 
mation of  the  President  dated  Septem- 
ber 30,  1902,  the  Bureau  is  charged 
with  the  compilation  and  tabulation  of 
the  returns  of  the  Philippine  census, 
taken  as  of  March  2,  1903,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Philippine  Commis- 
sion. 

COAST    AND    GEODETIC    SURVEY. 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  is 
charged  with  the  survey  of  the  coasts 
of  the  United  States  and  coasts  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  thereof  and  the 
publication  of  chaits  covering  said 
coasts.  This  includes  base  measure, 
triangulation,  topography,  and  hydro- 


graphy along  said  coasts;  the  survey 
of  rivers  to  the  head  of  tide-water  or 
ship  navigation ;  deep  sea  soundings, 
temperature,  and  current  observations 
along  said  coasts  and  throughout  the 
Gulf  and  Japan  streams ;  magnetic  ob- 
servations and  researches,  and  the  pub- 
lication of  maps  showing  the  va- 
riations of  terrestrial  magnetism ; 
gravity  research ;  determination  of 
heights ;  the  determination  of  geo- 
graphic positions  by  astronomic  obser- 
vations for  latitude,  longitude,  and 
azimuth,  and  by  triangulation,  to  fur- 
nish reference  points  for  State  sur- 
veys. The  results  obtained  are  pub- 
lished in  annual  reports,  with  profes- 
sional papers  and  discussions  of  results 
as  appendices ;  charts  upon  various 
scales,  including  sailing  charts,  general 
charts  of  the  coast,  and  harbor  charts ; 
tide  tables  issued  annually,  in  advance  ; 
Coast  Pilots,  with  sailing  directions 
covering  the  navigable  waters ;  No- 
tices to  Mariners,  issued  monthly  and 
containing  current  information  neces- 
sary for  safe  navigation  ;  catalogues  of 
charts  and  publications,  and  such 
other  special  publications  as  may  be 
required  to  carry  out  the  organic  law 
governing  the  Survey. 


BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  collects 
and  publishes  the  statistics  of  our  for- 
eign commerce,  embracing  tables  show- 
ing the  imports  and  exports,  respect- 
ively, by  countries  and  customs  dis- 
tricts ;  the  transit  trade  inward  and 
outward  by  countries  and  by  customs 
districts ;  imported  commodities  ware- 
housed, withdrawn  from,  and  remain- 
ing in  warehouse ;  the  imports  of  mer- 
chandise entered  for  consumption, 
showing  quantity,  value,  rates  of  duty, 
and  amounts  of  duty  collected  on  each 
article  or  class  of  articles ;  th**  inward 
and  outward  movement  of  tonnage  in 
our  foreign  trade  and  the  countries 
whence  entered  and  for  which  cleared, 
distinguishing  the  nationalities  of  the 
foreign  vessels.  The  Bureau  also  col- 
lects and  publishes  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  leading  commercial  move- 
ments in  our  internal  commerce, 
among  which  are  the  commerce  of  the 
Great  Lakes ;  the  commercial  move- 
ments in  our  internal  commerce, 
among  which  are  the  commerce  of  the 
Great  Lakes:  the  commercial  mtve- 
ments  at  interior  centers,  at  Atlantic, 
Gulf,  and  Pacific  seaports ;  shipments 
of  coal  and  coke ;  ocean  freight  rates, 


324 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


etc.  The  Bureau  also  publishes  daily 
and  monthly  the  reports  received  from 
United  States  consuls  and  special  re- 
ports on  various  subjects  supplied  by 
consuls  on  special  request ;  also,  an- 
nually, the  declared  exports  from  for- 
eign countries  to  the  United  States 
furnished  by  consuls,  and  the  annual 
report  laid  before  Congress  entitled 
"Commercial  Relatione  of  the  United 
States." 

STEAMBOAT-INSPECTION  SERVICE. 

The  Steamboat-Inspection  Service  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  inspecting 
steam  vessels,  the  licensing  of  the  offi- 
cers of  vessels,  and  the  administration 
of  the  laws  relating  to  such  vessels 
and  their  officers  for  the  protection  of 
life  and  property. 

The  Supervising  Inspector-General 
and  the  supervising  inspectors  consti- 
tute a  board  that  meets  annually  at 
Washington,  and  establishes  regula- 
tions for  carrying  out  the  provisions 
of  the  steamboat-inspection  laws. 

BUREAU   OF  FISHERIES. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
comprises  (1)  the  propagation  of  use- 
ful food  fishes,  including  lobsters,  oys- 
ters, and  other  shellfish,  and  their  dis- 
tribution to  suitable  waters;  (2)  the 
inquiry  into  the  causes  of  decrease  of 
food  fishes  in  the  lakes,  rivers,  and 
coast  waters  of  the  United  States,  the 
study  of  the  waters  of  the  coast  and 
interior  in  the  interest  of  fish-culture, 
and  the  investigation  of  the  fishing 
grounds  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pa- 
cific coasts,  with  the  view  of  determin- 
ing their  food  resources  and  the  devel- 
opment of  the  commercial  fisheries ; 
(3)  the  collection  and  compilation  of 
the  statistics  of  the  fisheries  and  the 
study  of  their  methods  and  relations. 

BUREAU    OF   NAVIGATION. 

The  Bureau  of  Navigation  is 
charged  with  general  superintendence 
of  the  commercial  marine  and  mer- 
chant seamen  of  the  TTnited  States,  ex- 
cept so  far  as  supervision  is  lodged 
with  other  officers  of  the  Government. 
It  is  specially  charged  with  the  de- 
cision of  all  questions  relating  to  the 
issue  of  registers,  enrollments,  and  li- 
censes of  vessels  and  the  filing  of  those 
documents,  with  the  supervision  of 
laws  relating  to  the  admeasurement, 
letters,   and   numbers   of   vessels,    and 


with  the  final  decision  of  questions 
(oncerning  the  collection  and  refund  of 
tonnage  taxes.  It  is  empowered  to 
change  the  names  *of  vessels,  prepares 
annually  a  list  of  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  and  reports  annually  to  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  the 
operations  of  the  laws  relative  to  navi- 
gation. 

BUREAU   OF  IMMIGRATION. 

The  Bureau  of  Immigration  is 
charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
laws  relating  to  immigration  and  of 
the  Chinese  exclusion  laws.  It  super- 
vises all  expenditures  under  the  appro- 
priations for  "Expenses  of  regulating 
immigration"  and  the  "Enforcement  of 
the  Chinese  exclusion  act."  It  causes 
alleged  violations  of  the  immigration, 
Chinese  exclusion,  and  alien  contract- 
labor  laws  to  be  investigated,  and 
when  prosecution  is  deemed  advisable 
submits  evidence  for  that  purpose  to 
the  proper  United  States  district  at- 
torney. 

BUREAU   OF   STANDARDS. 

The  functions  of  the  Bureau  of 
Standards  are  as  follows :  The  custody 
of  the  standards ;  the  comparison  of 
the  standards  used  in  scientific  investi- 
gations, engineering,  manufacturing, 
commerce,,  and  educational  institu- 
tions with  the  standards  adopted  or 
recognized  by  the  Government ;  the 
construction,  when  necessary,  of  stand- 
ards, their  multiples  and  subdivisions ; 
the  testing  and  calibration  of  standard 
measuring  apparatus ;  the  solution  of 
problems  which  arise  in  connection 
with  standards ;  the  determination  of 
physical  constants  and  properties  of 
materials,  when  such  data  are  of  great 
importance  to  scientific  or  manufac- 
turing interests  and  are  not  to  be  ob- 
tained of  sufficient  accuracy  elsewhere. 
The  Bureau  is  authorized  to  exercise 
its  functions  for  the  Government  of 
the  Ignited  States,  for  any  State  or 
municipal  government  within  the  Uni- 
ted States,  or  for  any  scientific  society, 
educational  institution,  firm,  corpora- 
tion, or  individual  within  the  United 
States  engaged  in  manufacturing  or 
other  pursuits  requiring  the  use  of 
standards  or  standard  measuring  in- 
struments. For  all  comparisons,  cali- 
brations, tests,  or  investigations,  ex- 
cept those  performed  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  or  State 
governments,  a  reasonable  fee  will  be 
charged. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


325 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. 


The  International  Bureau  of  the 
American  Republics  was  established 
under  the  recommendation  of  the  In- 
ternational American  Conference  in 
1890  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining 
closer  relations  between  the  several  Re- 
publics of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
It  was  reorganized  by  the  Interna- 
tional American  Conference  of  1901 
and  its  scope  widened  by  imposing 
many  new  and  important  duties.  A 
prominent  feature  of  the  new  arrange- 
ment was  the  foundation  of  the  Co- 
lumbus Memorial  Library.  The  Inter- 
national Bureau  corresponds,  through 
the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the 
several  Governments  in  Washington, 
with  the  executive  departments  of 
these  governments,  and  is  required  to 
furnish   such    information   as   it    pos- 


sesses or  can  obtain  to  any  of  the  Re- 
publics making  requests.  It  is  the 
custodian  of  the  archives  of  the  Inter- 
national American  Conferences,  and  is 
especially  charged  with  the  perform- 
ance of  duties  imposed  upon  it  by 
these  conferences.  The  International 
Bureau  is  sustained  by  contributions 
from  the  American  Republics  in  pro- 
portion to  their  population.  It  pub- 
lishes a  monthly  bulletin  containing 
the  latest  oflScial  information  respect- 
ing the  resources,  commerce,  and  gen- 
eral features  of  the  American  Repub- 
lics, as  well  as  maps  and  geographical 
sketches  of  these  countries,  which  pub- 
lications are  considered  public  docu- 
ments and  as  such  are  carried  free  in 
the  mails  of  all  the  Republics. — Con- 
gressional Directory. 


THE    AMERICAN    ASSOCIATION     FOR  THE   ADVANCEMENT 

OF     SCIENCE. 


Any  person  may  become  a  member 
of  the  association  upon  recommenda- 
tion in  writing  by  two  members  or  fel- 
lows, and  election  by  the  council,  or  by 
the  special  committee  of  the  council 
resident  in  Washington  and  empow- 
ered to  pass  upon  applications  when- 
ever received. 

Tlie  admission  fee  for  members  is 
five  dollars,  payable  in  advance.  The 
annual  dues  for  members  and  fellows 
are  three  dollars,  payable  in  advance. 
The  fiscal  year  of  the  association  be- 
gins January  1st,  and  members  and 
fellows  .are  entitled  to  all  publica- 
tions issued,  and  to  the  privileges  of 
all  meetings  held  during  the  year  for 
which  they  have  paid  dues. 

Fellows  are  elected  by  the  council 
from  such  of  the  members  as  are  pro- 
fessionally engaged  in  science.  The 
election  of  fellows  is  by  ballot  and  a 
majority  vote  of  the  members  of  the 
council  at  a  designated  meeting  of  the 


council.  On  the  election  of  any  mem- 
ber as  a  fellow,  an  additional  fee  of 
two  dollars  shall  be  paid. 

Any  member  or  fellow  who  shall 
pay  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars  to  the 
association,  at  any  one  time,  shall  be- 
come a  life  member,  and  as  such  shall 
be  exempt  from  all  further  assess- 
ments, and  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  association.  All 
money  thus  received  shall  be  invested 
as  a  permanent  fund,  the  income  of 
which,  during  the  life  of  the  mem- 
ber, shall  form  a  part  of  the  general 
fund  of  the  association ;  but,  after  his 
death,  shall  be  used  only  to  assist  in 
original  research,  unless  otherwise  di- 
rected by  unanimous  vote  of  the 
council.  ■ 

Any  person  paying  to  the  associa- 
tion the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars 
shall  be  classed  as  a  patron,  and  shall 
be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  a 
member  and  to  all  its  publications. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SSI 


OopTrdcht,  IBM  b;H 


NATIONAL  DEBTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


CHAPTER   XII. 


POST    OFFICE. 


POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

Revised  by  the  New  York  Post  Ofl&ce. 


>> 


There  are  four  classes  of  mail  mat- 
ter: 

First-Class  Matter — All  written 
matter,  such  as  letters,  postal  cards, 
"  post  cards  "  and  all  matter  in  writ- 
ing, whether  pen-written  or  typewrit- 
ten, and  all  matter  sealed  from  inspec 
tion,  constitutes  "  First-class  Matter, 
and  is  mailable  at  two  cents  an  ounce, 
or  fraction  thereof.  Letters,  etc.,  may 
be  sent  to  Canada,  Cuba,  the  *'  Canal 
Zone "  at  Panama,  Guam,  Tutuila 
(Samoa),  Shanghai  (China),  Mexico, 
Porto  Rico,   Hawaii,   and   the   Philip- 

£ines.  Postal  cards  are  one  cent  each. 
(Ocal  or  "  drop  "  letters  are  two  cents 
an  ounce  or  fraction  thereof,  when 
mailed  at  letter  carrier  offices,  or  at 
offices  where  Rural  Delivery  Service 
has  been  established,  addressed  to 
patrons  thereof  who  may  be  served  by 
rural  carriers,  and  one  cent  for  each 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof  at  offices 
where  free  delivery  by  carrier  is  not 
established  or  at  rural-delivery  offices 
when  addressed  to  patrons  who  cannot 
be  served  by  the  carriers. 

Note — There  is  no  "drop"  rate  on 
third  or  fourth-class  matter :  the  post- 
age on  which  is  uniform  whether  ad- 
dressed for  local  delivery  or  transmis- 
sion in  the  mails. 

The  following  articles  are  included 
in  first-class  matter :  Assessment  no- 
tices, autograph  albums,  blank  books, 
with  written  entries,  bank  checks, 
blank  forms  filled  out  in  writing,  re- 
ceipts, visiting  cards  bearing  written 
name,  communications  entirely  in 
print  with  the  exception  of  name  of 
sender,  diplomas,  drawings  or  plans 
containing  written  words,  letters  or 
figures,  envelopes  bearing  written  ad- 
dresses, imitations  or  reproductions  of 
hand  or  typewritten  matter  not  mailed 
at  the  postoffice  in  a  minimum  num- 
ber of  twenty  perfectly  identical  cop- 
ies to  separate    addresses,    legal    and 


other  blanks,  old  letters  sent  singly  or 
in  bulk,  all  sealed  matter,  stenographic 
or  shorthand  notes,  and  unsealed 
written  communications. 

Second  -Class  Matter — This  division 
includes  newspapers  and  other  periodi- 
cals, which  are  issued  as  often  as  four 
times  a  year.  The  rate  of  postage  on 
second-class  matter  when  sent  by  the 
publisher  thereof  and  from  the  office 
of  publication  to  subscribers  or  as 
sample  copies,  or  when  sent  from  a 
news  agency  to  actual  subscribers  or 
to  other  news  agents  for  sale,  is  one 
cent  a  pound  or  fra'^tion  thereof,  ex- 
cept when  deposited  in  a  letter  carrier 
office  for  delivery  by  letter  carriers,  or 
mailed  free  within  the  county  of  publi- 
cation. Publishers  to  obtain  this  rate 
must  have  their  periodicals  entered  at 
their  local  post-office. 

Third-Ciass  latter — Embraces  all 
printed  matter  generally.  The  rate  of 
postage  is  one  cent  for  each  two  ounces 
or  fractional  part  thereof  sent  to  a 
single  address,  to  be  fully  prepaid  by 
ordinary  postage  stamps  affixed  there- 
to. The  following  named  articles  are 
among  those  subject  to  third-class  rate 
of  postage :  Almanacs,  printed  archi- 
tectural designs,  blueprints,  books 
(printed),  bulbs,  calendars  printed  on 
paper,  cards  printed  on  paper,  Christ- 
mas cards,  catalogues,  check  and  re- 
ceipt books  (blank),  circulars,  press 
clippings,  school  copy  books,  printed 
engravings,  samples  of  grain,  imita- 
tion of  hand  or  typewritten  matter 
when  mailed  at  the  postoffice  window 
in  a  minimum  number  of  twenty  iden- 
tical copies  separately  addressed, 
printed  labels,  legal  blanks,  lithographs, 
maps,  music  books,  photographs, 
plants,  printed  tags,  roots,  seeds,  sheet 
music. 

Fourth  -  Class  Matter  —  Embraces 
merchandise,  samples,  and  in  general 
all   articles  not  included  in  the  first, 


327 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


second  or  third  class.  The  rate  of 
poBtase  IB  one  cent  an  ounce  or  frac- 
tion thereof  sent  to  a  single  address, 
to  be  prepaid  by  ordinary  stamps 
affiled.  The  following  are  among 
articles  included  in  fourth-class  ruar- 
ter :  Albums,  photograph  and  auto- 
graph (blank),  artificial  flowers,  bill- 
heads, blank  books,  blotters,  botanical 
specimens,  celluloid  calendars,  blank 
cards,  celluloid,  dried  fruit,  dried 
plants,  electrotypes,  geological  speci- 
mens, mapa  printed  on  cloth,  merchan- 
dise samples,  merchandise  scaled, 
metals,  napkins,  oil  paintings,  samples 
of  cloth,  samples  of  flour,  soap  wrap- 
pers, stationery. 

Prohibited  Articles. — Many  articles 
are  excluded  from  the  foreign  mails, 
the  regutatiOQB  being  different  in  the 
ease  of  each  country.  Inquiries 
should  be  made  of  the  postmaster. 
Many  articles  are  also  excluded  from 
domestic  mails  when  they  are  liable  to 


e  the     .      . 

engaged  in  the  postal  service.     When 
in  doubt  consult  your  postmaster. 

Withdrawal  of  Letters  from  the 
Mail. — It  is  not  generally  known  that 
n  letter  can  be  withdrawn  from  the 
mail.  For  good  and  sufficient  reasons 
and  satisfactory  identidcatiun  a  post- 
master may  telegraph  to  a  postmaster 
in  another  city,  asking  him  to  with- 
draw the  letter,  a  description  of  which 
is  telegraphed.  Special  care  is  then 
given  in  assorting  letters,  and  when 
the  letter  is  found  it  is  returned  to  the 
postmaster  of  the  city  where  it  was 
mailed,  who  delivers  it  to  the  iierson 
mailing  it  on  presentation  of  proper 
proof  of  ownership.  All  expenses 
must  be  borne  by  the  pei'son  withdraw- 
ing a  letter  from  the  mail.  A  deposit 
of  $5  must  be  left  with  the  post- 
master when  the  application  is  made. 
It  is  also  possible  to  withdraw  a  for- 


POSTAL 

SERVICE 

Number  of  lettani. 

poTcflJds". 

P       ed 

DomBstic. 

p'SS 

^. 

al  papers. 

Argentine  Hopublio. 

440,875,600 

222.304:623 

li820,'831 

12,060^000 
820.708.041 

28.462:364 

^  |7ol:i26 

227.062:615 
6,042.720 

"11 

5w>:ooa 

64,442.350 

'•?|3:gooo 

i'li 

4:  o»:7on 

0,543.240 

iS! 

37:  30:3R7 
48,631.989 

740,087,805 

89 
064 

00 
0 

6 
80           fiO 

'lilisi 

'    14;442;i40 

See  Col.  4 
38  227.430 

■1HK'?oi 

300:000 

3,016,145 

See  rol',  1 
1  446,906 

f^Cdi.  1 

38^ 

r.reat  Britain 

800  800,000 

f^r^.v. :.:.:::: 

0M1.668 

II  s\   ss 

III  'i™™ 

i-ii 

Po^ubA 

United  States  o( 

Vt^S^y 

3  350  544 

il,180 

362.042 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   HEFERENCE    BOOK. 


eigu  letter  from  the  mail,  and  in  tbat 
case  the  deposit  is  $25.  Any  unex- 
pended balance  is,  of  course,  returned. 

Payable  in  the  I'nited  States  (which 
includes  Guam,  Hawaii,  I'orto  Hico 
and  TutuiEa.  Samoa)  ;  also  foi'  Orders 

Eayable  in  Canada.  Cuba.  Newfound- 
ind.  the  United  States  Postal  Agency 
at  Shanghai  I  China),  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Barbados,  Grenada,  Saint 
Lucia,  and  St.  Vincent. 

For  Orders  for  sums  not  exceeding 
S2.50,  3  cents. 

Over  $2.1)0  and  not  exceeding  $5.00, 
5  cents. 

Over  $5.00  and  not  exceeding  ?10.00, 
8  cents. 

Over  S10.00  and  not  exceeding 
J20.00,  10  cents. 

Over  $20.00  and  not  exceeding 
$30.00,  12  cents. 


nd     not     exceeding 
nd     not     exceeding 


Over     $30.00     and     not     exceeding 
SJO.OO,  15  cents. 

Over     $40.00     and     not     exeeedlng 
$50.00,  18  cents. 

Over     $ti0.00     and     not     exceeding 
$(iO.OO.  20  cents. 

Over    $60.00     i 
$75.00,  25  cents. 

Over     $75.00     i 
$100.00,  30  cents. 

Note.— The   r. _ 

which  a  single  Money  Order  ma;  be 
issued  is  $100.  When  a  larger  sum  is 
to  be  sent  additional  Orders  must  be 
obtained.  Any  number  of  Orders  may 
be  drawn  on  any  Money  Order  office ; 
but,  if  Orders  are  drawn  in  excess  of 
$200  on  any  one  day  upon  an  office 
of  the  4th  class,  notice  of  the  fact  by 
letter  (or  Form  6037)  is  to  be  prompt- 
ly sent  the  Department  by  the  issuing 
Postmaster  so  that  provision  may  be 
made  for  payment. 


OF  THE  WORLD. 


SneCol.  S     I 


1,329,444 

2.U3.6S6'.GS2 
3,781,(132,920 

4,as3,eoo,ooo 

290,188,722 
747,040,295 
882,705. 0fl4 

3li',40a'.li2l 


III 

431643!  104 

illi 

798.683 

8,ooa,8S2.fioa 

ffice  and  telegraph  official 

1,009,384  2,165.0 
i.?,7S  1,600  Z6.a33,fi' 
3,4IZ.26S        1,525,1! 

18.373 

1.821,646      13,840,1 


2,495.80: 

'  9M,9S1. 
18,046,172 


29H,4IDi  4.082.506 

8flO,B94i  5,951, laa 

16,916,041  377,446,238 

"a.O/s'.liSi'  24,764,948 


330 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


3ii3 


SUGGESTION   TO   THE   PUBLIC  ON  POSTAL  SUBJECTS. 


How  TO  Direct  and  Mail  Letters. — Mail 
matter  should  be  addressed  legibly  and  com- 
pletely, giving  the  name  of  the  p>ostoffice, 
county  and  State,  and  the  postoffice  box  of 
the  person  addressed,  if  he  has  one;  if  to  a 
city  having  a  free  delivery,  the  street  and 
number  should  be  added.  To  secure  return 
to  the  sender  in  case  of  misdirection  or  insuflEi- 
cient  payment  of  postage,  his  name  should  be 
written  or  printed  upon  the  upoer  left-hand 
corner  of  all  mail  matter;  it  will  then  be  re- 
turned  to  the  sender,  if  not  called  for  at  its 
destination,  without  going  to  the  Dead  Letter 
Office,  and,  if  a  letter,  it  will  be  returned 
free. 

Dispatch  is  hastened  by  mailing  early, 
especially  when  large  numbers  of  letters,  news- 
papers or  circulars  are  mailed  at  once. 

When  a  number  of  letters  or  circulars  are 
mailed  together,  addressed  to  the  same  desti- 
nation, it  is  well  to  tie  them  in  bundles  with 
the  addresses  facing  the  same  side.  On  letters 
for  places  in  foreign  countries,  especially 
Canada  and  England,  in  which  many  post- 
offices  have  the  same  name  as  offices  in  the 
United  States,  the  name  of  the  country  as 
well  as  postoffice  should  be  given  in  full. 
Letters  addressed,  for  instance,  merely  to 
"London,"  without  adding  "England,"  are 
frequently  sent  to  London,  Canada,  and  vice 
versa,  thereby  causing  delay,  and  often  serious 
loss.  Letters  addressed  to  Burlington,  N.  S. 
(Nova  Scotia),  often  go  to  Burlington,  New 
York,  on  account  of  the  resemblance  between 
S  and  Y  when  carelessly  written. 

Avoid  Thin  Envelopes. — Thin  envelopes, 
or  those  made  of  weak  or  poor,  unsubtantial 
paper,  should  not  be  used,  especially  for  large 
packages.  Being  often  handled,  and  sub- 
jected to  pressure  and  friction  in  the  mail 
bags,  such  envelopes  are  frequently  torn 
open  or  burst,  without  fault  of  those  who 
handle  them.  It  is  best  to  use  Stamped 
Envelopes  wherever  it  is  convenient  and 
practicable  to  do  so. 


Registered  Valuable  Matter. — All  val- 
uable matter  should  be  registered.  Registry 
fee  is  eight  cents,  which,  with  full  postage, 
must  be  prepaid,  and  name  and  address  of 
sender  must  be  given  on  the  outside  of  envel- 
ope or  wrapper.  Money  should  be  sent  by  a 
money  order  or  registered  letter;  otherwise 
it  is  liable  to  be  lost. 

The  Convenience  of  Letter  Boxes. — 
Patrons  in  cities  where  letter  carriers  are 
employed  are  advised  to  provide  letter  boxes 
at  places  or  private  residences,  thereby  saving 
much  delay  in  the  delivery  of  mail  matter. 

Affix  Stamps  Firmly. — Postage  stamps 
should  be  placed  upon  the  upper  right-hand 
corner  of  the  address  side  of  all  the  mail 
matter,  care  being  taken  that  they  are 
securely  affixed. 

General  Suggestions. — A  subscriber  to  a 
newspaper  or  periodical  who  changes  his 
residence  and  postoffice  should  at  once  notify 
the  publisher,  and  have  the  publication  sent 
to  his  new  address. 

Publishers  and  news  agents  mailing 
second-class  matter  in  quantities,  will  facili- 
tate its  distribution,  and  often  hasten  its 
dispatch,  by  separating  such  matter  by  States 
and  Territories  and  the  larger  cities. 

Hotel  Matter. — That  is,  matter  addressed 
for  delivery  at  hotels,  should  be  returned  to 
the  postoffice  as  soon  as  it  is  evident  that  it 
will  not  be  claimed.  Proprietors  of  hotels, 
officers  of  clubs  and  boards  of  trade,  or  ex- 
changes, should  not  hold  unclaimed  letters 
longer  than  tea  days,  except  at  the  request  of 
the  person  addressed,  and  should  re-direct 
them  for  forwarding,  if  the  present  address  is 
known;  otherwise  they  should  be  returned  to 
the  postoffice. 

Letters  addressed  to  persons  temporarily 
sojourning  in  a  city  where  the  Free  Delivery 
System  is  in  operation  should  be  marked 
"Transient"  or  "General  Delivery."  if  not 
addressed  to  a  street  and  number  or  some 
other  designated  place  of  delivery.  —  Poet 
Office  Guide. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  POST   OFFICE. 

« 

POSTAL   REVENUE   IN  DETAIL   FOR  YEAR    ENDING    JUNE  30,  1903. 


The  postal  revenue  from  all  sources  was  as 

follows: 

Sales  of  stamps,  stamped  en- 
velopes, newspaper  wrap- 
pers, and  postal  cards  ....  $123,511,549.70 

Second-class  postage  (pound 

rates)  paid  in  money 6,095,379.62 

Box  rents 3,065,675 .  06 

Revenue  from  money-order 

business 2,239,908.24 


Letter  postage  paid  in  money, 
principally  balances  due 
from  foreign  postal  admin- 
istrations   

Miscellaneous  receipts 

Fines  and  penalties 

Receipts  from  unclaimed 
dead  letters 


8186,426.83 
58,105.94 
46,476.04 

20,921.81 


Total  receipts. $134,224,443.24 


834 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


EXPENDITURES  IN  DETAIL. 


The  expenditures  of  the  postal  service  for 
the  year  are  shown,  by  items,  in  the  following 
statement : 
Transportation  of  mails  on 

railroads $36.195.116. 18 


Compensation  to  postmasters 

Free-delivery  service 

Compensation  of  clerks  in 
post-offices 

Railway  mail  service 

Rural  free  delivery 

Transportation  of  the  mails 
on  star  routes 

Railway  post-office  car  ser- 
vice . . . , 

Transportation  of  foreign 
mails 

Rent,  light,  and  fuel  for  first, 
second,  and  third-class 
post-offices 

Compensation  to  assistant 
postmasters  at  first  and 
second-class  post-offices  . . 

Mail-messenger  service 

Transportation  of  mails — 
regulation,  screen,  or  other 
wagon  service 

Manufacture  of  stamped  en- 
velopes  

Transportation  of  mails  on 
steamboats 

Mail  depredations  and  post- 
office  inspectors 

Transportation  of  the  mails, 
electric  and  cable  cars.  .  . . 

Manufacture  of  postage 
stamps 

Mail  bags  and  catchers 

Miscellaneous  items  at  first 
and  second  class  offices  . . . 

Canceling  machines 


21.631,724.04 
19,337,986.00 

17,140,651.11 

11,228,845.75 

8,011,635.48 

6,561,819.35 

5,033,464.22 

2,427,160.36 

2,360,968.91 


1,622,730.12 
1,091,259.98 


828,707.93 

724,787.37 

634,957.08 

543,976.55 

440,420.41 

336,437.10 
274,219.71 

256,620.98 
195.803.46 


Manufacture  of  postal  cards. 

Balance  due  foreign  coun- 
tries  

Registered  package,  tag, 
official,  ana  dead-letter  en- 
velopes   

Pneumatic-tube  service  .... 

Payment  of  money  orders 
more  than  one  year  old.  . . 

Wrapping  twine 

Transportation  of  the  mails, 
special  facilities 

Blanks,  blank  books,  etc., 
for  money-order  service  .  . 

Stationery  for  postal  service . 

Postal  laws  and  regulations  . 

Printing  facing  slips,  slide 
labels,  etc 

Postmarking  and  rating 
stamps 

Mail  locks  and  keys 

Wrapping  paper 


Expenditures  under  24 
smaller  items  of  appropri- 
ation   


$188,865.98 
153,539.82 


150,754.82 
142,867.04 

141,390.68 
132,635.47 

122,347.18 

112,179.20 
68,760.66 
51,826.48 

46,862.47 

42,572.95 
42,534.33 
39.835.04 


138,316,264.21 


175,202.06 


Total   expenditures   for 

the  year 

Add  expenditures  during  the 
year  on  account  of  previous 
years 

Total  expenditures  dur- 
ing the  year 

Excess  of  expenditures  over 
receipts 


138,491,466.27 

293,021.70 

138,784,487.97 
4,560,044.73 


Receipts $134,224,443 .  24 


Number  of  money-order  of- 
fices in  operation,  1902  . . . 

Number  of  money-order  of- 
fices in  operation,  1903  . . . 

Number  of  domestic  money 
.  orders  issued,  1903 


MONEY  ORDER  BUSINESS. 
31,680 


34,647 
45,941,681 


Amount  of  domestic  orders 

issued,  1903 $353,627,648.03 

Amount  of  orders  paid  and 

repaid,  1903 353,173,320 .  62 

Excess  of  receipts  over  ex- 
penses, paid  from  the  pro- 
ceeds, 1903 1,904,887 .  63 


NUMBER    OF     POST    OFFICES,    EXTENT    OF     POST-ROUTES,    AND     REVENUE 

AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE  POST  OFFICE   DEPARTMENT,  INCLUDING 

AMOUNTS    PAID    FOR    TRANSPORTATION    OF    THE     MAIL, 

1877,  1887,  1897,  AND  1903. 


Year  ending 

T                     0/\ 

Post- 
offices. 

Extent 
of  post- 
routes. 

Revenue  of 
the  Depart- 
ment. • 

Expended  for  transporta- 
tion of — 

Total  expendi- 
ture of  the 

June  30 — 

Domestic  mail. 

Foreign  mail. 

Dollars. 

448.896 

402,623 

1.890,099 

2,680,700 

Department. 

1877 

1887 

1897 

1903 

Number. 

37,345 
55,157 
71,022 
74,169 

Miles. 

292,820 
373,142 
470.032 
606.268 

Dollars. 

27,531,586 

48,837,610 

82,665,463 

134.224,443 

Dollars. 

18,774,236 
27,892,646 
48,028,094 
62,606,015 

Dollars. 

33.486,322 

63.006,194 

94,077,242 

138,784,488 

— From  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Postmaster-General. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


RAILROAD    MILEAGE  UPON  WHICH  MAIL  WAS  CARRIED,  ANNUAL  COST  AND 

AVERAGE    COST    PER    MILE    OP    RAILROAD    MAIL    TRANSPORTATION, 

AND  EXPENDITURE  FOR  RAILWAY  MAIL  SERVICE  EMPLOYEES. 


a. 

Totalrail- 
■Dbc.31. 

M 

Byroad  msiltrims- 

Railway  Mail  Service. 

SS^ 

SS 

'11^  mite.* 

Number 

Annual 
expendi- 
ture. 

877... 
8S7... 
887... 
903... 

,11? 

184.5B1 

Miles. 
74,546 
130,648 

102,852 

Hiln. 

issiesasee 

273,190,358 
333.4  SI,  CS4 

DoLLars. 
6,053.036 
18,056,272 

DoUara. 
:i064 

2,500 
4.Sfil 

loUig 

Dollars. 

His 

li:2S0:042 

—Prepared  in  th 

Office  of  th 

e  PDBtma^ter-OeDerat. 

CopyrlBbt.  ItttL  bj  Hnnn  A  r>3. 

QRAPHICAL  REPRESENTATION  OF  SOME  INTERESTING  STATISTICS  OF 
THE  U.  S.  POSTAL  SERVICE,  BASED  ON  FIGURES  FOR  1901, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAPTER    Xni. 


INTERNATIONAIi    INSTITUTIONS    AND    BUREAUS. 


THE  NOBEL  PRIZES. 


The  Nobel  Foundation  is  based  upon 
the  last  will  and  testament  of  Dr.  Al- 
fred Bombard  Nobel,  engineer  and  in- 
ventor of  dynamite,  dated  November 
27,  1895,  the  stipulations  of  which, 
respecting  this  fund,  are  as  follows : 

"The  rest  of  my  fortune,  that  is,  the 
capital  realized  by  my  executors,  is  to 
constitute  a  fund,  the  interest  of  which 
is  to  be  distributed  annually  as  a  prize 
to  those  who  have  in  the  course  of  the 
previous  year  rendered  the  greatest  ser- 
vices to  humanity.  The  amount  is  to 
be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  is  to  be  awarded  to  the  person 
who  has  made  the  most  important  dis- 
covery in  the  domain  of  physical  sci- 
ence ;  another  part  to  the  one  who  has 
made  the  most  valuable  discovery  in 
chemistry  or  brought  about  the  great- 
est improvement ;  the  third  to  the  au- 
thor of  the  most  important  discovery 
in  the  field  of  physiology  or  medicine ; 
the  fourth  to  the  one  who  has  pro- 
duced the  most  remarkable  literary 
work  of  an  idealist  tendency,  and 
finally  the  fifth  to  the  person  who 
has  done  the  best  or  the  most  in  the 
cause  of  the  fraternity  of  nations,  for 
the  suppression  or  the  reduction  of 
standing  armies  as  well  as  for  the  for- 
mation and  propagation  of  peace  con- 
gresses. The  prizes  will  be  awarded 
for  physics  and  chemistry  by  the 
Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences ;  for 
works  in  physiology  or  medicine  by  the 
Caroline  Institute  of  Stockholm ;  for 
literature  by  the  Stockholm  Academy, 
and  finally  for  the  service  in  the  cause 
of  peace  by  a  Committee  of  five  mem- 
bers of  the  Norwegian  Storthing.  It 
is  my  express  desire  that  the  benefits 
of  the  foundation  are  to  be  open  to  all 
nationalities  and  sexes  and  that  the 
prize  be  awarded  to  the  one  most  wor- 
thy, whether  Scandinavian  or  not." 

Each  prize  will  amount  to  about 
$40,000,  and  the  corporation  will  desig- 
nate a  "Comit§  Nobel"  composed  of 
three  or  five  members  for  each  sec- 
tion, with  headquarters  at  Christiania, 
Norway. 

The  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences, 


Stockholm,  awards  the  Physics  and 
Chemistry  Prizes;  the  Caroline  Medi- 
cal Institute,  Stockholm,  awards  the 
Prize  for  Physiology  or  Medicine ;  the 
Swedish  Academy  in  Stockholm 
awards  the  Literature  Prize ;  and  the 
Peace  Prize  is  awarded  by  a  Commit- 
tee of  five  persons  elected  by  the  Nor- 
wegian Storthing.  No  consideration 
is  paid  to  the  nationality  of  the  candi- 
dates, but  it  is  essential  that  every 
candidate  shall  be  proposed  in  writing 
by  some  qualified  representative  of  sci- 
ence, literature,  etc.,  in  the  chief  coun- 
tries of  the  civilized  world,  such  pro- 
posals to  reach  the  Committee  before 
the  first  of  February  in  each  year,  the 
awards  being  made  on  the  following 
10th  of  December.  Nobel  Institutes 
are  to  be  established  in  each  of  the  five 
departments,  to  carry  out  scientific  in- 
vestigations as  to  the  value  of  the  dis- 
coveries and  improvements,  and  .to  pro- 
mote the  other  objects  of  the  Founda- 
tion. 

The  first  distribution  of  prizes  took 
place  in  1901,  the  awards  being :  Peace, 
MM.  Dunant  and  Passy ;  Medicine, 
Dr.  Behring,  of  Marburg;  Chemistry, 
Prof.  J.  H.  van  *t  Hoflf,  Berlin;  Phy- 
sics, Prof.  Rontgen ;  and  Literature, 
M.  Sully  Prudhomme. 

The  1902  Prizes  were  awarded  as 
follows:  Literature,  Prof.  Theodor 
Mommsen,  of  Berlin ;  Peace,  MM.  Du- 
commun  and  Gobat  (Switzerland)  ; 
Medicine,  Major  Ronald  Ross,  of  the 
School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Liver- 
pool:  Chemistry,  Prof.  Emil  Fischer,  of 
Berlin;  Physics, divided  between  Profs. 
Lorentz  and  Zeemann,  of  Holland. 

The  1903  Prizes  were  awarded  thus  : 
Peace,  Mr.  W.  R.  Cromer,  M.  P. ;  Lit- 
erature, M.  Bjornson ;  Medicine,  Prof. 
Finsen.  of  Copenhagen  ;  Physics,  Prof. 
Becquerel,  of  Paris,  and  Mme.  Curi§. 
of  Paris;  Chemistry,  Prof.  Arrhenius, 
of  Stockholm. 

All  information  can  be  obtained 
from  Nohelstiftelsen,  Stockholm,  or 
as  to  the  Peace  Prize,  from  the  Comitd 
Nobel  Norv^gien,  Victoria  Terrasse,  7, 
I    III.,  Christiania. 


337 


B38 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


THE  ANTHONY  POLLOK  PRIZE. 


No  doubt  many  inventors  are  won- 
dering what  disposition  has  been  made 
of  the  Anthony  Pollok  Prize.  Com- 
mun. cations  which  have  been  received 
by  the  editor  from  Paris  state  that, 
owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  results  of 
the  former  competition,  the  founders 
of  the  prize  were  undecided  as  to 
what  should  be  done.  Before  taking 
any  steps  it  was  thought  advisable  to 
make  an  investigation.  The  Inter- 
maritime  Association  in  Paris  sent  out 
letters  to  the  leading  maritime  asso- 
ciations, chambers  of  commerce  and 
boards  of  trade  of  the  principal  mari- 


time cities  of  the  world,  asking  for 
advice  as  to  the  best  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  order  to  obta.n  more  satis- 
factory results  in  a  possible  future 
competition.  Many  replies  were  re- 
ceived and  a  large  number  of  sugges- 
tions made. 

A  report  containing  the  various  rec- 
ommendations and  suggested  changes 
was  submitted  by  the  Intermaritime 
Association  but  a  short  time  ago. 
The  founders  of  the  Anthony  Pollok 
Prize  intend  shortly  to  pass  upon  the 
report  and  adopt  resolutions  for  the 
final  disposition  of  the  prize. 


INTERNATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  AND  BUREAUS. 


Feeling  that  a  large  majority  of  our 
readers  may  not  have  access  to  the 
sources  of  information  from  which  the 
following  data  are  drawn,  we  take  the 
liberty  of  presenting  them  with  the 
most  interesting  facts  concerning  the 
origin  and  composition  of  some  of  the 
International  Institutions  and  Bu- 
reaus in  which  the  United  States  as 
a  power,  and  we  as  a  people,  are  in- 
terested. 

I.  THE  PEBMANENT  COUBT  OF  ARBITRA- 
TION. 

This  court,  more  popularly  known 
as  The  Hague  Tribunal,  was  consti- 
tuted by  virtue  of  the  convention  for 
the  pacific  regulation  of  international 
questions,  concluded  at  The  Hague, 
July  29,  1899.  (Office,  Prinsegracht 
71,  The  Hague.) 

Administrative  Council. — President : 
The  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  for 
Holland.  Members :  The  diplomatic 
representatives  of  all  the  signatory 
powers  accredited  to  The  Hague. 

Members  of  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration. — Since  the  individuals 
themselves  are  constantly  changing  by 
ill  health  or  death,  we  shall  content 
ourselves  by  giving  the  signatory  pow- 
ers alone,  letting  it  suffice  to  say  that 
these  powers  appoint  their  most  dis- 
tinguished men,  preferably  lawyers,  to 
the  position.  They  are  :  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Greece,  Holland,  Italy,  Japan,  Lux- 
emburg, Mexico,  Portugal,  Roumania, 
Russia,  Servia,  Spain,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States. 


II.      THE     UNIVERSAL     INTERNATIONAL 
POSTAL    UNION. 

The  Universal  Postal  Union,  found- 
ed by  the  Congress  at  Bern  in  1874, 
constitutes  a  single  territory  for  the 
reciprocal  exchange  of  correspondence 
between  the  Postal  Departments  of 
the  nations  present  at  the  Congress. 
Its  scope  has  been  further  enlarged 
and  developed  by  succeeding  conven- 
tions and  conferences  at  Bern  (1876), 
Paris  (1880),  Lisbon  (1885),  Vienna 
(1891),  and  Washington  (1897)  ;  to- 
day it  comprises  all  the  states  and 
all  the  colonies  having  organized  pos- 
tal systems,  including  nearly  the 
whole  world. 

To  the  chief  convention  of  the 
Union,  regulating  the  exchange  of 
letters,  postal  cards,  printed  matter, 
official  papers  and  samples  have  from 
time  to  time  been  added,  special  ar- 
rangements concluded  between  the 
most  of  the  members  having  for  their 
object  the  international  interchange 
of  letters  and  packages  possessing  a 
declared  value,  postal  money  orders, 
postal  packages  and  collections,  to- 
gether with  a  passport  service  and  a 
department  for  the  subscription  to 
journals  and  other  publications. 

A  central  office,  created  by  the  Con- 
gress at  Bern,  has  its  seat  in  that  city 
and  is  known  under  the  name  of  The 
International  Bureau  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Union.  It  performs  its  labors 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Swiss 
Postoffice  Department.  The  ordinary 
annual  expenses  of  this  office  were  first 
fixed  at  75,00()  francs,  later  advanced 
to  1(X),000  and  finally  increased  to 
125,0(X)  francs,  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


839 


enna.  The  funds  are  provisionally  ad- 
vanced by  the  Swiss  Government, 
which  is  reimbursed  by  all  the  con- 
tracting parties  in  proportion  to  their 
importance. 

This  bureau  is  charged  with  col- 
lecting, co-ordinating,  publishing  and 
distributing  information  of  whatever 
nature  appertaining  to  internation- 
al postal  affairs.  Its  duties  are  al- 
so to  issue,  upon  the  demand  of  any 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Union,  a 
note  upon  questions  in  litigation,  to 
examine  into  the  demands  for  the 
modification  of  the  acts  of  the  Con- 
gress, to  give  notice  of  any  adopted 
changes,  and  in  general,  to  proceed 
with  the  studies  and  labors  with  which 
it  is  seized  in  the  interest  of  the  pos- 
tal union.  It  prepares  a  table  of  gen- 
eral statistics  for  each  year;  it  edits 
a  special  journal  "L'Union  postale"  in 
the  German,  French,  and  English  lan- 
guages; it  prepares  the  work  of  the 
Congresses  or  Conferences,  publishes 
and  keeps  up  to  date  a  dictionary  of 
all  the  postoffices  in  the  world,  and  at- 
tends to  the  balancing  and  liquidation 
of  the  accounts  between  the  various 
postal  administrations  which  have  de- 
clared their  willingness  to  make  use  of 
it  as  an  intermediary.  Tlie  total 
amount  of  the  liquidations  in  1902 
reached  the  considerable  sum  of  49,- 
113,785.57  francs  ($9,822,757.11). 
Throughout  the  territory  controlled  by 
the  Union,  24,061,000,000  pieces  were 
exchanged  in  1901 ;  of  these  51  000,000 
were  letters  and  packages  having  a  de- 
clared value  of  45,283,000,000  francs 
($9,056,600,000)  ;  460,000,000  postal 
orders  were  sent,  amounting  to  24.- 
147,000,000  francs  ($4,829,800,000)  ; 
moreover,  2,275,000  (KK)  journals  were 
delivered  through  the  postal  bureau  for 
subscriptions  to  such  publications. 

III.    INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU   OP   TELE- 
GRAPHS. 

This  bureau  is  a  central  organ  in- 
stituted in  1868  by  the  International 
Teleg'^aphic  Conference  at  Vienna  and 
placed  by  it  under  the  high  direction 
of  the  superior  authorities  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation.  Its  object  is  to  form 
a  permanent  bond  between  the  tele- 
graphic services  of  the  different  states 
which  compose  the  Union,  to  facilitate 
the  uniform  application  of  the  ar- 
rangements they  have  resolved  upon,  to 
collect  and  redistribute  documents  and 
information  of  mutual  utility,  to  car- 
ry on  such  work  and  publications  as 


are  of  interest  to  the  service,  notably 
to  prepare  work  for  the  Conferences 
and  publish  their  acts.  This  bureau 
has  its  seat  in  Bern,  and  its  expenses 
are  temporarily  advanced  by  the  Swiss 
Confederation,  which  is  later  reim- 
bursed by  the  members  of  the  Union, 
of  whom  there  at  present  47,  covering 
a  8ui>erticial  area  of  62,1(X),000  square 
kilometers,  (23,970,000  square  miles), 
and  comprising  within  its  circuits  a 
population  of  866,000,000  souls. 
^  The  recent  Conference  at  London 
in  1903  simplified  the  matters  of  tar- 
iff and  accounting  very  greatly.  The 
participants  in  the  benefits  of  this 
treaty  are  now :  The  whole  of  Europe, 
British  India,  the  Dutch  Indies,  Cey- 
lon, the  Portuguese  colonies  in  Asia, 
Siam,  French  Cochin-China,  Pers  a, 
Japan,  Asiatic  Russia,  and  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Egypt,  Tunis,  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  East  African  colonies,  and  the 
British  protectorate  of  Uganda,  Portu- 
guese East  and  West  Africa,  Madagas- 
car, Algiers  and  Senegal,  the  Repub- 
lics of  Argentine,  Brazil  and  Uruguay, 
the  Australian  Confederation,  com- 
prising South  and  West  Australia, 
New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  Tas- 
mania, Victoria,  New  Zealand  and 
New  Caledonia.  Besides  the  countries 
above  mentioned,  the  following  are  in- 
timately connected  with  the  general 
system  which  encircles  the  globe  : 
China,  the  Philippines,  British  Ameri- 
ca, the  United  States,  almost  all  the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles, .  Central 
and  South  America,  Morocco  at  Tan- 
gier, the  Azores,  Island  of  Madeira, 
the  Canaries  and  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
as  well  as  those  of  Ascension  and  St. 
Helena,  the  Eastern  and  Western 
coasts  of  Africa,  together  with  the  isl- 
ands of  Seychelles,  Maurice,  Rodri- 
guez, Cocos,  and  so  forth. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of 
dispatches  forwarded  in  1901  by  the 
countries  above  named  amounted  to 
more  than  400,000,000. 

IV.     INTERNATIONAL     BUREAU     OP 
WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

By  virtue  of  the  Metric  Convention 
signed  at  Paris,  May  20,  1875,  the 
States  of  Germany,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, Spain,  United  States,  France, 
Italy,  Peru,  Portugal,  Russia.  Swe- 
den and  Norway.  Switzerland,  and 
Venezuela,  engaged  to  found  and  sus- 
tain, at  common  expense,  an  Interna- 
tional Bureau  of  Weights  and  Meas- 


B40 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ures,  of  which  the  seat  should  be  at 
Sevres,  near  Paris.  It  is  furthermore 
stipulated  in  that  Convention,  that  the 
Bureau  should  perform  its  labors  un- 
der the  surveillance  of  an  international 
committee,  itself  subject  to  a  general 
Conference  of  weights  and  measures 
composed  of  all  the  delegates  from  the 
contracting  States.  This  convention 
became  operative  from  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary, 1876. 

V.  INTERNATIONAL  UNIONS  FOB  THE 
PROTECTION  OF  INDUSTRIAL,  LITER- 
ARY   AND    ARTISTIC    PROPERTIES. 

The  Union  for  the  Protection  of  In- 
dustrial Property  was  founded  at 
Paris,  March  20,  1883,  by  a  conven- 
tion to  which  19  States  were  parties. 
They  were  Belgium,  Brazil,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, Italy,  Jai-an,  Mexico,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Portugal,  Servia,  Spain, 
Santo  Domingo,  Switzerland,  Tunis, 
and  the  United  States.  The  object 
of  the  union  is  to  assure  the  protec- 
tion of  inventions,  designs  and  models 
of  an  industrial  character,  trademarks, 
firm  names  and  indications  of  origin. 
This  convention  was  completed  and 
modified  by  an  additional  act  signed 
at  Brussels,  December  14,   1900. 

Moreover,  on  April  14,  1891.  agree- 
ments were  signed  at  Madrid  con- 
stituting restrictive  unions,  viz. :  1. 
International  registration  of  manu- 
facturing and  trademarks  and  the  pro- 
tection of  these  marks  in  all  the  con- 
tracting countries  by  the  single  regis- 
tration at  an  International  Bureau. 
The  parties  to  this  agreement  were  Bel- 
gium, Brazil,  France,  Holland,  Italy, 
Portugal,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and 
Tunis.  2.  The  suppression  of  false 
indications  of  origin:  Brazil,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Spain,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Tunis.  The  arrange- 
ment of  1891,  concerning  the  interna- 
tional registration  of  Marks,  was 
completed  and  modified  by  an  addi- 
tional act  signed  at  Brussels,  Decem- 
ber 14,  1900. 

The  Union  for  the  Protection  of 
Literary  and  Artistic  Property,  found- 
ed at  Bern,  September  9,  1886,  com- 
prised fourteen  states :  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, France,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, HaTti,  Italy.  Japan,  Luxemburg, 
Monaco.  Norway,  Spain,  Switzerland, 
and  Tuni«!. 

The  object  of  this  un'on  is  to  assure 
effective  protection  to  authors  for 
their    literary    works,    and    to    enable 


artists  to  enjoy  the  same  security  in 
their  artistic  product-ions  throughout 
the  whole  territory  covered  by  the 
union.  This  convention  was  completed 
and  modified  by  an  additional  act 
and  an  interpretative  declaration  signed 
at  Paris,  May  4,  189G.  Both  of  these 
unions  are  represented  by  a  separate 
International  Bureau  established  at 
Bern,  and  placed  under  the  same  direc- 
torate. 

VI.  BUREAU  FOR  THE  REPRESSION  OF 
THE  SLAVE  TRADE  ON  THE  AFRICAN 
COAST. 

This  bureau  was  instituted  in  the 
execution  of  the  General  Act  of  the 
Conference  of  Brussels  of  the  2d  of 
July,  1890,  and  attached  to  the  De- 
partment for  Foreign  Affairs  of  Bel- 
gium. 

Article  81. — The  Powers  will  com- 
municate to  the  greatest  extent  possi- 
ble and  with  the  least  possible  delay  : 

1.  The  text  of  the  existing  laws 
and  administrative  regulations  or 
edicts  for  the  application  of  the 
clauses  of  the  present  General  Act. 

2.  Statistical  information  concern- 
ing the  slave  trade;  slaves  taken  and 
freed ;  the  traflSc  in  arms  and  am- 
munition, and  also  in  spirits. 

Article  82. — The  exchange  of  these 
documents  and  circulars  v/ill  be  cen- 
tralized in  a  special  bureau  attached 
to  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs 
at  Brussels. 

Article  84. — The  documents  and 
circulars  shall  be  collected  and  peri- 
odically published,  and  forwarded  to 
all    the   signatory    powers. 

Article  85. — The  expenses  of  run- 
ning the  bureau,  of  correspondence,  of 
translation  and  printing,  shall  be  met 
by  all  the  signatory  powers,  and  re- 
covered by  the  L.;partment  of  Foreign 
Affairs  at  Brussels. 

VII.  INTERNATIONAL     UNION    FOR    THE 
PUBLICATION  OF  CUSTOMS  TARIFFS. 

The  International  Union  for  the 
Publication  of  Customs  Tariffs  was 
founded  by  an  international  convention, 
July  5,  1890,  and  concluded  between 
fifty-two  states  and  semi-independent 
colonies.  The  object  of  the  union  is  to 
publish  as  promptly  and  as  correctly 
as  possible  all  the  tariffs  of  the  world 
in  five  languages,  viz.,  English  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  The 
bureau  has  its  seat  at  Brussels,  and  is 
under  the  dirpct  control  of  the  Gov- 
ernment   of    Belgium.     The   members 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


341 


of  the  bureau  are  delegates  from  the 
principal  countries  whose  language  is 
used  in  the  publications. 

Vni.  INTEBNATIONAL  BUREAU  OP  BAIIi- 
ROAD  TRANSPORTATION. 

On  October  14,  1890,  an  interna- 
tional convention  upon  the  transpor- 
tation of  merchandise  by  railroad  was 
concluded  at  Bern,  between  Germany, 
Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Luxemburg, 
Holland,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia, 
and  Switzerland.  Denmark  and  Rou- 
mania  came  in  later. 

The  object  of  this  convention  was 
to  regulate  the  law  governing  interna- 
tional transportation  between  the  di- 
rectorates of  the  railways  and  the 
shippers.  To  facilitate  the  execution 
of  this  convention  an  international 
railway  transportation  bureau  was  in- 
stituted at  Bern. 

IX.  CENTRAL  BUREAU  OF  INTERNATION- 
AL GEODESY  ESTABLISHED  UPON  THE 
TELEGRAPHBERG,  NEAR  POTSDAM. 

This  central  oureau  has  existed  since 
1866.  After  the  creation  of  the  Prus- 
sian Geodetic  Institute  it  was  united 
with  the  latter  in  1869.  The  object 
of  the  Geodetic  Institute  is  to  culti- 
vate geodesy  by  scientific  researches, 
to  execute  the  astronomical  and  physi- 
cal determinations  which,  joined  with 
the  geodetic  determinations,  may  serve 
in  the  exploration  of  the  surface  of 


the  earth,  more  particularly  within 
Prussian  territory. 

The  labors  of  the  institute  for  the 
present  bear  more  particularly  upon 
the  astronomical  determinations  of  the 
vertical  in  longitude  and  latitude,  as 
well  as  upon  astronomical  data  upon 
as  many  points  of  the  geodetic  system 
as  possible ;  moreover,  upon  the  de- 
termination of  zenithal  distances  for 
convenient  points,  also  upon  the  deter- 
mination of  the  density  and  force  of 
gravitation ;  it  devotes  its  attention, 
furthermore,  to  researches  upon  the 
mean  level  and  variations  in  the  sea- 
level ;  to  the  examining  into  the  re- 
fraction of  luminous  rays  by  the  at- 
mosphere ;  finally,  it  is  occupied  with 
all  theoretical  and  experimental  re- 
searches which  contribute  to  the  ex- 
amination of  the  surface  and  the 
geodesy  of  the  country. 

The  Geodetic  Institute  is  placed 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
the  Minister  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs, 
Public  Instruction,  and  Medical  Af- 
fairs of  Prussia. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  is  the 
consulting  organ  of  the  Minister  in 
all  the  important  affairs  of  the  Insti- 
tute. Conformably  to  the  conventions 
agreed  upon  between  the  contracting 
parties,  the  Institute  performs  the 
functions  of  a  Central  Bureau  for  in- 
ternational geodesy.  The  director  of 
the  bureau  is  at  the  same  time  director 
of  the  Institute. — Almanach  de  Gotha. 


CARNEGIE  HERO  COMMISSION. 


Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  gave  $5,000,- 
000  for  a  fund  to  be  known  as  the 
"Carnegie  Hero  Fund  Commission," 
the  interest  being  devoted  to  the  re- 
ward of  those  who  perform  heroic  acts. 


The  fund  became  operative  April  15, 
1904,  and  no  applications  on  account 
of  heroic  acts  performed  prior  to  that 
date  will  be  considered.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  fund  are  in  Pittsburg. 


RHODES   SCHOLARSHIPS. 


By  his  will,  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes,  in  his 
desire  to  encourage  and  foster  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  advantages  which 
will  result  from  the  union  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  throughout  the 
world,  and  to  encourage  in  students 
from  the  United  States  of  America  an 
attachment  to  the  country  from  which 
they  have  sprunsr.  without  withdraw- 
ing their  sympathies  from  the  land  of 
their  adoption  or  birth,  directs  his 
tm.stees  to  establish  sixty  colonial 
prbolarships  for  male  students  of  $1,- 
500  each  a  year  for  three  years  at  the 
University  of  Oxford,  these  colonial 
scholarships  being  spread  over  most  of 


the    colonies,    twenty-four    being    al- 
lotted to  South  Africa. 

Two  Oxford  scholarships  are  to  be 
allotted  to  each  of  the  existing  States 
and  Territories  of  the  United  States 
of  America — 104  in  all.  By  a  codicil 
executed  in  South  Africa,  Mr.  Rhodes, 
after  stating  that  the  German  Em- 
peror had  made  instruction  in  English 
compulsory  in  German  schools,  estab- 
lishes fifteen  scholarships  for  students 
of  German  birth  (five  in  each  of  the 
first  three  years  after  his  death),  of 
$1,250  each,  tenable  for  three  vears-  to 
be  nominated  by  the  (lerinan  Emperor, 
for    "a    good    understanding    between 


342 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


England,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  of  America  will  secure  the 
peace  of  the  world,  and  educational 
relationships  form  the  strongest  tie." 
So  that  the  students  who  shall  be 
elected  to  the  scholarships  shall  not 
be  merely  bookworms,  regard  is  to  be 
had,  not  only  to  their  "literary  and 
scholastic  attainments,'*  but  also  to 
their  ''fondness  of  and  success  in  man- 
ly outdoor  sports,  qual'ties  of  man- 
hood, truth,  courage,  devotion  to  duty, 
sympathy  for  and  protection  of  the 
weak,    kindliness,    unselfishness,    and 


fellowship,"  moral  force  of  character 
and  instincts  of  leadership.  "No  stu- 
dent shall  be  qualified  or  disqualified 
for  election  to  a  scholarship  on  ac- 
count of  his  race  or  religious  opin- 
ions." The  scholars  are  to  be  distrib- 
uted among  all  the  colleges  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  there  is  to 
be  an  annual  dinner  of  past  and  pres- 
ent scholars  and  trustees. 

Dr.  G.  R.  Parkin,  Principal  of  the 
Upper  Canada  School,  Toronto,  was 
appointed  organizing  agent  for  the 
trustees. — "Daily  Mail"  Year  Book. 


THE    CARNEGIE   INSTITUTION. 


This  institution  was  founded  by  Mr. 
Andrew  Carnegie  for  the  promotion 
of  original  research  in  science,  litera- 
ture and  art.  He  set  aside  $10,100,- 
000  for  the  purpose.  The  interest  is 
used  to  conduct,  endow  and  assist  in- 
vest gation  in  any  department  of 
science,  literature,  or  art  and  to  this 
end  co-operate  with  governments,  uni- 


versities, colleges,  technical  schools, 
learned  soc'eties,  and  individuals.  The 
headquarters  of  the  institution  are  in 
Washington.  Prof.  D.  C.  Oilman  is 
the  President,  and  Mr.  Charles  D. 
Walcott  is  the  Secretary.  Many 
grants  have  already  been  made,  and 
the  investigations  have  been  impor- 
tant. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MINES    AND    MINING. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE   MINERAL  PRODUCTION   OF   THE  UNITED 

STATES   IN   1902. 


GENEBAL  REMARKS. 

In  1902.  for  the  third  time,  the  total 
value  of  the  commercial  mineral  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  exceed- 
ed the  enormous  sum  of  $1,000,000,- 
000.  The  exact  figures  for  1902  were 
$1,260,639,415  as  compared  with 
$1,08(),584,851  in  1901,  with  $1,063.- 
678.053  in  1900.  and  with  $972,208,- 
008  in  1899,  a  gain  of  1902  over  1901 
of  $174,064,414,  or  16.02  per  cent ;  a 
gain  of  1902  over  1900  of  $196,961,- 
362,  or  18.52  per  cent ;  and  a  gain  of 
1902  over  1899  of  $288,431,407,  or 
29.67  per  cent.  Although  this  gain  is 
not  so  great  either  actually  or  propor- 
tionally as  was  the  gain  in  1899,  when 
the  gain  over  1898  was  $273,601,810, 
or  39.17  per  cent,  it  is  suflScient  to  be 
worthy  of  note. 

The  notable  gains  and  losses  of  the 
last  two  decades  are  as  follows : 

The  largest  actual  gain  was  that  of 
1899  over  1898.  $273,601,810.  or  39.17 
per  cent ;  next,  that  of  1902  over  1901, 
$174,053,760,  or  16.02  per  cent;  then 
the  gain  of  1895  over  1894.  which  was 
$94,215,822,  or  17.88  per  cent:  then 
that  of  1900  over  1899.  $91,468,340, 
or  9.41  per  cent ;  and  the  gain  of  1887 
over  1886.  $74,927,880,  or  16.81  per 
cent.  In  other  years  than  those  men- 
tioned between  1880  and  1898  the 
gains  were  not  noteworthy,  and  in 
some  of  the  years,  notably  in  1884,  the 
production  decreased  $40,451,968,  or 
nearly  9  per  cent.  During  the  indus- 
trial depression  of  1892-1895  the  pro- 
duction would  have  been  expected  to 
decline,  as  it  did,  going  from  $648,- 
895,031  in  1892  to  $.574,464,724  in 
1893.  and  to  $527,079,225  in  1894,  and 
then  rising  to  $621,295,047  in  1895, 
and  not  reaching  tiie  output  of  1892 
until  1898. 

As  heretofore,  iron  and  coal  are  the 
most  important  of  our  mineral  prod- 
ucts. The  value  of  the  iron  in  1902 
was  $372,775,000;   the  value  of  coal 


$367,032,069.  Nearly  all  the  impor- 
tant metals  increased  in  both  output 
and  value ;  and  among  the  less  im- 
portant metals,  platinum,  as  com- 
pared with  1901,  lost  in  both  quantity 
and  value  even  more  than  it  gained  in 
1901  as  compared  with  1900,  the  pro- 
duction in  1902  being  94  ounces,  val- 
ued at  $l.oi4.  as  compared  with  1,408 
ounces,  valued  at  $27,526,  in  1901, 
with  -^00  ounces  in  1900,  and  with  300 
ounces  in  1899.  The  fuels  increased 
from  $442,410,904  in  1901  to  $469,- 
078.647  in  1902,  a  gain  of  $26,667,743, 
or  6  per  cent.  Every  variety  of  fuel 
increased  in  value  except  anthracite 
coal,  which  showed  a  decrease  in  quan- 
tity of  23,301,850  long  tons  and  in 
value  of  $36,330,434.  The  average 
price  of  anthracite  coal  per  long  ton 
at  the  mine  was  $2.35,  as  against  $2.05 
in  1901 — the  highest  figure  then  ob- 
tained since  1888 — as  compared  with 
$1.85  in  1900,  and  with  $1.80  in  1899; 
and  the  average  price  per  ton  for  bitu- 
minous coal  at  the  mine  was  $1,125, 
as  compared  with  $1,047  in  1901.  The 
increase  in  value  of  the  bituminous 
coal  output  over  1901  was  $54,436,- 
434. 

The  gain  of  $174,064,414  in  the  to- 
tal value  of  our  mineral  production  is 
due  to  the  increase  in  both  metallic 
and  nonmetallic  products,  the  metal- 
lic products  showing  an  increase  from 
$518,266,259  in  1901  to  $642,258,581 
in  1902,  a  gain  of  $123,992,325,  and 
the  nonmetallic  products  showing  an 
increase  from  $567,318,592  in  1901  to 
$617,380,83!  in  1902,  a  gain  of  $50,- 
072,089.  To  these  products  should  be 
added  estimated  unspecified  products, 
including  building,  molding  and  other 
sands  reported  to  this  ofiice,  the  rare 
mineral  molybdenum,  and  other- min- 
eral products,  valued  at  $1,000,000, 
making  the  total  mineral  production 
for  1902  $1,260,639,415. 

The  manufacture  of  arsenious  oxide, 
noted  for  the  first  time  in  the  United 


343 


344 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


States  in  the  report  for  1901,  was  con- 
tinued in  increased  proportions  in 
1902. 

METALS. 

Iron  and  Steel, — Twenty-two  States 
made  pig-iron  in  1902,  as  against  21 
in  1899  and  1900,  and  20  in  1901.  The 
total  production  of  pig-iron  in  1902 
was  17,821,307  long  tons,  against  15,- 
878,354  tons  in  1901,  13,789,242  tons 
in  1900,  13,620,703  tons  in  1899,  11,- 
773,934  tons  in  1898,  and  9,652,680 
tons  in  1897.  The  production  of  1902 
shows  an  increase  of  1,942,953  long 
tons,  or  12.2  per  cent,  in  quantity 
over  the  production  of  1901,  and  in 
increase  in  value  from  $242,174,000  to 
$372,775,000,  amounting  to  $130,601,- 
000,  or  about  54  per  cent.  The  aver- 
age price  per  long  ton  of  pig-iron  in- 
creased from  $15.25  in  1901  to  $20.90 
in  1902.  The  average  prices  per  long 
ton  in  recent  years  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  1900.  $18.85  ;  1899,  $18 :  1897, 
$9.85;  1896,  $10.47;  1895,  $11.14; 
1894,  $9.76. 

Iron  Ores. — The  production  of  iron 
ores  in  1902  amounted  to  35,554,135 
long  tons,  as  compared  with  28,887,479 
long  tons,  in  1901,  a  gain  of  6,666,- 
656  long  tons,  or  23  per  cent.  TTie 
value  at  the  mines  of  the  ore  mined  in 
1902  was  $65,412,950.  As  in  the  four 
previous  years,  the  production  of  iron 
ores  in  1902  in  the  United  States  has 
never  been  equaled  by  any  other  coun- 
try. There  were  mined  also  in  1902, 
13.275  long  tons  of  manganiferous 
iron  ore,  valued  at  $52,371,  which 
were  used  in  the  production  of  spiegel- 
eisen. 

Gold. — The  production  of  gold  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Mint,  was  3,870,000  fine  ounces,  val- 
ued at  $80,000,000. 

Silver. — The  production  of  silver  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Mint,  was  55.500,000  fine  ounces ; 
coining  value,  $71,757,575  ;  commercial 
value,  $29,415,000. 

Manganese  Ores. — The  production 
of  manganese  ores  increased  from  11,- 
995  long  tons,  valued  at  $116,722,  in 
1901,  to  16,477  long  tons,  valued  at 
$177,911,  in  1902,  an  increase  in 
quantity  of  4,472  tons  and  in  value  of 
$61,180.  The  average  price  per  ton 
was  $10.74  in  1002,  as  comnared  with 
$9.73  in  1901  and  with  $8.52  in  lODO. 

Copper. — The  copper  mining  indus- 
try suffered  during  1.902  from  the  re- 
action which  followed  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  in  1901  to  maintain  the  metal 
at  an  artificial  level.     The  production. 


however,  increased  from  602,072,519 
pounds  in  1901  to  659,508,6  <4  pounds 
in  1902,  an  increase  of  57,436,125 
pounds,  or  about  9  per  cent,  in  quan- 
tity, but  decreased  in  value  from  $87,- 
300,575  in  1901  to  $76,568,954  in 
1902,  a  decrease  of  $10,731,561,  or 
about  12  per  cent.  Unless  unforeseen 
events  cause  widespread  or  long  stop- 
page at  the  mines,  the  production  of 
copper  in  the  United  States  will  be 
considerably  larger  in  1903  than  it  has 
ever  been. 

Lead. — The  production  of  lead  has 
been  almost  exactly  the  same  for  the 
last  three  years,  viz.,  270,000  short 
tons   in    1902,   270,700   short   tons   in 

1901  and  270,824  short  tons  in  1900. 
The  value  of  the  production  in  1902 
was  $22,140,000,  as  compared  with 
$23,280,200  in  1901,  and  with  $23,- 
564,688  in  1900. 

Zinc. — The    production    of    zinc    in 

1902  showed  a  continued  increase  in 
quantity  as  compared  with  1901  and 
1900,  the  production  being  156,927 
short  tons  in  1902,  as  compared  with 
140,822  short  tons  in  1901  and  with 
123,000  short  tons  in  1900.  The  value 
of  the  zinc  production  in  1902  was 
$14,625,596,  as  compared  with  $11,- 
265,760  in  1901  and  with  $10,654,196 
in  1900. 

Aluminum.  —  The  production  of 
aluminum  during  1902  was  7,300,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $2,284,590,  as  com- 
pared with  7,150,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,238,000  in  1901,  and  with  7,150,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,920,000  in  1900. 

Platinum. — The  production  of  plati- 
num from  domestic  ores  in  the  United 
States  during  1902  was  94  ounces, 
valued  at  $1,814,  as  compared  with 
1,408  ounces,  valued  at  $27,526  in 
1901. 

Quicksilver.  —  The  production  of 
quicksilver  during  1902  amounted  to 
34,291  flasks  of  76 1,^  pounds  net,  as 
compared  with  29,727  flasks  in  1901 
and  with  28,317  flasks  in  1900.  The 
value  of  the  quicksilver  produced  in 
1902  was  $1,467,848.  as  compared 
with  $1,382,365  in  1901  and  with 
$1,302,586  in  1900.  California  re- 
ported 28,972  flasks  in  1902.  as  com- 
pared with  26,720  flasks  in  1901 :  and 
Texas  reported  5,319  flasks  in  1902, 
as  against  2.932  flasks  in  1901.  In 
addition,  the  census  reports  10.427 
tons  of  crude  or  cinnabar,  valued  at 
$(>7.242,  mined  in  California,  and 
1.300  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at 
$1,500,  mined  in  Texas  in  1902,  but 
not  roasted  or  treated,  a  total  of  11,- 
727  short  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


345 


$82,242.  The  total  production  of  both 
quicksilver  and  cinnabar  in  1902  was 
therefore  valued  at  $1,550,090. 

Lithium. — The  production  of  lithi- 
um minerals  in  1902  was  1,245 
short  tons,  valued  at  $25,750  at 
the  railroad,  a  decrease  of  505 
tons  ,  in  amount  and  of  $17,- 
450  in  value  as  compared  with 
the  production  of  1901,  which  was 
1,750  tons,  valued  at  $43,200.  As  far 
as  can  be  ascertained  the  greater  part 
of  the  lithium  minerals  mined  during 
3902  was  not  shipped.  Although  the 
price  of  these  minerals  was  lower  in 
1902  than  in  1901  for  the  same  grade 
of  mineral,  there  was  apparently  no 
increase  in  the  home  demand.  There 
is,  however,  an  increase  in  the  demand 
for  these  minerals  from  foreign  chem- 
ical manufacturers. 

Nickel. — The  production  of  metallic 
nickel  in  1902  was  5,748  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $2,701,  as  compared  with  6,700 
pounds,  valued  at  $3,551  in  1901. 

Antimony. — No  antimony  was  ob- 
tained from  domestic  ores  during  1902. 
The  antimony  obtained  from  the  smelt- 
ing of  foreign  imported  ores  amounted 
to  G57  short  tons,  valued  at  $129,126, 
and  the  antimony  obtained  from  hard 
lead  produced  from  foreign  and  domes- 
tic lead  ores  was  2,904  short  tons, 
valued  at  $505,240,  a  total  production 
for  1902  of  3,561  short  tons,  valued  at 
$634,506,  as  compared  with  2,639 
short  tons,  valued  at  $539,902,  in  1901. 
The  estimated  total  amount  of  anti- 
mony available  for  consumption  in  1902 
was  6,255  short  tons,  including  2,694 
short  tons  of  imported  antimony  reg- 
ulus,  as  compared  with  4,475  short 
tons,  including  1,837  short  tons  of  im- 
ported antimony  regulus  in  1901,  and 
with  6,053  short  tons,  including  1,827 
short  tons  of  imported  antimony  regu- 
lus in  1900. 

Bismuth. — No  bismuth  ores  were 
produced  in  the  United  States  during 
1902.  The  marketed  output  in  1901 
was  318.6  short  tons.  The  ore  con- 
tained gold  and  silver,  for  which  the 
producers  were  paid.  As  nearly  as 
can  be  ascertained,  the  value  of  the 
output  in  1901  was  $80  per  ton,  not 
including  charges  for  transportation 
or  treatment. 

Molybdenum. — The  production  of 
molybdenum  in  1902  was  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  that  of  1901,  but 
none  of  the  product  was  shipped  in 
1902.  The  value  of  these  molybdenum 
ores  is  very  erratic,  the  highest  price 
hitherto  quoted  being  $1,500  per  ton, 
and  the  lowest  $100. 


Tungsten. — The  production  of  tung- 
sten during  1902  was  184  short  tons  of 
crude  ore,  of  which  no  more  than  a  few 
tons  were  sold.  This  does  not  repi'e- 
sent  the  amount  of  tungsten  ore  sold 
in  1902,  for  76  tons  of  concentrated 
ore,  mined  in  1901,  were  sold  in  1902. 
In  1901  the  production  amounted  to 
179  tons  of  concentrated  ore,  valued 
at  $27,720.  The  larger  part  of  the 
production  of  1902  was  from  Colo- 
rado. 

Uranium  and  Vanadium.  —  There 
was  a  marked  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  uranium  and  vanadium  min- 
erals in  1902,  which,  as  reported  to 
the  Survey,  amounted  to  3,810  short 
tons,  valued  at  $48,125,  or  $12.62  per 
ton.  This,  of  course,  represents  the 
crude  ore.  In  1901  the  production  was 
375  tons  of  crude  ore. 

FUELS. 

Coal. — For  the  first  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  the  produc- 
tion of  coal  reached  a  total  of  over 
300,000.000  short  tons,  showing  an 
actual  output  of  301,590,439  tons  of 
2,000  pounds,  valued  at  $367,032,069. 
Of  this  total  the  output  of  anthracite 
coal  amounted  to  30,940.710  long  tons 
(equivalent  to  41,373,595  short  tons), 
which,  as  compared  with  the  produc- 
tion of  60,242,560  long  tons  in  1901, 
was  a  decrease  of  23,301,850  long  tons, 
or  about  39  per  cent.  This  decrease, 
as  is  well  known,  was  due  entirely  to 
the  suspension  of  operations  by  the 
strike  in  the  anthracite  region  from 
May  10  to  October  23,  a  little  over 
five  months.  But  for  the  strike  the 
output  for  the  year  would  probably 
have  been  over  65,000,000  long  tons. 
The  value  at  the  mines  of  the  anthra- 
cite coal  in  1902  was  $76,173,586.  as 
against  $112,504,020  in  1901,  a  loss  of 
about  32.3  per  cent.  The  average 
value  of  the  marketed  coal  sold  during 
the  year  at  the  mines  was  $2.35  per 
long  ton,  the  value  in  1901  having 
been  $2.05. 

The  output  of  bituminous  coal 
(which  includes  semi-anthracite  and 
all  semi-bituminous  and  liernite  coals) 
amounted  in  1902  to  260,216,844  short 
tons,  valued  at  $290,858,483,  as 
against  225,828,1  '9  short  tons,  valued 
at  $236,422,049  in  1901.  The  increase 
in  the  production  of  bituminous  coal 
was,  therefore,  34.388.095  tons  in 
quantity  and  $54,436,434  in   value. 

Out  of  30  States  and  Territories  pro- 
ducing coal  in  1902.  seven — California, 
Michigan,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  Penn- 
sylvania, Texas  and  Washington — had 
smaller  outputs  than  in  1901, 


346 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  production  of  bituminous  coal 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1902  exceeded  that 
of  1901  by  15,755,874  short  tons,  but 
was  not  suflScient  to  overcome  the 
great  loss  in  anthracite  production. 
The  States  in  which  the  more  impor- 
tant increases  occurred  with  the  cor- 
responding gains  are  as  follows :  Illi- 
nois, 5,547,751  short  tons ;  Colorado, 
2,314,412  short  tons;  Ohio,  2,444,577 
short  tons ;  Indiana,  2,268,371  short 
tons ;  Alabama,  1,490,865  short  tons ; 
Kentucky,  1,193,176  short  tons. 

Coke. — The  coke  production  of  the 
United  States  in  1902  exceeded  that 
of  any  year  in  our  history.  The  pro- 
duction, which  includes  the  output 
from  1,663  retort  or  by-product  ovens, 
amounted  to  25,401,730  short  tons,  as 
compared  with  21,795,883  short  tons 
in  1901,  and  with  20,533,348  short  tons 
in  1900.  The  increase  in  1902  over 
1901  amounted  to  3,605,847  short  tons, 
or  16.5  per  cent.  Large  as  this  in- 
crease was,  it  was  considerably  less 
than  it  would  have  been  had  the  trans- 
portation facilities  been  commensurate 
with  the  demand  for  coke  and  with  the 
productive  capacity  of  the  ovens.  The 
increase  in  the  value  of  coke  was  even 
more  noteworthy.  The  average  price 
per  ton  at  the  ovens  was  the  highest 
recorded  in  a  period  of  twenty-three 
years,  and  the  total  value  reached  the 
high  figure  of  $63,339,167,  an  increase 
over  1901  of  $18,893,244,  or  42.5  per 
cent.  The  value  of  the  coal  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  coke  in  1902  ex- 
ceeded that  of  1901  by  $7,932,503, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  value 
of  the  coke  product  increased  $10,970,- 
681  over  and  above  the  increased  value 
of  the  coal  used  in  its  production.  In 
1901  the  highest  price  obtained  for 
Connellsville  furnace  coke  was  $4.25. 
In  September  and  October  of  1902, 
while  the  contract  coke  was  nominally 
quoted  "at  $3  per  ton,  consumers  were 
paying  from  $10  to  $12  per  ton  for 
prompt  delivery,  and  $15  was  reported 
as  paid  for  this  fuel  at  one  time.  With 
the  termination  of  the  anthracite  strike 
in  the  latter  part  of  October  prices  for 
coke  quickly  declined,  but  in  December 
of  1002  fnrriRce  coke  for  prompt  deliv- 
ery was  still  commanding  $5  and  $6 
per  ton,  and  contracts  for  delivery  in 
the  first  six  months  of  1903  were  made 
at  from  J^3.75  to  $4  per  ton. 

Gas.  Coke,  Tar  and  Ammonia. — The 
aggregate  value  of  all  the  products  ob- 
tained from  the  distillation  of  coal  in 
gas  works  or  retort  ovens  in  1002  was 
$43,869,440.  About  two-thirds  of  this 
amount,    or    $29,342,881,    was    repre- 


sented by  the  value  of  the  gas  pro- 
duced. The  value  of  the  coke  produced 
was  $11,267,608,  and  the  tar  was 
worth,  at  the  works,  $1,873,966.  The 
total  quantity  of  ammoniacal  liquor 
sold  was  49,490,609  gallons,  contain- 
ing 14,683,374  pounds  NHs,  and  was 
worth  at  the  works  $1,065,300.  In 
addition  to  this  there  was  an  actual 
production  of  11,276,502  pounds  of 
sulphate,  which  sold  for  $319,685. 

Petroleum. — The  total  production  of 
crude  petroleum  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  88,766,916  barrels,  as 
against  69,389,194  barrels  in  1901,  an 
increase  of  19,377,722  barrels,  or  27.92 
per  cent,  over  the  production  of  1901 
and  of  39.52  per  cent  over  that  of  1900. 
The  greatest  portion  of  the  increase  in 
1902  came  from  Texas  and  California, 
the  gain  over  1901  being  13,690,000 
barrels,  or  311.6  per  cent,  for  Texas, 
and  5,197,938  barrels,  or  59.16  per 
cent,  for  California.  The  increase  in 
Indiana  in  1902  over  1901  was  1,723,- 
810  barrels,  or  about  30  per  cent. 
Louisiana  produced  for  the  first  time 
in  1902,  the  production  being  548,617 
barrels.  The  increase  over  1901  in  the 
production  of  Kansas  was  152,598  bar- 
rels, or  about  85  per  cent.  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  increased  their  produc- 
tion in  1902  by  48,072  barrels,  or 
nearly  35.02  per  cent.  Indian  Terri- 
tory increased  37,000  barrels  and  Wy- 
oming 853  barrels  as  compared  with 
1901.  The  largest  decrease  in  produc- 
tion in  1902  as  compared  with  1901 
was  in  West  Virginia,  where  it 
amounted  to  663,781  barrels,  or  about 
4.5  per  cent,  and  Ohio  in  62  fields 
showed  a  decrease  of  633,852  barrels, 
or  nearly  3  per  cent.  The  decrease  in 
Pennsylvania  was  561,888  barrels,  or 
about  7  per  cent;  in  Colorado,  63,619 
barrels,  or  about  13.81  per  cent.  The 
percentages  of  production  for  fields 
show  a  remarkable  change  from  1900 
to  1902.  In  1900  the  percentages  were : 
Appalachian  field,  57.05;  Lima-Indi- 
ana field,  34.20;  all  other  fields,  8.75. 
In  1902  the  respective  percentages 
were :  Appalachian  field.  36^7 ;  Lima- 
Indiana  field,  26.31 ;  all  other  fields, 
about  37.62.  The  value  of  crude  pe- 
troleum produced  during  1902  was 
$71,178,910,  or  80.19  cents  per  bar- 
rel, as  compared  with  $66,417,335,  or 
05.7  per  barrel,  in  1901 — a  decrease  of 
15.51  cents  per  barrel,  or  16  per  cent, 
in  1902. 

'Natural  Oas. — The  value  of  the  nat- 
ural gas  produced  in  1902  increased  to 
$30,867,668,  ns  compared  with  $27,- 
067,500  in  1901,  with  $23,698,674  in 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


847 


1900,  and  with  $20,074,873  in  1899— a 
gain  of  13  per  cent  in  1902  over  1901. 

STRUCTURAL   MATERIALS. 

8tone, — The  value  of  all  kinds  of 
building  stone  produced  in  the  United 
States  during  1902  amounted  to  $64,- 
559,099,  as  compared  with  $55,615,- 
926  in  1901,  with  $44,321,345  in  1900, 
and  with  $44,090,670  in  1899. 

Clay  Products. — The  activity  in  all 
branches  of  the  clay-working  indus- 
tries noted  in  1899,  1900  and  1901, 
continued  during  1902.  The  value  of 
all  clay  products  as  reported  to  the 
office  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  1902 
was  $122,169,531,  as  compared  with 
$110,211,587  in  1901,  and  with  $96,- 
212,345  in  1900.  The  brick  and  tile 
products  in  1902  were  valued  at  $98,- 
042,078,  as  compared  with  $87,747,727 
in  1901  and  with  $76,413,775  in  1900. 
The  pottery  products  were  valued  in 
1902  at  $24,127,453,  as  compared  with 
$22,463,860  in  1901  and  with  $19,798,- 
570  in  1900. 

The  clay  mined  and  sold  by  those 
not  manufacturing  the  product  them- 
selves in  1902  was  valued  at  $2,061,- 
072,  as  compared  with  $2,576,932  in 
1901  and  with  $1,840,377  in  1900. 

Cement. — The  total  production  of 
hydraulic  cement  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  25,753,504  barrels,  valued 
at  $25,366,380,  as  compared  with  20,- 
068,737  barrels,  valued  at  $15,786,780, 
in  1901,  and  with  17,231,150  barrels, 
valued  at  $13,283,581,  in  1900.  The 
Portland  cement  production  in  1902 
was  17,230,644  barrels,  valued  at  $20,- 
864,078,  as  compared  with  12,711.225 
barrels,  valued  at  $12,532,360,  in  1901, 
and  with  8,482,020  barrels,  valued  at 
$9,280,525,  in  1900,  an  increase,  as 
compared  with  1900,  in  quantity  of 
about  100  per  cent,  and  in  value  of 
over  50  per  cent.  The  number  of 
plants  using  Portland  cement  increased 
from  50  in  1900  to  56  in  1901,  and 
to  65  in  1902.  The  production  of 
natural  rock  cement  in  1902  was  8,- 
041,305  barrels,  valued  at  $4,076,630, 
as  compared  with  7.084.823  barrels, 
valued  at  $3,056,278,  in  1901,  and  with 
8,383.519  barrels,  valued  at  $3,728,848, 
in  1900.  The  production  of  slag  ce- 
ment amounted  to  478.5.^)5  barrels,  val- 
ued at  $425,672,  in  1902,  as  compared 
with  272,689  barrels,  valued  at  $198,- 
151,  in  1901,  and  with  365,611  bar- 
rels, valued  at  $274,208,  in  1900. 

ABRASIVE  MATERIALS. 

Cartorundum.-^There  was  a  slight 
decrease  in  the  quantity  of  carborun- 


dum— 3,741,500  pounds  produced  in 
1902,  as  compared  with  3,838,175 
pounds  in  1901 — due  in  part  to  lack 
of  a  sufficient  supply  of  raw  materials, 
a  result  of  the  anthracite  coal  strike. 
The  value  of  the  carborundum  varies 
from  8  to  10  cents  per  pound. 

Corundum  and  Emery. — The  com- 
bined production  of  corundum  and  em- 
ery in  1902  amounted  to  4,251  short 
tons,  valued  at  $104,605,  as  compared 
with  4,305  short  tons,  valued  at  $146,- 
040,  in  1901,  a  decrease  of  54  tons  in 
quantity  and  of  $41,435  in  value. 

Crushed  Steel. — The  production  of 
crushed  steel  in  1902  was  735,000 
pounds,  as  compared  with  690,000 
pounds  in  1901,  and  the  product  is 
quoted  at  5^/^  cents  per  pound  free  on 
board  at  Pittsburg.    - 

Crystalline  Quartz. — In  1902  the 
production  of  crystalline  quartz  includ- 
ed under  abrasives  amounted  to  15,104 
short  tons,  valued  at  $84,335,  as  com- 
pared with  14,050  short  tons,  valued 
at  $41,500,  in  1901.  This  large  varia- 
tion in  value  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
1902  the  value  reported  was  in  some 
cases  that  of  the  quartz  after  it  had 
been  crushed  or  ground.  The  actual 
value  of  the  crude  quartz  produced  in 
1902  was  $43,085. 

Oarnet. — The  production  of  abrasive 
garnet  in  the  United  States  during 
1902  amounted  to  3,926  short  tons, 
valued  at  $132,820,  as  compared  with 
4,444  short  tons,  valued  at  $158,100, 
in  1901,  and  with  3,185  short  tons, 
valued  at  $1^3,475,  in  1900.  As  re- 
ported to  the  Survey  the  prices  varied 
from  $20  to  $60  a  ton,  the  highest 
price  being  obtained  for  the  North 
Carolina  garnet.  The  average  value 
per  ton  of  the  production  in  1902  was 
$35.10,  as  compared  with  $35.57  per 
ton  in  1901  and  with  $38.77  in  1900. 

Grindstones. — The  total  value  of  all 
kinds  of  grindstones  produced  during 
1902  was  $667,431,  as  compared  with 
$580,703,  in  1901,  an  increase  of  $86,- 
728.  The  production  of  1900,  valued 
at  $710,026,  still  remains  the  largest 
on  record  for  any  year.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  price 
per  ton  has  decreased  from  $15  to  from 
$8  to  $10,  and  that  therefore  the  ton- 
nage of  grindstones  used  has  corre- 
spondingly increased  within  the  last 
few  years.  The  imports  for  1902 
amounted  in  value  to  $76,906,  as  com- 
pared with  $88,871  in  1901  and  with 
$92,581   in   1900. 

Infusorial  Earth  and  Tripoli. — In 
1902  the  production  of  infusorial  earth 
and   tripoli   amounted   to   5,665  short 


848 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


tons,  valued  at  $53,244,  including  175 
short  tons  mined  as  a  by-product  and 
valued  at  $1,436,  an  increase  of  1,045 
tons  in  quantity  and  of  $294  in  value, 
as  compared  with  the  production  of 
4,020  tons,  valued  at  $52,950,  in  1901. 

Millstones  and  Buhrstones. — The 
value  of  the  production  of  millstones 
and  buhrstones  in  1902  was  $59,808, 
an  increase  of  $2,629  over  the  value 
of  1901.  which  was  $57,179.  The  value 
for  1902  was  almost  twice  the  value  of 
the  production  of  1900,  which  amount- 
ed to  $32,858.  From  1886  to  1894 
there  was  a  very  large  decrease — from 
$140,000  to  $13,887— in  the  production 
of  buhrstones.  Since  1894  there  has 
been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion. 

Oilstones  and  Whetstones. — There 
was  a  decided  increase  in  the  domestic 
commercial  production  of  oilstones  and 
whetstones  during  1902,  the  value  of 
which  amounted  to  $221,762.  as  com- 
pared with  $158,300  in  1901,  an  in- 
crease in  1902  of  $63,462.  Until  1902, 
the  year  of  maximum  production  was 
1899,  when  the  value  of  the  output 
amounted  to  $208,283.  The  crude  pro- 
duction of  oilstones  and  whetstones  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  census,  was 
valred  at  $113,968. 

Pumice. — The  volcanic  ash  deposits 
in  Nebraska  were  worked  to  some  ex- 
tent in  1902,  the  product  being  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  certain  soaps 
and  scouring  powders.  The  production 
of  pumice  amounted  to  700  short  tons, 
valued  at  $2,750. 

CHEMICAL  MATERIALS. 

Arsenious  Oxide. — The  domestic  pro- 
duction of  arsenious  oxide  (white  ar- 
senic) in  1902  was  1,353  short  tons, 
valued  at  $81,180,  as  compared  with 
300  short  tons,  valued  at  $18,000,  in 
1901.  The  entire  product  was  made 
by  the  Puget  Sound  Reduction  Com- 
pany at  Everett.  Wash.,  which  began 
the  manufacture  of  this  important 
substance  in  1901.  The  largely  in- 
creased output  in  1902  is  a  sign  of  the 
success  of  the  new  industry. 

Borax. — The  reported  returns  for 
1902  gave  an  aggregate  commercial 
production  of  crude  borax  of  2,600 
short  tons,  valued  at  $91,000,  of  re- 
fined borax  and  boric  acid,  amounting 
to  17,404  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,U7,- 
614,  of  which  il  was  stated  that  862 
short  tons,  valued  at  $155,000,  were 
boric  acid.  This  gives  a  total  produc- 
tion for  1902  of  20.004  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $2,538,614.  '  The  production 
during  1901  was  17,887  short  tons  of 


crude  borax  and  5,344  short  tons  of 
refined  borax,  with  a  total  value  of 
$1,012,118. 

Bromine. — The  production  of  bro- 
mine in  1902,  including  the  amount  of 
bromine  contained  in  potassium  bro- 
mide, amounted  to  513,890  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $128,472,  as  compared  with 
522,043  pounds,  valued  at  $154,- 
572,  in  1901,  a  decrease  for  the 
year  of  38,153  pounds  in  quan- 
tity and  of  $26,100  in  value.  The 
price  per  pound  during  1902  averaged 
25  cents,  as  compared  with  28  cents  in 

1901  and  with  29  cents  in  1900.  There 
has  been  practically  no  change  in  the 
bromine  industry  in  the  United  States 
in  1902. 

Fluorspar. — There  was  a  large  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  fluorspar  in 

1902  over  that  of  1901,  due  partly  to 
its  increased  use  for  metallurgic  pur- 
noses.     The  total  production   in    1902 
was  48,018  short  tons,  valued  at  $271,- 
832,  as  compared  with  19,586  tons,  val- 
ued at  $113,803.  in  1901.  This  increase 
in  production  was  not  due  to  any  one 
State,  but  there  was  a  large  increase 
in    production    in    both    Illinois    and 
Kentucky,    and    also    an    increase    in 
Arizona.     The  average  price  of  crude 
fluorspar  was   reported   as  $5.19    per 
ton,  as  compared  with  $5  in  1901,  and 
the  average  price  of  ground  fluorspar 
was  $9.98  per  ton,  as  compared  with 
$9.22  in  1901.    In  addition  to  this  pro- 
duction there  were  800  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $3,850,  mined  but  not  marketed 
in  1902. 

Gypsum. — The  production  of  gyp- 
sum, particularly  for  the  manufacture 
of  calcined  plaster,  continues  to  show 
a  remarkable  gain.  The  output  of 
crude  gypsum  in  1902  was  816,478 
short  tons,  valued  in  its  first  market- 
able condition  at  $2,089,341.  as  com- 
pared with  633,791  short  tons,  valued 
at  $1,506,(>41,  in  1901,  and  with  595,- 
462  short  tons,  valued  at  $1,627,203, 
in  1900.  The  production  in  1899  was 
486,235  short  tons,  and  in  1898  it  was 
291,638  short  tons.  The  greatly  in- 
creased production  of  the  last  four 
years  is  attributable  to  the  largely  in- 
creased use  of  plaster  of  paris  in  the 
large  modern  buildings  and  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  staff  for  temporary  build- 
ings. 

Marls, — The  production  of  marls  in 
the  United  States  in  1902  was  12,439 
short  tons,  valued  at  $12,741. 

Phosphate  Rock. — The  total  com- 
mercial production  of  phosphate  rock 
reported  to  the  Survey  in  1902 
amounted  to  1,490,314  long  tons,  val- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


349 


ued  at  S4,693,444»  as  compared  with 
1,483,723  long  tons,  valued  at  $5,316,- 
403,  in  1901,  an  increase  in  quantity 
of  6,591  tons  and  a  decrease  in  value 
of  $622,959.  The  total  quantity  of 
phosphate  rock  reported  as  mined  dur- 
ing 1902  was  1,548,720  long  tons,  val- 
ued at  $4,922,943,  as  compared  with 
1,440,408  long  tons  in  1901. 

Salt. — The  salt  product  includes 
salt  in  the  form  of  hrine  used  in  large 
quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  soda 
ash,  sodium  bicarbonate,  caustic  soda 
and  other  sodium  salts.  The  domestic 
production  of  salt  in  1902  amounted 
to  23,849,221  barrels  of  280  pounds 
net,  valued  at  $5,668,636,  as  compared 
with  20,556,661  barrels,  valued  at  $6,- 
617,449,  in  1901,  and  with  20,869,342 
barrels,  valued  at  $6,944,603,  in  1900. 

Sulphur  and  Pyrite. — The  domestic 
production  of  sulphur  and  of  pyrite  for 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid 
amounted  in  1902  to  207,874  long  tons, 
valued  at  $947,089,  as  compared  with 
a  combined  production  of  241,691  long 
tons,  valued  at  $1,257,879,  in  1901. 
The  production  of  sulphur  was  from 
Louisiana,  Nevada  and  Utah,  named 
in  the  order  of  the  importance  of 
their  outputs.  Oregon  and  Idaho  re- 
ported no  production  in  1902.  The 
greater  part  of  the  output  of  pyrite 
was  derived  from  Virginia,  Georgia, 
North  Carolina,  Colorado  and  Massa- 
chusetts, named  in  the  order  of  pro- 
duction. 

PIGMENTS. 

Barytes. — ^The  production  of  crude 
barytes  in  1902  was  considerably  in 
excess  of  that  of  the  year  before, 
amounting  to  61,668  short  tons,  valued 
at  $203,154,  as  compared  with  49,- 
070  tons,  valued  at  $157,844,  in  1901. 
This  is  an  increase  of  12,598  tons  in 
quantity  and  of  $45,310  in  value. 

Cobalt  Oxide. — The  domestic  pro- 
duction of  cobalt  oxide  in  1902  was 
3,730  pounds,  valued  at  $6,714,  as 
compared  with  13,360  pounds,  valued 
at  $24,048,  in  1901,  a  decrease  in 
quantity  of  9,630  pounds.  All  the  co- 
balt oxide  was  obtained  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  smelting  lead  ores  at  Mine  La- 
motte.  Mo. 

Mineral  Paints. — The  Commercial 
production  of  mineral  paints  in  1902 
amounted  to  73,049  short  tons,  valued 
at  $944,332,  as  compared  with  61,- 
460  short  tons,  valued  at  $789,962,  in 
1901.  The  production  of  crude  min- 
eral paints  in  1902  is  reported  as  35,- 
479  short  tons,  valued  at  $360,885,  in- 
cluding 4,500  tons,  valued  at  $18,000, 


of  ocher  and  metallic  paint  reported  as 
mined  but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

Zinc  White. — The  production  of  zinc 
white  in  1902  amounted  to  52,645 
snort  tons,  valued  at  $4,016,499,  as 
compared  with  46,500'  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $3,720,000  in  1901. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Asbestos. — The  commercial  produc- 
tion of  asbestos  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  .chiefly  from  the  mines  at 
Sail  Mountain,  White  County,  Geor- 
gia, with  smaller  quantities  from  Hills- 
dale, Berkshire  County,  Massachu- 
setts. This  production  was  1,005 
short  tons,  valued  at  $16,200,  an  in- 
crease of  258  tons  in  quantity  and  of 
$2,702  in  value  over  the  production  of 
1901,  which  was  747  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $13,498.  The  production  in 
1900  was  1,054  short  tons,  valued  at 
$16,310.  In  addition  there  were  re- 
ported as  produced  but  not  marketed 
in  1902  1,500  short  tons  of  crude  as- 
bestos, valued  at  $30,000. 

Asphaltum. — Under  this  title  are  in- 
cluded the  various  bitumens  or  hydro- 
carbons not  discussed  under  the  head- 
ing "Petroleum"  in  the  volume  on 
Mineral  Resources.  The  commercial 
production  of  asphaltum  in  1902  was 
105,458  short  tons,  valued  at  $765,048, 
as  compared  with  63,134  short  tons, 
valued  at  $555,335,  in  1901 — a  large 
increase,  amounting  in  quantity  to  42,- 
324  short  tons  and  in  value  to  $209,- 
713.  The  production  of  crude  asphal- 
tum in  1902  is  reported  as  66,238  short 
tons,  valued  at  $236,728. 

Bauxite. — In  1902  the  production  of 
bauxite  increased  to  29,222  long  tons, 
valued  at  $128,206,  as  compared  with 
18,905  long  tons,  valued  at  $79,914, 
in  1901.  Georgia  yielded  the  greater 
bulk  of  the  product,  the  remainder  be- 
ing supplied  by  Alabama  and  Arkan- 
sas. 

Chromic  Iron  Ore. — California  was 
the  one  State  to  produce  any  chro- 
mite  during  1902,  the  quantity  being 
315  long  tons,  valued  at  $4,567,  a  de- 
crease of  53  tons  in  quantity  and  of 
$1,223  in  value,  as  compared  with  the 
production  of  1901,  which  was  368 
long  tons,  valued  at  $5,790. 

Feldspar. — The  production  of  feld- 
spar in  1902  was  45,287  short  tons, 
valued  at  $250,42  ^  as  against  34,741 
short  tons,  valued  at  $220,422,  in  1901. 

Fibrous  Talc. — This  variety  of  talc 
or  soapstone  occurs  in  but  one  local- 
ity in  the  United  States — Gouverneur, 
St.  Lawrence  County,  New  York.     It 


850 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


is  used  principally  as  makeweight  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  In  1902 
the  production  was  71,100  short  tons, 
valued  at  $615,350,  an  increase  of 
$131,750  in  value  and  of  only  1,900 
tons  in  quantity,  as  compared  with  the 
production  of  69,200  short  tons,  valued 
at  $483,600,  in  1901. 

Flint, — The  production  of  flint  in 
1902  was  36,365  short  tons,  valued  at 
$144,209,  as  compared  with  34,420 
short  tons,  valued  at  $149,297,  in  1901. 

Fuller's  Earth. — As  reported  for  the 
Survey,  the  production  of  fuller*s 
earth  in  1902  showed  a  decrease  in 
quantity  and  an  increase  in  value,  be- 
ing 11,492  short  tons,  valued  at  $98,- 
144,  as  compared  with  14,112  short 
tons,  valued  at  $96,835,  in  1901.  The 
maximum  production  of  fuller's  earth 
was  obtained  in  1897,  when  the  pro- 
duction was  17,113  short  tons. 

Glass  Sand. — The  production  of 
glass  sand  in  1902  was  943,135  short 
tons,  valued  at  $807,797;  the  produc- 
tion of  engine,  furnace,  building,  mold- 
ing and  other  sands,  mined  incidental- 
ly, was  904,776  short  tons,  valued  at 
$615,817— a  total  production  of  1,847,- 
901  short  tons  of  sand,  valued  at  $1,- 
423,614. 

Graphite. — The  commercial  produc- 
tion of  crystalline  graphite  during 
1902  amounted  to  3,936,824  pounds, 
valued  at  $126,144,  as  compared  with 
3,967,612  pounds,  valued  at  $135,914, 
in  1901,  and  with  5,507.855  pounds, 
valued  at  $178,761,  in  1900.  The  com- 
mercial production  of  amorphous 
graphite  in  1902  was  4,739  short  tons, 
valued  at  $55,964,  as  compared  with 
809  short  tons,  valued  at  $31,800,  in 
1901.  The  decline  in  value  was  due 
to  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  lower  grades.  Consid- 
erable development  and  exploratory 
work  was  done  during  the  year  in 
Montana,  Wyoming,  North  Carolina 
and  New  Mexico.  In  addition,  30,000 
pounds  of  refined  graphite,  valued  at 
$1,800,  and  20,716  short  tons  of  crude 
graphite,  valued  at  $43,600,  were  re- 
ported as  produced  but  not  marketed 
in  1902.  This  gives  a  total  production 
of  3,966,824  pounds  of  refined  graphite 
and  of  25,455  short  tons  of  amorphous 
graphite,  with  a  total  value  of  $227,- 
508,  as  produced  in  1902.  The  produc- 
tion of  artificial  graphite  was  2.358,- 
828  pounds,  valued  at  Jl^l  10,700,  the 
average  price  being  4.69  cents  per 
pound,  as  rompa"ed  W'th  2.500,000, 
valued  at  $119,000,  in  1901,  the  aver- 
age price  being  4.75  cents  per  pound. 

Limestone     for     Iron     Flux. — The 


quantity  of  limestone  used  for  fluxing 
in  blast  furnaces  in  1902  was  11,878,- 
675  long  tons,  valued  at  $5,271,252,  as 
compared  with  8,540,168  long  tons, 
valued  at  $4,659,836,  in  1901,  and  with 
7,495,435  long  tons,  valued  at  $3,687,- 
394,  in  1900. 

Magnesite. — The  production  of  mag- 
nesite  in  the  United  States  continues 
to  be  limited  to  California,  and  during 
the  year  1902  the  commercial  produc- 
tion reported  was  3,466  short  tons, 
valued  at  $21,362 — a  large  decrease  as 
compared  with  the  production  in  1901, 
which  was  13,172  short  tons,  valued  at 
$43,057.  Of  the  1902  production,  380 
tons,  valued  at  $1,723,  were  sold  in 
1902,  but  were  mined  previously. 

Mica. — The  production  of  mica  in 
1902  was  as  follows :  373,266  pounds 
of  plate  or  sheet  mica,  valued  at  $83,- 
843;  1,028  short  tons  of  scrap  mica, 
valued  at  $13,081,  and  372  short  tons 
of  rough  mica,  valued  at  $21,925— a 
total  value  of  $118,849. 

Mineral  Waters. — Tlie  total  produc- 
tion of  mineral  waters  for  1902  was 
64,859,451  gallons,  valued  at  $8,793,- 
761,  as  compared  with  55,771,181  gal- 
lons, valued  at  $7,586,962,  in  1901 — a 
gain  in  quantity  of  9,088,263  gallons 
and  in  value  of  $1,206,799. 

Monazite. — The  production  of  mona- 
zite  is  confined  exclusively  to  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina,  by  far 
the  larger  quantity  being  obtained 
-from  the  former  State,  and  in  1902 
this  amounted  to  802,000  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $64,160,  as  compared  with  748,- 
736  pounds,  valued  at  $59,262,  in  1901 
— an  increase  in  quantity  of  53,264 
pounds  and  in  value  of  $4,898.  The 
price  per  pound  received  by  the  miners 
for  the  monazite  produced  in  1902  va- 
ried from  2.5  to  8  cents,  according  to 
the  percentage  of  thoria. 

Precious  Stones. — The  value  of  the 
gems  and  precious  stones  found  in  the 
United  States  in  1902  was  $328,450, 
as  compared  with  $289,050  in  1901, 
with  $233,170  in  1900,  and  with  $185,- 
770  in  1899.  There  has  been  a  great 
advance  in  the  lapidary  industrv  in  the 
United  States  since  1894.  The  fact 
that  larger  establishments  have  been 
formed,  which  are  able  to  purchase  the 
rough  diamonds  in  greater  quantities, 
has  placed  our  American  diamond  cut- 
ters in  a  position  equal  to  that  held 
by  the  cutters  of  Amsterdam.  Ant- 
werp and  Paris.  The  cutting  of  our 
nntivp  eems  has  also  grown  to  the  pro- 
portions of  an  industry,  notably  in  the 
case  of  the  beryls  and  the  amethyst 
found  in  North  Carolina  and  Connecti- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


351 


cut ;  the  turquoise  from  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Nevada  and  California ;  the 
fine-colored  and  deep-blue  sapphires 
found  in  Montana ;  the  colored  tour- 
malines of  San  Joaquin  County,  Cali- 
fornia ;  the  chrysoprase  mine  of  Visa- 
lia,  Tulare  County,  California ;  the 
garnets  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
and  the  pale-purple  garnets  of  North 
Carolina. 

Rutile. — The  production  of  rutile  in 
1902  was  less  than  in  1901. 


Soanstone. — Exclusive  of  the  pro- 
duction of  fibrous  talc  from  Gouver- 
neur,  New  York,  the  production  of  talc 
and  soapstone  in  1902  amounted  to 
26,854  short  tons,  valued  at  $525,157, 
as  compared  with  28,643  tons,  valued 
at  $424,888,  in  1901— a  decrease  of 
1,789  tons  in  quantity  and  an  increase 
of  $100,269  in  value.  The  output  for 
1900  was  ^7,943  short  tons,  valued  at 
$383,541,  and  for  1899  it  was  24,765 
short  tons,  valued  at  $330,805. — Min- 
eral Resources  of  the  United  States. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  CALENDAR 

YEAR  1902. 


Product. 


Metallic. 

Pig  iron  (spot  value) long  tons. 

Silver,  coining  value fine  ounces. 

Gold,  coining  value do. 

Copper,  value  at  New  York  City lbs. 

Lead,  value  at  New  York  City short  tons. 

Zinc,  value  at  New  York  City do. 

Quicksilver,  value  at  San  Francisco flasks. 

Aluminum,  value  at  Pittsburg , lbs. 

Antimony,  value  at  San  Francisco short  tons. 

Nickel,  value  at  Philadelphia lbs: 

Tin do. 

Platinum,  value  (crude)  at  San  Francisco troy  ounces. 


1902. 


Quantity. 

Value. 

17,821,307 

$372,775,000 

55.500,000 

71,757,575 

3,870,000 

80,000,000 

659,508,644 

76,568,954 

270,000 

22.140,000 

156,927 

14.625.596 

1  34,291 

1,467,848 

7,300,000 

2,284.590 

3,561 

634,506 

5,748 

2.701 

None. 

94 

1,814 

Total  value  of  metallic  products. 


Non-Metallic  (spot  values). 

Bituminous  coal short  tons. 

Pennsylvania  anthracite long  tons. 

Natural  gas 

Petroleum bbls. 

Brick  clay 

Cement bbls. , 

Stone 

Corundum  and  emery short  tons. , 

Crystalline  quartz do. 

Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes do. 

Grindstones 

Infusorial  earth  and  tripoli short  tons. 

Millstones 

Oilstones,  etc 

Arsenious  oxide short  tons. 

Borax  (refined) do. 

Borax  (crude) do. 

Bromine lbs. , 

Fluorspar short  tons. 

Gypsum do. 

Lithium do. 

Marls do. 


260,216,844 
36.940.710 


2  88,766,916 


25,753,504 


4,251 
15,104 

3,926 


5,665 


1,353 
M7,404 

2,600 
513,890 
»  48,018 
816,478 

1,245 
12.439 


$642,258,584 


$290,858,483 

76.173,586 

30,867,668 

71,178,910 

15.000,000 

25,366,380 

64,559.099 

104,605 

^  84,335 

132.820 

667.431 

53.244 

59.808 

3  221.762 

81.180 

)      2.447.614 

f  91.000 

128,472 

271,832 

2,089,341 

25.750 

12,741 


1  In  addition  the  census  reports  11,727  short  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at  $82,242,  as  mined 
but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

2  In  addition  the  census  reports  508,386  barrels  of  petroleum,  valued  at  $218,829,  as  pro- 
duced but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

9  Value  of  crude  production  as  reported  by  the  census:  Crystalline  quartz,  $43,085;  oil- 
stones. $113,968. 

*  Production  in  1902,  as  reported  by  the  census,  19,142  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,383,614. 

A  In  addition  the  census  reports  800  short  tons  of  fluorspar,  valued  at  $3,850,  as  mined  but 
not  marketed  in  1902. 


352 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  CALENDAR 

YEAR  1902.— Continued. 


Product. 


Phosphate  rock long  tons. 

Pyrite do. 

Salt bbls. 

Sulphur short  tons. 

Barytes  (crude) do. 

Cobalt  oxide lbs. 

Mineral  paints short  tons. 

Zinc  white do. 

Asbestos do. 

Asphaltum do. 

Bauxite. long  tons. , 

Chromic  iron  ore do. 

Clay  (all  other  than  brick) short  tons. . 

Feldspar do. 

Fibrous  talc do. 

Flint do. 

Fuller's  earth do. 

Glass  sand do. 

Graphite  (crystalline) lbs. . 

Graphite  (amorphous) short  tons. . 

Limestone  for  iron  flux long  tons. . 

Magnesite short  tons. . 

Manganese  ore long  tons. . 

Mica  (sheet) lbs. . 

Mica  (scrap) short  tons. . 

Mineral  waters gallons  sold. . 

Monazite lbs. . 

Ozocerite  (refined) do.  . 

Precious  stones 

Pumice  stone short  tons. . 

Rutile lbs. . 

Soapstone short  tons. . 

Uranium  and  vanadium do. 


1902. 


Quantity. 


Total  value  of  non-metallic  mineral  products.  .  . 

Total  value  of  metallic  products 

Estimated  value  of  mineral  products  unspecified. 

Grand  total 


«  1,490,314 

297,874 

23,849.221 

(J) 

61,668 

3,730 

«  73.049 

52,645 

9  1,005 

10  105,458 

29,222 

315 

1.455,357 

45,287 

71,100 

36,365 

11,492 

943.135 

"  3,936,824 

4,739 

11.878,675 

12  3,466 

16,477 

373,266 

1,400 

64,859.451 

802,000 

None. 


Value. 


$4,693,444 

947,089 

5,668,636 

(7) 

203.154 

6.714 

944.332 

4.016.499 

16.200 

765,048 

128.206 

4.567 

2.061.072 

250.424 

615,350 

144.209 

98,144 

807,797 

182.108 

5,271,252 

21,362 

177,911 

83.843 

.35.006 

8.793,761 

64,160 


328,450 
2,750 


525,157 
48.125 


$617,380,831 

642.258.584 

1.000.000 


1,260,639.415 


«  The  total  quantity  of  phosphate  rock  mined  in  1902  was  1,548,720  long  tons,  valued  at 
S4.922.943. 

7  Included  under  pyrite. 

8  Production  of  crude  material  of  mineral  paints  was  35,479  short  tons,  valued  at  $360,885. 

9  In  addition,  1500  short  tons  of  crude  asbestos,  valued  at  $30,000,  are  reported  by  the  cen- 
sus as  mined  but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

10  The  production  of  the  crude  material  is  reported  by  the  census  as  66,238  short  tons, 
valued  at  $236,728. 

11  In  addition,  graphite  to  the  value  of  $45,400  is  reported  as  mined  but  not  marketed  in 
1902. 

1^  The  magnesite  actually  mined  in  1902  is  reported  as  3,086  short  tons,  valued  at  $19,639. 
13  Included  under  estimated  unspecified  products. 


Speeds   for    Grinding    and    Polishing, 

ETC. 

Speed  of  Ft.  per  Min. 

T^arge  grindstones  for  polishing.  .  .     2,000 

Emery  disks 2,500  to  3,000 

Polishing  large  articles 750 

Tool  grinders 650 

Circular  saws  for  hot  iron 20,000 

Disintegrators 10,000 

Plate-bending  rolls 4 

Millstones 17  000 

Sack  tackle 50 


Depreciation  of  Machinery,  etc.,  per 
Annum  on  First  Cost. 


Machinery,  etc. 


Engines 

Boilers 

Machines .  . 

Millwork  and  gearing. 
Bands  and  belts 


Total. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


353 


MINES    AND    QUARRIES. 
DETAILED  SUMliiARY,  UNITED  STATES:  1902. 


151,516 
46,858 


Number  of  mines,  quarries,  or 

wells 

Number  of  operators 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc: 

Total  nimiber 38,128 

Total  salaries $39,020,552 

General  officers — 

Number 4,591 

Salaries $8,218,541 

Superintendents,  managers, 

foremen,  surveyors,  etc — 

Number 15,538 

Salaries $16,666,416 

Foremen,  below  ground* — 

Number 

Salaries 

Qerks— 

Number 

Salaries 


6,863 
$6,208,307 


11,136 
$7,927,288 


Wage-earners : 

Aggregate  average  number. .  .  581,728 

Aggregate  wages $369,959,960 

Above  ground — 

Total  average  number  . . .  221,505 

Total  wages $125,086,530 

Engineers,  firemen, 
and  other  mechan- 
ics— 
Average  number.  . .  .  60,859 

Wages $44,478,246 

Miners,  or  quarrymen 
and  stonecutters — 
Average  number. ...  67,129 

Wages $33,971,290 

Boys,  under  16  years — 

Average  number.  .. .  6,219 

Wages $1,339,478 

All    other    wage-earn- 
ers— 
Average  number.  . .  .  87,298 

Wages $45,297,516 

Below  ground — 

Total  average  nimiber  .  .  360,223 

Total  wages $244,873,430 


Wage-earners — Continued : 
Miners — 

Average  nimiber 257,301 

Wages $184,674,193 

Miners*  helpers — 

Average  number.  . . .  18,736 

Wages $11,496,910 

Boys,  under  16  years — 

Average  number.  . . .  5,638 

Wages $1,548,889 

All  other  wage-earners — 

Average  number.  . . .  78,548 

Wages $47,153,438 

Contract  work : 

Amount  paid $20,677,938 

Number  of  employees 21,183 

Miscellaneous  expenses,  total.  ..     $71,771,713 
Royalties   and   rent  of  mine 

and  mining  plant.  . . $34,530,713 

Rent  of  offices,  taxes,  insur- 
ance,   interest,    and    other 

sundries $37,241,000 

Cost  of  supplies  and  materials. .  $123,814,967 

Product,  value $796,826,417 

Power: 

Total  horsepower 

Owned — 
Engines — 

Steam,  number 

Horsepower 

Gas,  or  gasoline,  num- 
ber  

Horsepower 

Water  wheels,  number. . . 

Horsepower 

Other  power,  number  . . . 

Horsepower 

Rented — 

Electric,  horsepower.  . .  . 
Other  kind,  horsepower.  . 
Electric  motors  owned,  num- 
ber  

Horsepower 

Supplied  to  other  establish- 
ments, horsepower 


2,867,562 


64,179 
2,432,963 

13,506 

259,695 

980 

60,897 

1,162 

84,546 

23,556 
5,906 

2,893 
130,494 


2,852 


*  Foremen  here  reported  should  be  added  to  the  number  of  wage-earners  below  ground  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  actual  number  employed  below  ground. — CSensus  Bulletin. 

CLAY   PRODUCTS   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES   IN   1902. 


In  1902  there  were  produced  8,475,- 
067  thousands  of  common  brick.  The 
value  of  this  product  was  $48,885,869, 
and  the  average  price  per  thousand 
was  $5.77.  The  quantity  of  front 
brick  produced  was  458,391  thousands, 
valued  at  $5,318,008.  The  average 
price  per  thousand  was  $11.60.  Of 
vitrified  paving  brick  the  amount  pro- 
duced was  617,192  thousands,  valued 
at  $5,744,530,  the  average  price  per 
thousand  being  $9.31.  The  value  of 
fancy  or  ornamental  brick  was  $806,- 
453.  The  value  of  fire  brick  was  $11,- 
970,511.  The  value  of  stove  lining  was 
$630,924.  The  value  of  drain  tile  was 
$3,506,787.  The  value  of  sewer  pipe 
was  $7,174,892.  The  value  of  orna- 
mental terra  cotta  was  $3,526,906. 
The  value  of  the  clay  products  used  in 


fire-proofing  was  $3,175,593.  The 
value  of  tile  other  than  drain  tile  was 
$3,622,863.  The  value  of  adobes, 
aquarium  ornaments,  boiler  and  loco- 
motive brick  and  tile,  burnt-clay  bal- 
last, carboy  stoppers,  chemical  brick 
and  tile :  chimney  blocks,  pipe  and 
tops ;  clay  furnaces,  retorts,  and  set- 
tings ;  conduits  for  underground  wires, 
crucibles,  curbing  block,  fire-clay  in- 
sulators, fire  mortar,  flue  lining,  fur- 
nace brick  and  tile,  gas  logs,  glass- 
house supplies,  grave  markers,  ground 
fire  brick,  muffles,  oven  tile,  paving 
block,  porous  cups,  saggers,  stone 
pumps,  wall  coping,  web  tile  sewer, 
and  well  brick  was  $3,678,742.  The 
value  of  the  pottery  produced  was 
$24,127,453.  making  a  grand  total  of 
all  clay  products  of  $122,169,531.— U. 
S.  Geological  Survey. 


354 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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PRODUCTION  OF  GAS. 

The  total  quantity  of  gas  sold  for  lighting 
and  heating,  as  reported  to  the  Census  in  1900 
by  877  gas  establislunents  from  which  returns 
were  received,  was  67,093,553,471  cubic  feet. 
The  total  quantity  of  gas  manufactured  by 
companies  as  a  by-produet  and  disposed  of 
was  1,171,942,697  cubic  feet.  A  combination 
of  this  latter  quantity  with  the  quantity  re- 
ported for  gas  companies  shows  that,  in  1900, 
the  total  quantity  sold  was  68,265,496,168 
cubic  feet. 

The  price  per  1,000  cubic  feet  varied  from 
S0.832  in  Pennsylvania  to  $4.50 'in  Nevada. 
Proximity  to  the  coal  and  oil-producing  dis- 
tricts gives  to  Pennsylvania  the  minimum 
average  rate,  while  distance  from  source  of 
supplies  and  limited  transportation  facilities 
are  accountable  for  the  high  price  in  Nevada. 
These  averages  represent  the  price  of  all  man- 
ufactured gas,  both  fuel  and  illuminating,  as 
the  quantitv  of  each  kind  was  not  separately 
reported ;  this  statement  is  necessary  in  order 
to  obviate  erroneous  deductions.  Idaho, 
Indian  Territory,  and  Oklahoma  have  no  gas 
plants. 

The  quantity  of  gas  sold  in  New  York  city 
was  18,180,821,125  cubic  feet,  at  an  average 
price  of  SO. 905  per  1,000,  or  $16,457,822  in  the 
aggregate. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


According  to  Bessel,  in  the  metric  ssrstem. 

(large  axis,   one  half), 

axis,   one   half). 


Equatorial  radius 
a  =  6,377,397. 15  m. 

Polar  radius   (small 
6,356,078.96  m. 

Oblateness, 

a-b  1 

p  = 


6  = 


=  0.0033427731. 


a        299.1528 
Eccentricity  of  the  meridians  of  the  earth. 


a' 


0.08169683. 

the     equator  == 


at 


at      the      pole  — 


m. 


the 


A     meridian-degree 
110,563.68  m. 

A      meridian  -  degree 
111,679.90  m. 

A  degree  of  the  equator  =  111,306.58 

Meridian  quadrant  =  10,000,855.76  m. 

A    geographic    mile  =  1-15   degree   of 
equator  =  7,420.4385  m. 

Radius  of  the  sphere  having  the  same  sur- 
face as  the  earth  =  6,370,289.5  m. 

Radius  of  the  sphere  having  the  same 
capacity  as  the  earth  =  6,370,283.2  m. 

Area  of  the  earth  =  509,950,7 14  qkm. 

Cubic  contents  of  the  earth  =  1,082,841,320,- 
000  ckm. 

Gravity  at  the  level  of  the  sea  for  the  geo- 
graphical latitude  0,  6^  =  9.7810m  +  0.0503m 
sin2  <f>. 

Length  of  the  seconds  pendulum  at  the 
sea-level  for  the  geographical  latitude  6, 
Z=0.99102m  + 0.00510m  sin^  <f>. 


Barbed  Wire. — A  pound  of  barbed  wire 
should  measure  1 6^  feet,  and  an  acre  of  ground 
will  require  50f  lb.  per  line  of  fencing. 


CHAPTER    XT. 


FARMS    AND    FOOD. 


DIVISION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    AS    TO    LAND. 


Farms. — According  to  the  Census  of 
]9(K>  there  are  5,737,372  farms  hav- 
ing 414,498,487  acres  of  improved  land 
and  424,093,287  acres  of  unimproved 
land.  The  value  of  all  farm  property 
was  $20,439,901,164.  The  value  of 
the  land  with  improvements,  including 
buildings,  was  $16,614,647,491.  The 
value  of  implements  and  machinery 
was  $749,775,970.  The  value  of  the 
live    stock   was   $3,075,477,703.    The 


average  number  of  acres  to  a  farm  was 
146.2  acres. 

The  total  value  of  the  product  of  all 
the  farms  was  $4,717,069,973,  and  was 
divided  as  follows :  Animal  products, 
$1,718,365,561;  crops,  $2,998,704,612. 
Of  the  latter,  $974,940,616  was  fed  to 
the  live  stock.  The  value  of  all  live 
stock  on  farms  and  ranges  was  $2,- 
979,197,586 ;  poultry,  $85,756,503  ; 
bees,  $10,178,087. 


1850 


1900 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY. 


Chickens  form  an  essential  part  of 
the  stock  upon  many  farms.  The 
Twelfth  Census  shows  that  there  were 
5,737,372  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1900,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  those 
which  did  not  have  chickens  among  the 
stock  were  very  few  indeed.  The 
Census  also  shows  that  there  were 
250,681,593  fowls  (chickens,  turkeys, 
geese,  and  ducks)  in  the  United  States. 
This  gives  an  average  of  forty-two  to 
every  farm.     The  value  of  all   fowls 


on  farms  in  1900  was  $85,794,996,  pro- 
ducing for  market  in  one  year  poultry 
worth  $136,891,877  and  eggs  worth 
$144,286,370,  a  total  value  of  $281,- 
178,547.  The  investment  has  yielded 
an  income  of  40  per  cent.  In  seeking 
for  the  cause  of  the  great  success  at- 
tending poultry  raising,  one  must  not 
overlook  the  great  amount  of  work 
done  by  the  mechanical  incubator, 
which  is  not  only  as  fully  successful  as 
the  hen,  but  works  on  a  large  scale. 


855 


356 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DAIRY    FARMS. 


The  Twelfth  Census  reports  that  in 
the  year  1900  there  were  5,737  372 
farms  in  the  United  States,  and  of 
these  4,514,210  had  dairy  cows.  Where 
a  farm  was  found  upon  which  at  least 
40  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  annual 


products  was  from  dairy  products  it 
was  classified  as  a  dairy  farm.  The 
total  quantity  of  milk  produced  on 
farms  in  this  country,  during  the  year 
1899,  was  7,266,392,674  gallons,  or,  in 
round  numbers,  62,500,000,000  pounds. 


1900 
1800 
1880 
1870 
1860 
1850 


150 


300 


PRODUCTION  OF  BUTTER 

in  hundreds  of  mffiwit  of  pounds, 

450    600    750    900    1050    1200 


1350 


1500 


RB 

^r 

^ 

■ 

) 

• 

.1 

1 

w^^^m 

1            1 

Farm 

•( 

1900 
1890 
1880 
1870 
1860 
1850 


PRODUCTION   OF  CHEESE 

in  hundreds  of  millions,  of  pounds. 


150 


300 


Factory  Product 
Farm 


MINERAL   CONSTITUENTS    ABSORBED   OR   REMOVED   FROM   AN 
ACRE  OF  SOIL  BY  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS: 


Minerals. 

Wheat, 
25  Bushels.    1 

Barley, 
40  Bushels. 

Turnips, 
20  Tons. 

1 J  Tons. 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Lbs. 
29.6 

3. 

12.9 
10.6 

2.6 
20.6 
10.6 

2. 
;        118.1 

1 

Lbs. 
17.5 

5.2 
17. 

9.2 

2.1 
25.8 

2.7 
16. 
129.5 

2.4 

Lbs. 
47.1 

8.2 
29.9 
19.7 

7.1 
46.3 
13.3 

3.6 
247.8 

X>bs. 
38.2 
12. 

Lime. . 

Mairnesium 

44.5 
7.1 

Oxide  of  Iron 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Sulohuric  Acid 

.6 

15  1 

9.2 

Chlorine 

Silicium 

4.1 
78.2 

Aluminiim  .  .               

1 

1       423.00 

Total 

210.00 

213.00 

209.00 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


857 


NUMBER    AND    VALUE    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS:   1900. 


Domestic 
Animals. 

Age  in 
Years. 

Total. 

On  Farms  and 
Ranges. 

Not  on  Farms  or 
Ranges. 

Number. 

Value. 

Number. 

Value. 

Num- 
ber. 

Estimated 
Value. 

All  domestic  an- 
imals  

Dollars. 
3,193,856,459 

1.516,307,270 

67,719,410 

Dollars. 
2,979.197,586 

1,475,204,633 



1.616,422 

Dollars. 
214,658,873 

All  neat  cattle. . . 

69,335,832 

41,102,637 

Under  1.  . 

1  &  und'r  2 

2  &  imd'r  3 

3  and  over 

1  and  over 
l&iind'r2 

2  and  over 
2  and  over 

Calves 

Steers 

Steers 

Ov66FS«  •      •    •  •  • 

Bulls 

Heifers 

Cows  kept  for 

milk 

Cows  not  kept 

for  milk.  .  . . 

All  horses 

15,577,728 
7,008,656 
5,244,011 
3,179,069 
1,328,741 
7,254,000 

18,108.666 

11.634,961 

21,203,901 

139,638,829 
131,392,522 
152,871.930 
113,123,532 
45,831,378 
122,874,299 

537,496,120 

273,078,660 

1,050,526,967 

15,315,582 
6,953,113 
5,193.006 
3,073.267 
1.315.132 
7,174,483 

17.135,633 

11,559.194 

18.267.020 

137,290,001 
130,352,202 
151,386,664 
109,366.503 
45,362,004 
121,528,076 

508,616,501 

271.302.682 

896.513.217 

262.146 
55,543 
51,005 

105,802 
13,609 
79,517 

973,033 

75.767 
2.936.881 

2,348,828 
1,040,320 
1,485,266 
3,757,029 
469,374 
1,346,223 

28,879,619 

1,775,978 

154,013,750 

Under  1.  . 

1  &  und'r  2 

2  and  over 

Colts 

Horses 

Horses 

All  Tnulefr  ,    r  .  . 

1,347.919 

1,476.627 

18,379,355 

3,438,523 

26.548,413 

49,313,762 

974,664,792 

207.274.557 

1.314.829 

1.446,225 

15,505,966 

3,264,615 

25.896.871 

48.298.639 

822,317,707 

196,222,053 

33,090 

30.402 

2,873,389 

173,908 

651,542 

1,015.123 

152,347.085 

11.052.504 

Under  1.  . 

1  &  und'r  2 

2  and  over 

All  ages.   . 

Mule  colts. . . . 

Mules 

Mules 

Asses  and  burros 

All  sheep 

234,784 

283,829 

2,919,910 

110.012 

61,735,014 

21,702,447 
31.997.274 

8.035.293 

64,686,155 

6.286.385 

11.937,495 

189,050,677 

6,776,583 

170,881,743 

231,628 

279,501 

2,753,486 

94,165 

61,503,713 

21,650,746 
31,857,652 

7,995,315 

62,868.041 
1.870.599 

6,201,899 

11.755.416 

178.264,738 

5.811,184 

170,203,119 

3,156 

4,328 

166,424 

15,847 

231,301 

84.486 

182,079. 

10,785,939 

965,399 

678,624 

Under  1  .  . 
1  and  over 

1  and  over 

All  ages 
All  ages 

Lambs 

Sheep  (ewes)  . 
Sheep  (rams 
and  wethers). 

Swine 

42.116,628 
101,732,728 

27.032,387 

238.686,872 

42,016,328 
101,288,730 

26,898,061 

231,978,031 
3.265,340 

51,701 
139,622 

39,978 

1,818.114 
78,353 

100.300 
443,998 

134,326 

6,708,841 

Goats 

1,948.952 

3,402,467 

137.118 

— From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


QUANTITY  AND   VALUE   OF   ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  OF  FARMS:  1899. 


Product. 


Total. 


Wool 

Mohair  and  goat  hair. 

Milk 

Butter 

Cheese 


Eggs 

Poultry 

Honey 

Wax 

Animals  sold 

Animals  slaughtered.  . 


Unit  of  Measure. 


I 


Pound 

do. 
Gallon 
Pound 

do. 

Dozen 


Potmd 
do. 


1  Includes  all  milk  produced. 


Quantity. 


276.567,584 

961,328 

I  7,265,804,304 

1,071,626,056 

16.372.318 

1.293.662.433 

61.699.296' 
1.763.595 


Value. 


$1,718,365,561 


f 


$45,670,053 
267.864 

472,276.783 


144,240,541 
136,830,152 

6,656,611 

722,614,328 
189,809,229 


— From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


358 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ACREAGE,   QUANTITY,  AND  VALUE  OF  FARM  CROPS   IN   1899. 

From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


Crop. 


Total. 


Com 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Broom  com 

Rice 

Kaffir  com 

Flaxseed 

Clover  seed 

Grass  seed 

Hay  and  forage 

Cottonseed.  .    

Cotton 

Tobacco 

Hemp 

Honey   

Hops 

Peanuts. 

Peppermint 

Dry  beans 

Castor  beans 

Dry  pease 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes 

Onions 

Chicory 

Milk 

Miscellaneous  vegetables. . 

Maple  sugar 

Maple  sirup 

Sugar-cane 

(a)  Cane  sold 

Cane  kept  for  seed. 

Sugar  made 

Molasses  made.  . . . 

Sirup  made 

Sorghum  cane 

Sorghum  sirup. 

Sugar  beets 

Smail  fnuts. . 

Grapes 

Orchard  products 

Subtropical  fruits 

Nuts 

Forest  products 

Flowers  and  plants 

Miscellaneous  seeds 

Nursery  products 

Willows 

Miscellaneous 


(6) 
(c) 
id) 
le) 


Acres. 


94,913,673 

52.588,674 

29.539,698 

4,470,196 

2,054,292 

807,060 

178,584 

342,214 

266,513 

2,110,517 


61.691.069 


24,275,101 

1,101.460 

16,042 


55,613 

516,654 

8,591 

453,841 

25,738 

968,370 

2,938,778 

537,312 

47,981 

3,069 


2,114,149 


386,986 


293,152 


110.170 
309,770 


Unit  of 
Measure. 


Quantity. 


I 


Bushel 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
Pound 

do. 
Bushel 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Ton 

do. 

Bale 
Poimd 

do. 

do. 

do. 
Bushel 
Pound 
Bushel 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
Pound 
Gallons 


Pound 
Gallon 

Ton 

do. 

do. 
Pound 
Gallon 

do. 

Ton 
Gallon 

Ton 


Cental 
Bushel 


9,307 

10.106 

59.492 

521 

23,793 


2,666.324,370 

658.534,252 

943,389,375 

119,634.877 

25,568.625 

11,233.515 

90.947,370 

250,280,227 

5,169,113 

19,979,492 

1.349,209 

3.515.869 

84,010,915 

1  4.566,100 

9,534,707 

868.112.865 

11.750.630 

61.196,160 

49,209,704 

11,964.109 

187.427 

5,064,490 

143,388 

9,440,210 

273,318,167 

42,517,412 

11,790.974 

21,495,870 

7,266,392,674 


11,928,770 
2,056,611 

2  4,202,202 

1.126,076 

1,453,447 

159.454,814 

6,312,809 

12,293,032 
3  291,703 

16,972,783 
793.353 


13,009.841 
212,365,600 


Value. 


$2,998,704,412 


$828,192,388 
369,945.320 
217,098.584 
41,631.762 
12,290.540 
5,747,853 
3,588.414 
6,329,562 
1,367,040 
19,624,901 
5,359,578 
2,863,839 
484,254,703 
46,950,575 
323,758,171 
56,987,902 
546.338 

4,681.929 

7,270,515 

143,618 

7,633,636 

134.084 

7,908,966 

98,380,110 

19,869,840 

6.637,413 

73,627 

'  113.644,398 
1.074.260 
1,562,451 


3.881,758 

5,018.469 

6.558.944 

788.990 

4,293.475 

815,019 

5,288.0S3 

3,323.  40 

25,029.757 

•  14.090,234 

i  83,750,961 

8,227,838 

1.949,931 

109,864,774 

18,758.864 

826.019 

10,123,873 

36,523 

«  1,120,343 


»  Not  mcluding  166,861  tons  sold  with  fiber  before  ginning. 

2  Comprising  all  cane  grown,  whether  sold  as  cane,  kept  for  seed,  or  used  in  the  manu> 
facture  of  sugar,  molasses,  and  sirup. 

3  Sold  as  cane. 

*  Including  value  of  raisins,  wine,  etc. 

»  Including  value  of  cider,  vinegar,  etc. 

?  The  greater  part  of  this  value  was  derived  from   products  for  which  no  acreage  waa 

reported. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    RBFBRENCE    BOOK.  SS« 


860 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FRUIT    PRODUCTS. 


(Abstracted  from  the  United  States  Census  Reports.) 


Product. 


Fruits  (orchard) 

Apples 

Apricots 

Cherries 

Peaches,  etc , 

Pears 

Plums,  etc 

Unclassified 

Cider 

Cider  vinegar 

Fruits  (small) 

Blackberries 

Currants 

Gooseberries 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 

Unclassified 

Fruits  (sub-tropical), 

Bananas 

Citrons 

Figs 

Guava 

Lemons 

Limes 

Olives 

Oranges 

Persimmons 

Pineapples 

Pomeloes 

Unclassified 

Olive  oil 

Coffee 


Unit  of 
Measure. 


Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Barrels 

Barrels 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Quarts 


Bunches 

Boxed 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Pounds 

Boxes 

Pounds 


Boxes 
Pounds 
Gallons 
Pounds 


Quantity. 


212,366,646 

175,397,626 

2.642,128 

2.873,499 

15,433.623 

6,625,417 

8,764,032 

630,321 

1,754,927 

392.497 

431.628.520 

62,189.885 

18,592.695 

9,320.530 

76.628,107 

257.437,523 

7.459,780 


141,653 

90 

13,016,274 

1,677,165 

876,978 

24,375 

6,053.637 

6,171,259 

136,030 

2,980,240 

30,791 

2,969,239 

8.643 

2.297.000 


Value. 


$83,751,840 


25,030,877 


8,549,863 


246,181 


STATISTICS    OF    PRINCIPAL    CROPS. 


Crop. 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat. 
Potatoes.  .  . 
Hay. 


1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 


Cotton 1902-1903 

Tobacco I       1903 

Flaxseed 1903 

Sugar,  beet  and  cane I  1903-1904 


88,091,993 

49,464,967 

27,638,126 

4,993,137 

1,906,894 

804,393 

2,916,855 

39,933,759 

27,114,103 

1,037,735 

3,233,239 


Bushel 


Ton 

Bale 

Pound 

Bushel 

Long  ton 


Average 

Yield 
per  Acre. 


25.5 
12.9 

28.4 
26.4 
15.4 
17.7 
84.7 
1.54 


Production. 


2,244,176.925 

637,821.835 

784,094,199 

131,861.391 

29.363,416 

14,243,644 

247,127.880 

61,305,940 

10,725,422 

815,972,425 

27,300,510 

423,135 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


861 


STATISTICS     OF     PRINCIPAL    CROPS— ConUnued. 


Crop. 


Com 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Cotton 

Tobacco 

Flaxseed 

Sugar,  beet  and  cane 

^  Does  not  necessarily  mean  the  crop  year ;  in  all  cases  one  year  and  generally  two  years 
behind. 

2  Tons  instead  of  bushels. 
8  1902-1903. 

STATISTICS    OF    PRINCIPAL    ANIMALS. 


Year. 

Unit. 

Average 
Farm 
Price. 

Farm  Value. 

Exports, 
Bushels.! 

1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 

Bushel 

Ton 

Bale 

Pound 

Bushel 

Long  ton 

42.5  c. 

69 . 5  c. 
34.1c. 

45.6  c. 
54 . 5  c. 

60.7  c. 
61.4c. 
$9.08 

$952,868,801 

443,024,826 

267,661,665 

60.166,313 

15,993,871 

8.650.733 

15,638,094 

556,376,880 

458,051,005 

55,514,627 

22,291,557 

76,639^261 

202,906,273 

8,381.805 

56.462 

5,445,273 

1903 

1903 

1902-1903 

843,075 

2  50,974 

3  7,086,086 

1903 

6.8c. 
81.7  c. 

1903 

1903-1904 

Animals. 


Horses 

Mules 

Cows 

Other  cattle. 

Sheep 

Hogs 


Number. 


16,736,059 
2,757,916 
17,419,817 
43,629,438 
51,630,144 
47,009,367 


Value. 


$1,136,940,298 
217,532,916 
508.841,489 
712,178,134 
133,530,099 
289,224,627 


CUTS    OF    MEAT. 


The  method  of  dividing  up  the  car- 
casses of  slaughtered  animals  varies 
considerably  in  different  localities.  In 
order  that  there  may  be  no  confusion 


on  this  account  the  character  of  the 
cuts  of  beef,  veal,  pork  and  mutton 
is  shown  in  the  diagrams  given  on 
page  362. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND  USES  OF  FOODS. 

BY    C.    F.    LANGWORTHY,    PH.    D. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


In  this  article  a  number  of  the 
terms  used  in  discussing  food  are  de- 
fined and  some  of  the  principles 
of  nutrition  are  briefly  stated. 
The  average  composition  of  a 
number  of  the  more  common 
American  foods  is  quoted  as  well  as 
the  commonly  accepted  dietary  stand- 
ards. With  the  aid  of  such  data,  the 
nutritive  value  of  any  given  diet  may 
be  computed  and  its  comparative  value 
ascertained. 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  potatoes,  wheat,  etc., 
consist  of: 

Refuse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and 
fish,  shells  of  shellfish,  skins  of  pota- 
toes, bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible    Portion. — As    the    flesh    of 


meat  and  fish,  the  white  and  yolk  of 
eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  por- 
tion consists  of  water  and  nutritive 
ingredients,  or  nutrients.  The  nutri- 
tive ingredients  are  protein,  fats^  car- 
bohydrates and  mineral  matters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of  salt- 
ed meat  and  fish  are  called  non-nutri- 
ents. In  comparing  the  values  of  dif- 
ferent food  materials  for  nourishment 
they  are  left  out  of  account. 

USE    OF    NUTRIENTS. 

Food  is  used  in  the  body  to  build 
and  repair  tissue  and  to  furnish  en- 
ergy. The  manner  in  which  the  valu- 
able constituents  are  utilized  in  the 
body  may  be  expressed  in  tabular  form 
as  follows : 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


iDdDn,  and  probably 

Lt). 

m  istty  tissue. 


The  Fuel  Value  of  Pood.— Heat  and 
muscular  power  are  forms  of  force  or 
enei^y.  The  energy  is  developed  aa 
tbe  food  is  couBUioed  id  Che  body.  Tbe 
unit  commonly  used  in  thia  measure- 
ment is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  pound  of  water  4  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

Instead  oE  this  unit  some  unit  of 
mechanical  energy  migbt  be  used — for 


DIAQBAM   OF  CUTS   OF 

MUTTON, 

Instance,    the    toot -ton,    which    repre- 
sents the  force   requiied   to  raise  one 
ton  one  foot.     One  calorie  is  equal  to 
very  nearly  1.53  foot-ioDs. 

Tbe  following  general  estimate  has 
been  made  tor  the  average  amount  of 
potential  energy  in  1  pound  of  each  of 
the  classes  of  nutrients  : 

i:lS3;[F.T'":; 

....   l.RliO 

In 


imd  uf  a 


In  other  words,  when  we  com- 
pare the  nutrients  in  re9|>ect  to 
their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for 
yielding  heat   and   mecbanical   power, 


CUTS    OP   VEAL. 

a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or  al- 
bumen of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent 
to  a  pound  of  sugar  or  starch,  and  a 
little  over  two  pounds  of  either  would 


OP   CUTS   o 

he  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat 
of  meat  or  butter  or  the  body  fat. 

Within  recent  years  analyses  of  a 
large  number  of  samples  of  foods  bave 
been  made  in  this  country.  In  the 
tables  on  pages  3<14-367  the  results  of 
a  number  of  these  analyses  are  given  : 


DUOBAU  OF  CUTS  OF  BEEF. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK  393 


364 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN    FOOD     PRODUCTS. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 


Rcf- 


Pro- 


use.    I  Water.  I  t^in.       Fat 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates, 


Animal  Food. 

Beef,  fresh:  PerCt. 

Chuck,  including  shoulder 17.3 

Chuck  rib.s 19. 1 

Flank 5.5 

Loin 13.3 

Porterhouse  steak 12.7 

Sirloin  steak 12.8 

Neck 31.2 

Ribs 20.1 

Rib  rolls 

Round 8.5 

Rump 19.0 

Shank,  fore 38 . 3 

Shoulder  and  clod 17.4 

Fore  quarter 20 . 6 

Hind  quarter 16.3 

Beef,  corned,  canned,  pickled,  and  dried: 

Corned  beef 8.4 

Tongue,  pickled i     6.0 

Dric^d,  salted,  and  smoked [     4.7 

Canned  boiled  beef 

Canned  corned  beef 

Veal: 

Breast 23. 

Leg 11. 

Leg  cutlets 3 . 

Fore  quarter 24. 

Hind  quarter 20. 

Mutton : 

Flank 9. 

Leg,  hind 17. 


Shoulder 22 


19, 
13, 

18, 
10, 
19. 
12, 


Per  Ct. 
54.0 
53.8 
56.1 
52.9 
52.4 
54.0 
45.3 
45.3 
64.8 
62.5 
46.9 
43.2 
57.0 
49.5 
52.0 

49.2 
58.9 
53.7 
51.8 
51.8 


52.5 
63.4 
68.3 
54.2 
56.2 


Fore  quarter 21 

Hind  quarter,  without  tallow 19 

Lamb: 

Breast 

Leg,  hind 

Pork,  fresh: 

Flank 

Ham 

Loin  chops 

Shoulder 

Tenderloin 

Pork,  salted,  cured,  and  pickled: 

Ham,  smoked i    12 , 

Shoulder,  smoked 18, 

Salt  pork | .  .  . 

Bacon,  smoked 8. 

Sausage : 

Bologna 3 . 

Farmer !     3 . 

Frankfort 

SouDs : 

Celery,  cream  of 

Beef 

Meat  stew 

Tomato 

Poultry : 

Chicken,  broilers 

Fowls 

Goose 

Turkey 

Fish: 

Cod,  dressed 

Halibut,  steaks  or  sections 

Mackerel,  whole 

Perch,  yellow,  dressed 

Shad,  whole 

Shad,  roe \ 

Fish,  salt;  Cod i   24.9 


41. 
25. 
17. 
22. 

29. 
17. 
44. 
35. 
50. 


39.0 
51.9 
46.8 
41.6 
43.3 

45.5 
50.3 

48.5 
45.1 
40.8 
44.9 
66.5 

35.8 

30.7 

7.9 

18.4 

55.2 
22.2 
57.2 

88.6 
92.9 
84.5 
90.0 

43.7 
47.1 
38.5 
42.4 

58.5 
61.9 
40.4 
50.7 
35.2 
71.2 
40.2 


Per  Ct.  Per  Ct.  Per  Ct.  Per  Ct, 


15.8 
15.3 
18.6 


16. 
19. 
16. 
14. 
14. 


19.4 


19. 
15. 
13. 
16. 
14. 
16. 

14. 
11. 

26. 
25. 
26. 

15. 
18. 
20. 
15. 
16. 


13.8 


15, 
13, 
12, 
13, 


15.4 
16.0 

15.1 
14.3 
13.2 
12.0 
18.9 

14.5 

12.6 

1.9 

9.5 

18.2 
27.9 
19.6 

2.1 
4.4 
4.6 
1.8 

12.8 
13.7 
13.4 
16.1 

11.1 
15.3 
10.2 
12.8 
9.4 
20.9 
19.0 


12.5 
11.1 
19.9 
16.9 
17.9 
16.1 

9.2 
20.0 
15.5 

9.2 
18.6 

5.2 

8.4 
15.1 
15.4 

23.8 
19.2 
6.9 
22.5 
18.7 

8.2 
5.8 
7.5 
6.0 
6.6 

36.9 
14.5 
17.1 
24.5 
24.0 

19.1 
19.7 

18.6 
29.7 
26.0 
29.8 
13.0 

33.2 
33.0 

86.2 
59.4 

19.7 
40.4 
18.6 

2.8 

.4 

4.3 

1.1 

1.4 
12.3 
29.8 
18.4 

.2 
4.4 
4.2 

.7 
4.8 
3.8 

.4 


5. 
1. 
5. 
5. 


1.1 


2.6 


0.7 
.8 
.8 
.9 
.8 
.9 
.7 
.7 
.9 

1.0 
.8 
.6 
.9 
.7 
.8 

4.6 
4.3 
8.9 
1.3 
4.0 


.8 
.0 
.0 

.7 
.8 

.6 
.8 
.7 
.7 
.7 

.8 
.9 


.7 
.8 
.8 
.7 
1.0 

4.2 
5.0 
3.9 
4.5 


Fuel 

Value 

per 

Lb. 


Calo- 
ries. 
820 
755 
1,185 
1,020 
1,110 
985 
650 
1,110 
1,015 
745 
1,065 
465 
660 
905 
950 

1,271 
1,030 
780 
1,425 
1,280 

635 
585 
690 
535 
580 

1,815 

900 

975 

1.265 

1.255 

1.090 
1,130 

1,065 
1,520 
1,340 
1,480 
900 

1,670 
1,625 
3.670 
2,685 


3.8 

1,170 

7.3 

2,225 

3.4 

1,170 

1.5 

250 

1.2 

120 

1.1 

370 

1.5 

185 

.7 

295 

.7 

775 

.7 

1,505 

.8 

1,075 

.8 

215 

.9 

470 

.7 

365 

.9 

265 

.7 

380 

1.5 

600 

18.5 

315 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


365 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN     FOOD 

PRODUCTS- 

-Continued. 

Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Per  Ct. 
2.0 
5.3 

1.1 
2.3 
1.5 

.8 
.9 

3.0 
.7 
.7 
.7 

1.9 
.5 

4.0 

3.8 

1.0 
1.8 

.5 

.9 

1.3 

1.6 

.9 

1.0 

1.9 

.4 

.1 

1.1 
2.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.5 
1.5 
1.7 
2.9 
2.1 

3.2 

3.5 

1.7 

.7 

.9 

.9 

.8 

.7 

.4 

.8 

1.2 

.5 

1.1 

2.9 

Fuel 

Value 

per 

Lb. 

Fish,  canned: 

Salmon 

Per  Ct. 
14.2 
15.0 

Per  Ct. 
56.8 
53.6 

88.3 
80.8 
36.7 
30.7 
65.5 

11.0 
87.0 
90.5 
91.0 
26.9 
74.0 
27.4 
34.2 

11.4 
11.3 

12.0 
12.0 
78.4 
10.1 
13.6 
12.5 
7.3 
12.3 
11.4 

Per  Ct. 
19.5 
23.7 

6.0 

10.6 

7.9 

5.9 

11.9 

1.0 
3.3 
3.4 
3.0 
8.8 
2.5 
27.7 
25.9 

13.8 
13.3 

11.4 
14.0 

3.0 
11.1 

6.4 

9.2 
16.1 

8.0 
.4 

Per  Ct. 

7.5 

12.1 

1.3 

1.1 

.9 

.7 

9.3 

85.0 

4.0 

.3 

.5 

8.3 

18.5 

36.8 

33.7 

1.9 
2.2 

1.0 
1.9 
1.5 
1.7 
1.2 
1.9 
7.2 
.3 
.1 

Per  Ct. 

3.3 
5.2 

.6 
.2 

■5.0 
5.1 
4.8 

54.1 
4.5 
4.1 
2.4 

71.9 
71.4 

75.1 
71.2 
15.8 
75.5 
77.9 
75.4 
67.5 
79.0 
88.0 
90.0 

53.1 
47.1 
52.1 
49.7 
53.2 
63.3 
69.7 
70.5 
73.1 

69.3 
96.0 
81.2 
100.0 
71.4 

59.6 

22.0 

6.9 

7.7 

4.8 

2.6 

19.7 

2.6 

2.5 

6.8 

8.9 

10.8 

62.0 

Calo- 
ries. 
680 

Sardines 

950 

Shellfish: 

Oysters,  *  'solids  " 

230 

Clams 

340 

Crabs 

52.4 
61.7 

2  11.2 

195 

Lobsters 

140 

EstTB:  Hens'  etcss 

635 

Dairy  products,  etc. : ' 

Butter 

3,605 

Whole  milk 

325 

Skim  milk 

170 

Buttermilk 

165 

Condensed  milk 

1,520 

Cream 

910 

Cheese,  Cheddar 

2,145 

Cheese,  full  cream 

1,950 

Vegetable  Food. 
Entire-wheat  flour 

1.675 

1,670 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process — 
Hish-ffrade  and  medium 

1,650 

Low  grade 

1,665 

Macaroni 

415 

Crushed  wheat 

1.685 

1,620 

Com  meal .    . 

1,655 

1,860 
1,630 

Rice 

1,650 

Starch 

1,675 

Bread,  pastry,  etc. : 

White  bread 

35.3 

43.6 

35.7 

38.4 

35.7 

19.9 

6.8 

4.8 

5.9 

25.1 

9.2 
5.4 
8.9 
9.7 
9.0 
6.3 
9.7 
11.3 
9.8 

2.4 

1.3 

1.8 

1.8 

.9 

.6 

9.0 

12.1 

10.5 

9.1 

1,215 

Brown  bread 

1,050 

Graham  bread 

1,210 

1,140 

Rye  bread 

1,180 

Cake i 

1,675 

Offtfl-TTi  crftcker^r  -  , 1    . 

1,990 

1,965 

Soda  crackers 

1,925 

Sugars,  etc.: 

Molasses 

1.290 

Candy 

1,785 

Honey  ' 

18.2 

.4 

1.520 

1,800 

Maole  siruD 

1,330 

Vegetables  :\ 

Beans,  dried 

12.6 
68.5 
83.0 
70.0 
77.7 
75.6 
75.4 
81.1 
80.5 
88.1 
78.9 
66.4 
9.5 

22.5 
7.1 
2.1 
1.3 
1.4 
.9 
3.1 
.7 
1.0 
3.5 
1.4 
1.3 

24.6 

1.8 
.7 
.3 
.1 
.2 
.1 

1.1 
.2 
.2 
.4 
.3 
.4 

1.0 

1,605 
570 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled 

Beans,  string 

7.0 
20.0 
15.0 
20.0 

180 

Beets 

170 

Cabbage 

125 

Celery 

70 

Corn,  green  (sweet),  edible  portion 

470 

Cucumbers 

15.0 
15.0 

70 

Lettuce 

Mushrooms 

75 
210 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  (lrie(l 

10.0 
20.0 

205 

240 

1,655 

1  Refuse,  oil.         ^  Refuse,  shell. 

3  Contained  on  an  average  cane  sugar  2.8  and  reducing  sugar  71.1  per  cent.  The  reducing 
sugar  was  composed  of  about  equal  amounts  of  glucose  (dextrose)  ana  fruit  sugar  (levulose). 

*  Such  vegetables  as  potatoes,  squash,  beets,  etc.,  have  a  certain  amount  of  inedible 
material,  skin,  seeds,  etc.  ^  The  amount  varies  with  the  method  of  preparing  the  vef^etables,  and 
cannot  be  accurately  estimated.  The  figures  given  for  refuse  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.,  are 
assumed  to  represent  approximately  the  amount  of  refuse  in  these  foods  as  ordinarily  prepared. 


866 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION    OF    AMERICAN    FOOD    PRODUCTS— Con^nuerf. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 


Ref-    TVof^r     ^^"^ 
use.    ;  water.    ^^^ 


',   Car- 
Fat.   ■  bohy-  i   Ash. 
'drates. 


20.0 
40.0 
20.0 


50.0 


30.0 


25.0 
35.0 
25.0 
30.0 
50.0 
27.0 
10.0 


5.0 
59.4 


Vegetables — ( Continued) : 

Peas  {Piaum  sativum),  shelled 

Cowpeas,  dried 

Potatoes 

Rhubarb 

Sweet  potatoes 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Vegetables,  canned: 

Peas  {Pisum  aativum),  green 

Com,  green 

Tomatoes .' 

Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh:* 

Apples 

Bananas 

Grapes 

lemons 

Muskmelons 

Oranges 

Pears 

Persimmons,  edible  portion 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 

Watermelons 

Fruits,  dried: 

Apples 

Apricots 

Dates 

Figs 

Nuts: 

Almonds 

Beechnuts 

Brazil  nuts 

Butternuts 

Chestnuts,  fresh 

Chestnuts,  dried 

Cocoanuts ^48. 8 

Cocoanut,  prepared 

Filberts 

Hickory  nuts 

Pecans,  polished 

Peanuts 

Piflon  {Pinua  edulis) 

Walnuts,  California,  black 74. 1 

Walnuts,  California,  soft-shell 58 . 1 

Raisins 10.0 

Miscellaneous:  I 

Chocolate , 

Cocoa,  powdered ......  i 

Cereal  coffee,  infusion  (1  part  boiled  m 
20  parts  water)  ^ 


Per  Ct.  Per  Ct.  Per  Ct.  Per  Ct. '  Per  Ct. 


Fuel 

Value 

per 

Lb. 


10.0 


45.0 
40.8 


49. 
86. 
16. 


24.0 


52. 
62. 
53. 

24. 


40.6 


74.6 

13.0 

62.6 

56.6 

55 

92 

44 

94 

62 


7. 
3. 


1.8 
1.4 
1.4 
6.9 
2.0 
.6 
1.0 
13.1 

5.9 
4.6 

98.2 


85.3 
76.1 
94.0 

63.3 

48.9 
58.0 
62.5 
44.8 
63.4 
76.0 
66.1 
85.8 
85.9 
37.5 

28.1 
81.4   j 
13.8    ' 
18.8 

2.7 
2.3 
2.6 
.6 
37.8 
4.5 


12.9 
21.6 


9.8 

19.0 

4.0 


66.1 
17.3 
70.6 
74.2 


Calo- 
Per  Ct. '    rice. 
1.0 


1.4 


3.4 

.8 
.4 
.9 
2.1 
.4 
.5 
.6 

1.1 
.9 
.6 

.3 

.6 

.4 

.4 

.3 

.4 

.4 

.9 

.6    ' 

.6    I 

.1 

2.0 

.4 

1.2 

2.4 

1.1 
2.1 
2.0 

.4 
1.1 
1.7 

.9 
1.3 
1.1 

.8 

.7 


5 

7 
5 
6 
1 


2.2 
7.2 


465 
1.590 
310 
65 
640 
110 
105 
105 
125 

255 
455 
105 

220 
300 
335 
145 

90 
170 
260 
630 
255 
175 

60 

1,350 

340 

1,450 

1,475 

1,660 

1,820 

1,655 

430 

945 

1,425 

1,413 

3.125 

1,575 

1.265 

1,620 

1,935 

1.905 

805 

1,375 

1,455 

2,860 
2,320 

30 


1  Fruits  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  inedible  materials,  as  skin,  seeds,  etc.,  which  are 
properly  classed  as  refuse.  In  some  fruits,  as  oranges  and  prunes,  the  amoimt  rejected  in 
eating  is  practically  the  same  as  refuse.  In  others,  as  apples  and  pears,  more  or  less  of  the 
edible  material  is  ordinarily  rejected  with  the  skin  and  seeds  and  other  inedible  portions. 
The  edible  material  which  is  thus  thrown  away,  and  should  properly  be  classed  with  the  waste, 
is  here  classed  with  the  refuse.  The  figures  tor  refuse  here  given  represent,  as  noarly  as  can 
be  ascertained,  the  quantities  ordinarily  rejected. 

2  Milk  and  shell. 

3  The  average  of  five  analyses  of  cereal  coffee  grain  is:  Water  6.2,  protein  13.3,  fat  3.4, 
carbohydrates  72.6,  and  ash  4.5  per  cent.  Only  a  portion  of  the  nutrients,  however,  enter  into 
the  infusion  The  average  in  the  table  represents  the  available  nutrients  in  the  beverage  In- 
fusions of  genuine  coffee  and  of  tea  like  the  above  contain  practically  no  nutrients. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


367 


DIETARY  STANDARDS. 


Dietary  studies  have  been  made  in 
considerable  numbers  in  different  coun- 
tries. The  results  of  such  studies  and 
experiments  to  determine  the  amount 


of  food  required  by  men  engaged  in 
different  occupations  have  resulted  in 
the  adoption  of  dietary  standards. 
Some  of  these  follow : 


STANDARDS   FOB  DAILY   DIETARIES. 


Character  of  Work  to  be  Performed. 


European: 

Man  at  moderate  work 

Man  at  hard  work 

American: 

Man  without  muscular  work 

Man  with  light  muscular  work 

Man  with  moderate  muscular  work 

Man  with  hard  muscular  work.  .  . .  , 


Nutrients. 

Fuel. 
Value. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Pound. 
0.26 
.32 

.20 

Pound. 
0.12 
.22 

Pounds. 
I.IO 
.99 

Calories. 
3,055 
3,370 

3,000 

.22 

3,000 

.28 

3,500 

.39 

4,500 

The  table  of  composition  of  food  ma- 
terials shows  the  amount  of  water, 
protein,  fat,  carbohydrates  and  ash 
content  and  the  total  fuel  value  per 
pound  for  each  kind  of  food  named. 
The  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  all 
furnish  energy.  In  addition  to  fur- 
nishing energy,  protein  forms  tissue. 
Since  protein  and  energy  are  the  essen- 
tial features  of  food,  dietary  stand- 
ards may  be  expressed  in  their  simplest 
form  in  terms  of  protein  and  energy 
alone. 

Observation  has  shown  that  as  a  rule 
a  woman  requires  less  food  than  a 
man,  and  the  amount  required  by  chil- 
dren is  still  less,  varying  with  the 
age.  It  is  customary  to  assign  cer- 
tain factors  which  shall  represent  the 
amount  of  nutrients  required  by  chil- 
dren of  different  ages  and  by  women 
as  compared  with  adult  man.  The  va- 
rious factors  which  have  been  adopted 
are  as  follows : 

FACTORS  USED  IN  CALCULATING  MEALS 
CONSUMED    IN    DIETARY    STUDIES. 

One  meal  of  woman  equivalent  to  0.8 
meal  of  man  at  moderate  muscular  la- 
bor. 

One  meal  of  boy  14  to  16  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.8  meal 
of  man.  • 

One  meal  of  girl  14  to  16  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.7  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  10  to  13  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.6  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  6  to  9  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.5  meal 
of  man. 


One  meal  of  child  2  to  5  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.4  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  under  2  years  of 
age  equivalent  to  0.3  meal  of  man. 

These  factors  are  based  in  part  upon 
experimental  data  and  in  part  upon 
arbitrary  assumptions.  They  are  sub- 
ject to  revision  when  experimental  evi- 
dence shall  warrant  more  definite  con- 
clusions. 

The  plan  followed  in  making  dietary 
studies  is,  briefly,  as  follows :  Exact 
account  is  taken  of  all  the  food  ma- 
terials (1)  at  the  beginning  of  the 
study,  (2)  purchased  during  its  prog- 
ress, and  (3)  remaining  at  the  end. 
The  difference  between  the  third  and 
the  sum  of  the  first  and  second  is  taken 
as  representing  the  amount  used.  From 
the  figures  thus  obtained  for  the  total 
quantities  of  the  different  food  ma- 
terials the  amounts  of  the  different  nu- 
trients and  the  energy  furnished  by 
them  are  calculated.  Deducting  from 
these  values  the  nutrients  and  energy 
found  in  the  kitchen  and  table  refuse, 
the  amounts  actually  consumed  are  ob- 
tained. Account  is  also  taken  of  the 
meals  eaten  by  different  members  of 
the  family  or  groups  studied  and  by 
visitors,  if  there  are  any.  Prom  the 
total  food  eaten  by  all  the  persons  dur- 
ing the  entire  period  the  amount  eaten 
per  man  per  day  may  be  calculated. 
In  making  these  calculations  due  ac- 
count is  taken  of  the  fact  that,  as  stat- 
ed above,  women  and  children  eat  less 
than  men  performing  the  same  amount 
of  work. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


369 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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CopjrlKlit. 
COHPAKiaON 


r  25cal.30X5Gin 

■'    IS     ■•   SOXii  ■■ 

Tti»  inrlud«i  all  the  l>p 

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le  whole  Isnath  ol  wire  used. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 


MISCELLAIfEOUS    INFORMATION. 


ITEys. 

Total. 

Private  Hta- 

tiOM. 

Municipal 
nations. 

3.aao 

Si 

ill 

iJi.'wr.ssa 

jjo.'ose 
Spilsitooo 

<3Z.915.0a2 

27,632 
t4l6.B94 

602 

2.805 
t77.34B,748 

Si 

tl,3S5J£l 
878,736.800 

'iS 

(12,118,740 
»3S,lv_»!,r,57 

.J|i 

»20,403,«41 

25,739 
1390,569 

(6,836,856 

Eipenees,  total 

(6,066.105 

Analysis  ol  inionia; 

AMre«ate 

Arc  lighting,  total 

Sar""'""'"."—:,;:::: 

"Sfi 

Commercial  or  otber  private 

Public 

^4911322 

^^K-::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::: 

1.S03 
(2S,42S 

^'"SF^;:;;:::;:;;;:;:::;::::::::: 

13,288                7.S43 
*36S,028           1326.407 

8,83B.1«5         a,399.fi71 

.4:Si 

Incandewent  lamp  fittings,  eockels,  etc..  cost. . 

*  177.236 

t?:oli:3ll 

I154,S17 
428,979 

.11 

(617:911 
•1.747.896 
(2.007.193 

(030.612 

o,.£t^..^„.-;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;; 

il60Ji98 

tl,lG2,eiS 
i7I2:797 
*1 ,853.544 

ii:i2o;363 

Frei^l  p<ud.  not  included  in  otW  itemH.        .  . 

(180.851 

see 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REP23RENCE    BOOK. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT   AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 


Analysis  of  supplies,  materials,  and  fuel — Contin'd . 

Fuel,  cost 

Coal- 
Tons 

Cost 

Crude  petroleum,  cost 

Natural  gas,  cost 

Manufactured  gas,  cost 

All  other  fuel,  cost 

Average  number  of  employees,  total  salaried,  wages: 
Salaried  officials  and  clerks — 

Average  number,  total 

Salaries,  total 

General  officers — 

Average  number 

Salaries 

Other  officers,  managers,  superintend- 
ents, etc. — 

Average  number 

Salaries 

Clerks- 
Average  number 

Salaries 

Wage-earners — 

Average  number,  total 

Wages,  total 

Foremen — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Inspectors — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Engineers — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Firemen — 

Average  number 

Wages. 

Dynamo  and  switchboard  men — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Linemen — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Mechanics — 

Average  number 

Wa^es 

Lamp  trimmers — 

Average  number 

Wages 

All  other  employees — 

Average  number 

Wages 

Analysis  of  miscellaneous  expenses: 

Total 

Rent  of  stations,  supports,  conduits,  etc  .  . 

Rent  of  offices 

Taxes 

Injuries  and  damages 

Insurance 

Ordinary  repairs  of  buildings  and  mach'y . . 

All  other 

Electric  line  construction: 
Aggregate  miles — 

Mains 

Feeders 

Lighting  and  stationary  motor  service, 
miles — 

Mains,  total 

Feeders,  total 


Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

$11,635,509 

$10,189,685 

$1,445,824 

4,817,597 

$9,943,125 

$721,838 

$254,269 

$28,654 

$687,623 

4.249,137 

$8,749,394 

$700,136 

$220,460 

$20,135 

$499,560 

568,460 

$1,193,731 

$21,702 

$33,809 

$8,519 

$188,063 

6,996 
$5,663,580 

6,046 
$5,206,199 

950 
$457,381 

1,587 
$1,501,522 

1,416 
$1,465,471 

171 
$36,051 

2,393 
$2,445,227 

1,875 
$2,088,298 

518 
$356,929 

3.016 
$1,716,831 

2,755 
$1,652,430 

261 
$64,401 

23,330 
$14,983,112 

20,863 
$13,560,771 

2,467 
$1,422,341 

1,000 
1953,738 

943 
$910,972 

57 
$42,766 

571 
$415,904 

546 
$397,983 

25 
$17,921 

4,587 
$3,259,870 

3,743 
$2,721,127 

844 
$538,743 

3,456 
$1,963,465 

2,951 
$1,717,149 

505 
$246,316 

1,978 
$1,351,676 

1,872 
$1,286,065 

106 
$65,611 

4,217 
$2,710,841 

3,868 
$2,510,269 

349 
$200,572 

1,057 
$796,355 

1,009 
$768,694 

48 
$27,661 

2,637 
$1,654,462 

2;318 

$1,460,046 

319 

$194,416 

3.827 
$1,876,801 

3,613 
$1,788,466 

214 
$88,335 

$11,895,206 

$1,011,691 

$275,007 

$2,665,005 

$248,304 

$893,567 

$2,701,747 

$4,099,885 

$11,456,037 

$1,001,604 

$270,446 

$2,654,885 

$246,545 

$827,926 

$2,480,217 

$3,974,514 

$439,169 

$10,187 

$4,561 

$10,120 

$1,759 

$65,641 

$221,530 

$125,371 

107,263.63 
17,880.51 

93,352.95 
16,452.28 

13,910.68 
1,428.23 

107,184.13 
17,760.26 

93,273.45 
16,332.03 

13,910.68 
1,428.23 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


381 


ND    POWER 

STATIONS, 

[)2 — CoTitinued 

m 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

5,847.71 
2,276.55 

5,408.55 
2,262.02 

439.16 
14.63 

101,304.26 
15,472.34 

87,833.63 
14,061.60 

13,470.63 
1,410.84 

32.16 
11.37 

31.27 
8.51 

0.89 
2.86 

79.50 

79.50 
120.25 

4.870 
1,232,923 

120.25 

5,930 
1,379,941 

1,060 
147,018 

5,451 
849,336 

4,407 
716,418 

1,044 
133,918 

278 
193,570 

266 
184,670 

12 
8,900 

201 
337,035 

197 
332,835 

4 
4,200 

1,390 
438,472 

1,308 
427,254 

82 
11,218 

1,187 
173,903 

1.107 
164,325 

80 
9,578 

90 
57,816 

89 
57,176 

1 
640 

113 
206,753 

112 
205,753 

1 
1,000 

165 
12,181 

147 
11,224 

18 
967 

365 
14,454 

329 
13,619 

36 
836 

12,484 
1,624,980 

10.662 
1,472,996 

1,822 
161,984 

3,823 
442,446 

3,405 
418,913 

418 
23,633 

3,539 
195,531 

2,967 
167,768 

682 
37,763 

5,122 
987,003 

4,300 
896,315 

822 
90,688 

193 
17,911 

184 
17,736 

9 
176 

132 
63,817 

131 
63,683 

1 
134 

6,881 
16,355 

5,981 
16.335 

900 
20 

652,950 

561,467 

1,483 

8,388 

8,388 
25,284 

25,284 

ITEMS. 


Electric  line  construction — Continued : 

Underground — 

Mains 

Feeders 

Overhead — 

Mains 

Feeders 

Submarine  — 

Mains 

Feeders 

Electric  railway  car  service  owned  by 
lighting  companies,  miles-— 

Mains 

Feeders 

Power  and  generating  equipment : 

Steam  engines— -Number,  total 

Horsepower,  total 

600  horsepower  and  under — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Over  600  and  under  1,000  horsepower 

Number 

Horsepower 

1,000  horsepower  and  over — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Water  wheels — 

Number,  total 

Horsepower,  total 

600  horsepower  and  under — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Over  600  and  under  1,000  horsepower 

Number 

Horsepower 

1,000  horsepower  and  over — 

Number 

Horsepower. 

Gas  engines — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Auxiliary  steam  engines — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Dynamos — 

Number,  total 

Horsepower,  total 

Direct  current,  constant  voltage — 

Number : 

Horsepower 

Direct  current,  constant  amperage — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Alternating  and  polyphase  current — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Boosters — 

Number 

Horsej)ower 

notaries — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Storage  battery  cells  in  main  plants — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Substation  plants: 

Horsepower,  total    

Storage  battery  cells — 

Number ; 

Horsepower 


382 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 


Substation  plants — Contintied : 
Transformers — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Rotary  converters — 

Number 

Horsepower  . 

Miscellaneous — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Transformers  on  circuits  for  consumers: 

Niunber. 

Horsepower 

Meters  on  consumers'  circuits,  total 

Mechanical 

Chemical 

Output  of  stations: 
Kilowatt  hours — 

Total  for  year 

Average  per  day 

Horsepower  hours  of  current — 

Total  for  year 

Average  per  day 

Analysis  of  service : 

Arc  lighting — number  of  lamps  in  service — 

Aggregate 

Commercial  or  other  private,  total . 

Open 

Inclosed 

Direct  current 

Open 

Inclosed 

Alternating  current 

Open 

Inclosed. 

All  other 

Open 

Inclosed 

Public,  total 

Open 

Inclosed 

Direct  current 

Open 

Inclosed 

Alternating  current 

Open 

Inclosed.  

All  other 

Open 

Inclosed 

Incandescent  lighting — lamps  in  service — 

Aggregate 

Commercial  or  other  private,  total. 

16-candlepower 

32-candlepower 

All  other  candlepower 

Public,  total 

16-candlepower 

32-candlepower 

All  other  candlepower 

Motors  in  service — 
Stationary — 

Number 

Horsepower 

Railway  car,  number  of  cars  served. .  . . 
Character  of  ownership: 
When  installed — 

Individual 

Corporation 

Municipal 


2,525 
420,667 

163 
85,556 

140 
21,443 

207,151 
922,774 
582.689 
575,004 
7,685 


2,507,051,115 
6,960,783 

3,341,943,090 
9,294,456 


385,698 

173,973 

42,988 

130,985 

104,176 

38,120 

66,056 

67,538 

3.733 

63,805 

2,259 

1,135 

1,124 

211,725 

138,684 

73,041 

154,749 

125,298 

29,451 

48,063 

4,630 

43,433 

8,913 

8,756 

157 

18,194,044 

17,738,384 

15,261,067 

514,679 

1,962,638 

455,660 

296,776 

59,988 

98,896 


101,064 

624,686 

2,379 


1,041 

1,921 

658 


Private  sta- 
tions. 


2,490 
419,368 

162 
85,546 

135 


Municipal 
stations. 


35 
1,299 

1 
10 


179,081 

28,070 

822.668 

100,106 

526,011 

56,678 

518,428 

56,576 

7,583 

102 

2,311,146.676 

195,904.439 

6,413,012 

547,771 

3,083,212,074 

258,731.016 

8,566,231 

728,226 

334,903 

50,795 

168,180 

5,793 

41,622 

1,366 

126,558 

4,427 

101,849 

2,327 

36,856 

^^ 

64,993 

1,063 

64.085 

3,453 

3,631 

102 

60,454 

3,351 

2,246 

13 

1,135 
1,111 

13 

166.723 

45,002 

108,082 

30,602 

58,641 

14,400 

119,520 

35,229 

96,659 

28,639 

22,861 

6,590 

38,316 

9,747 

2,681 

I'^iS 

35,635 

7.72§ 

8,887 

26 

8,742 

14 

145 

12 

16,616,593 

1,577,461 

16,243,853 

1,494,631 

13,890,281 

1.370,786 

484,246 

30,433 

1,869,326 

93,312 

372,740 

82,920 

235,842 

60,934 

47,063 

12,925 

89,835 

9,061 

99,102 

1»^? 

619,283 

6.403 

2,370 

9 

964 

77 

1,828 

93 

13 

645 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


383 


CENTRAL   ELECTRIC  LIGHT   AND    POWER   STATIONS. 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— ConHnu4xl. 


ITEMS. 


Character  of  ownership — CovUirmed : 
In  1902— 

Individual 

Corporation 

Municipal 

Character  of  service: 
Arc  lighting — 

Commercial  or  other  private. .  . 

Public. 

Incandescent  lighting — 

Commercisu  or  other  private. . . 

Public 

Motor  power — 

Stationary 

Electric  railway 

All  other 

Stocks  and  bonds  issued,  total  par  value 
Capital  stock: 

Authorized,  total 

Issued,  total 

Dividends,  total 

Common — 

Authorized 

Issued 

Dividends 

Preferred — 

Authorized 

Issued 

Dividends 

Bonds: 

Authorized 

Outstanding 

Interest 

Cost  of  construction  and  equipment : 

To  date. 

During  the  year 


COMPARATIVE    VELOCITIES, 

PER  SECOND. 

Snail  (0.0394  inch),  1  millimeter. 
Pedestrian  (39.37  inches)  1  meter  =  1.09  ya. 
Horse,  walking,   1.2  meters  =  1.31  yards. 
Pedestrian,  gmck  walk,  2  meters  — 2.19  ya. 
Horse,  trotting,  3.5  meters  =  3.82  yards. 
Mild  wind,  4  meters  =  4.37  yards. 
Horse,  galloping,   4.5  meters  =  4.91  yards. 
Steamer,  ordinary,   5  meters  =  5.47  yards. 
Sail-boat,  8  meters    =8.75  yards. 
Ocean  steamer,   10  meters  =  10.93  yards. 
Skater,  12  meters  =  13.08  yards. 
Freight  train,  12  meters  =  13.08  yards. 
Gale,  17  meters  =  18.63  yards. 
Passenger  train,    18  meters  =  19.62  yards. 
Carrier  pigeon,  18  meters  =  19.62  yards. 
Bicycle,  racing,  20  meters  =  21.87  yards. 
Race  horse,  25  meters  =  27.05  yards. 
Express  train,  26  meters  =  28.14  yards. 
Swallow,  45  meters -49.05  yards. 
Sound,  330  meters  =  360.70  yards. 
Rifle-ball    (breech-loader),    430    meters  = 

468.70  yards. 
Cannon  ball,  450  meters  =  490.50  yards. 
Axial  revolution  of  the  earth  at  equator, 

450  meters  =  490.50  yards. 
Revolutions  of  the  earth  aroimd  the  sun, 

30  kilometers  =  18.64  miles. 
Light,  300,000  kilometers  =  186,400  miles. 
Electricity,  400,000  kilometers  =  248,500  mi. 


Total. 


756 

2,049 

815 


2.020 
2,522 

3,484 
2,491 

1.093 
159 
161 
$639,125,363 

$435,178,372 

$372,951,952 

$6,189,837 

$407,807,934 

$349,080,281 

$5,560,341 

$27,370,438 

$23,871,671 

$629,496 

$320,743,376 

$266,173,411 

$12,623,M5 

$504,740,352 
$41,792,447 


Private  sta- 
tions. 


756 
2,049 


1.667 
1,810 

2,752 
1,889 

975 

157 

152 

$627,515,875 

$435,178,372 

$372,951,952 

$6,189,837 

$407,807,934 

$349,080,281 

$5,560,341 

$27,370,438 

$23,871,671 

$629,496 

$308,117,894 

$254,563,923 

$12,118,740 

$482,719,879 
$40,050,613 


Municipal 
stations. 


815 


353 
712 

732 
602 

118 

2 

9 

$11,600,488 


$12,625,482 

$11,609,488 

$504,805 

$22,020,473 
$1,741,834 


-Centua  Reports, 


TABLE  OF  ELEVATIONS  OF  OBJECTS 

ABOVE  SEA  LEVEL,  WITH  THEIR 

CORRESPONDING    DISTANCES 

OF     VISIBILITY. 


Height, 
in  Feet. 


5 
10 
15 
20 
25 


Distance, 
in  Nauti- 
cal Miles. 


2.555 
3.614 
4.426 
5.111 
5.714 


Height, 
in  Feet. 


50 

100 

250 

500 

1,000 


Distance, 
in  Nauti- 
cal Miles. 


8.081 
11.428 
18.070 
25.555 
36.140 


Distances  corresponding  to  heights  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above_table  may  be  found  by 

the  formula  D  =  fv'//,  in  which  //  =  the  ele- 
vation, or  height,  in  feet,  of  the  object  above 
sea-level,  and  D  =  the  corresponding  distance 
of  visibility,  in  nautical  miles.  The  formula 
is  based  on  the  mean  curvature  of  the  earth 
and  is  corrected  for  ordinary  atmospheric 
refraction. 

The  distance  of  visibility  of  a  light  niay  be 
augmented  by  abnormal  atmospheric  re- 
fraction, which  usually  increases  with  the 
height  of  the  barometer  «ind  ft  fftUing  tem- 
perature. 


384 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


HOW  TO  READ  A  GAS  METER. 


The  dial  marked  "1  thousand*'  in 
the  accompanying  illustration  is  divi- 
ded into  hundreds ;  the  dial  marked 
"10  thousand"  is  divided  into  thou- 
sands; that  marked  **100  thousand" 
into  ten-thousands,  and  that  marked 
"1  million"  into  hundred-thousands. 
When  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  been 
consumed,  the  pointer  on  the  dial 
marked  "1  thousand"  will  have  made 
a  complete  rotation  and  the  fact  will 
be  indicated  by  the  pointer  of  the  next 
dial  at  the  left,  which  will  point  to  the 
figure  1.  When  10,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas  have  been  consumed,  the  point- 
er on  the  "10  thousand"  dial  will 
point  to  1,  and  so  on.  In  reading  a 
gas  meter,  put  down  the  hundreds  first, 
then  the  thousands,  and  so  on,  always 
counting    the    figure    just    under,    or 


which  has  just  been  passed  by,  the 
pointer.  In  the  illustration  about  half 
a  hundred  is  indicated  on  the  '*1 
thousand"  dial,  three  thousands  is 
indicated  on  the  next  dial,  two  ten- 
thousands  on  the  next  dial,  and  one 
one-hundred-thousands  on  the  "1  mil- 
lion" dial.  The  reading  will  be  123,- 
050.  The  dial  marked  "ten  feet"  is 
called  the  units  dial.  It  is  used  for 
testing  the  meter  to  discover  whether  it 
is  in  working  order  or  not.  Each  mark 
represents  a  cubic  foot  and  the  com- 
plete circle  10  cubic  feet.  If  the 
pointer  moves  when  no  gas  is  burning, 
it  indicates  a  leak.  If  it  does  not 
move  when  the  gas  is  burning,  or  if  its 
motion  is  unsteady,  it  indicates  a  de- 
rangement in  the  mechanism  and  shows 
that  the  meter  requires  attention. 


CUBIC 


FEET 


y^^^^k^      ^o^>^^^^^^^^-^-^^i^^c      sj^^^^^ 


GAS   METER   INDICATOR  DIALS. 

PAPER  CURRENCY  OF  EACH  DENOMINATION  OUTSTANDING  MAY  31,  1904. 

[Prepared  by  Treasurer's  Office.] 


Denomination. 

United 
States 
Notes. 

Treasury 

Notes  of 

1890. 

National- 
bank 
Notes. 

Gold  Cer- 
tificates. 

Silver  Cer- 
tificates. 

Total. 

One  dollar 

Dollars 

1,923,494 

1,472,334 

.  12,278,660 

243,517,011 

36,775,242 

5,906,875 

11,200,900 

9,748,500 

24,838,000 

10,000 

10,000 

Dollars. 

636,992 

486,068 

3,189,330 

5,679,520 

2,488,590 

47,500 

510,000 

Dollars. 

345,145 

165,282 

62,602,840 

188,067,250 

140,632,200 

17,427,600 

36,591,500 

95,500 

24,000 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

79,851,727 

45,045,050 

281,708,442 

39,648,331 

18,658,620 

5,095,810 

1,493,020 

50.000 

111,000 

Dollars. 
82,757.358 

Two  dollars 

47.168.734 

Five  dollars 

359.779.272 

Ten  dollars 

476,912,112 
370,941,816 

63,205.690 
100,940,720 

24,130,000 

Twenty  dollars 

Fifty  dollars 

One  hundred  dollars 
Five  hundred  dollars 

172,387,164 
34,727,905 
51,145,300 
14,236,000 
56,908,500 
49,590,000 

110,980,000 

One  thousand  dollars 
Fivethousand  dollars 

435,000 

82,316,500 
49,600,000 

Ten  thousand  dollars 

110,990,000 

Fractional  parts .... 

37,248 

37,248 

489,974,869 

Total 

347,681,016 
1,000,000 

13,473,000 

445,988,565 

471,662,000 

1,768.779,450 

Unknown,  destroyed 

1,000,000 

Net....' 

346,681,016 

13,473,000 

445,988,565 

489,974,869 

471,662,000 

1,767,779,450 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AMOUNTS  OF   GOLD  AND   SILVER  COIN   AND  CERTIFICATES.  UNITED  STATES 
NOTES,  AND  NATIONAL  BANK  NOTES  IN  CIRCULATION  AND  IN  THE 
TREASURY  MAY  1  AND  JUNE  I,  1904.  1 


asBBilication. 

General  Stock 
"uniWd'Sut'esr 

Held  iti  Tr«H- 
"'(SuoVt.." 

Money  in 
Circulation. 

Gold  coin  (ineludjng  bullion  in  Tmaaury). . . . 

DollSR. 

1.313.120.868 

2I7,5B2,M1 

641,894^48 

5S9. 422.1 10 

22,«59.£S7 

72.605.727 

'MS 

348,681,018 

12,035.831 
O.STBlflSfi 

337.SD1.3S0 

lis  ,988. 565 

14,267,581 

Total 

2,785.300.789 

278.020,872 

2,509.279.917 

elude  deiKwiu  of  public  money  in 
of  the  United  States,  uiil  amounti 
'  For  redemption  of  oulstflndini 
priate  kinds  of  monw  i£  h  '  '  ' 
held  M  usets  of  the  Coven 


1o  1 106.849. 757. 45. 
"the  TreMury,  i 


aries  (o  the  credit  of  the  Treuun 


PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CUsBification. 

HHy  31.  11KM. 

"lil:!? 

SU-.,i 

iuhin  ih. 

ce«i&".Lv4^T;.'st'^irbr*^:5' 

1.288,589.149,04 
975.109,869.00 
2.283.699,018,61 

™„.»1. 

GOLD    BARS,    VALUE    »100    TO    K.OOO    EACH. 


&i 


I. 
Ji 

§  If! 


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t 

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I 

hi 
111 


1 


P  1         I 

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s  -       - 


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1  i  ili  1  i  1 1 


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11 

ill 

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.    -S.5 


So;  SSS  SS3SSSS2SS3  SoSSSSo«  Sm2So£ 


II  ll 


M 


iilijiil 


ll  11  liiiiip  iiliili  iip? 


1^ 


is 


ii! 

1 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE;    BOOK 


WORLD'S    PRODUCTION  OF    GOLD    AND    SI 
YEAR  1902. 
Fine  oi.  of  gold,  »20.e71SU  +  :&>«(>■.  silver,  (1.20292 


LVER   FOR   THE   CALENDAR 

ite  in  U.  S.  silTer  dollan 


Country 

Gold. 

"fcT  1   "u.. 

SUver. 

?fS.T 

•^ss 

"^Tsr'- 

"fa?^::;;;:: 

8,870.090 

1,<»3!3S5 
1387.773 
S,916,374 

"1 

S3 

»ao,ooo,ooo 
20;?*  1)200 

ISffl 

li 

lisoo 

55.600.000 
50,176,801 
4,303.774 

171.767,600 
filSMisOO 

•MS 

8,029.037 
158.670 

r,s 

964,339 

3,700,189 

3,773 

1.090.188 

480,560 

is 

•iZS 

1,776,604 
7,736 

10.377,100 

..S:S 

7.399,000 

ill 

4^900 

1,409,500 

621,300 

11.200 

g;S! 

48,800 

Hi 

Eigopo.:^ 

gr™lry""T'^::-;;-: 

997,000 

'•*^ 

30,900 

ilaoo 

S,62B 

.if 

9|07S 

as 

87.491 
1B,S77 
117.077 

"IS 

9a.S12 

ill 
11 

B7;200 
2,52  ,000 

'« 

1.808,000 
82  ,000 

2.001.»00 

lis 

Sou^AmOTo.: 

i;887' 

4,204,5^ 
971,320 
390.567 

5,613.700 
1,2S5;800 
605.000 

te.:-.:-:::::::::::- 

207,000 

'A^^^^^tm-- 

118,302 

152,900 

02.700 

Total 

I4,3L3,6A0 

295.889,000 

166.055.639 

215.861.800 

88.486,500 

SCIENTIFIC  ame:rican  reference  book. 


t 

. 

S 

a        t 

£       » 

Ofl 
22 

1        ! 

1 

i 
'i 

III 

!   1 

Park  Row  BuildiDs.  New  York. 
American  SuretyBlds.,  H.  Y.. 
•"   "-"luildiog,  New  York. . . 

1  Life  Bids.,  N,  Y, , . . 

BowliiiB  ai«en  Bide.,  N.  Y. . . . 
"-■=' —  -""--i^)  ^dg.,  N.  Y.,  . 

JO  BlS.,  N.  V 

WaU  St.  Exehuae  BOk-,  N. 
42BniBdii  ^^  "  " 
Whitehall 


E  PRlNaPAL 
Diam.  Height. 


Capitol  W'ashingtonVD.C.'.' 
St.  8opbi«,  ConsUnlinople. , 
Baths  of  Caracalla,  (Anrient 


St.  Paul's,  London 

TUNNEia  OF  THE  fl 

i 

New  York  Subiray  (1904)-     i 


Paris  Undergtoun 


Mount  C«ni9.S«it»r1e 
B.  A  O.  Tunnel,  Baltin 
Arlberg,  Austria 

Hooeae  Tunnel,  Mas  ' 
Berlin,  UndereTound. 
Liverpool-Birken  head 


?i  Monnj; 


STRIKING    THE    IMPRESSION    ON   A    GOLD    PIECE    AT    THE    MINT. 


390                  SCIENTIFIC 

AMERICAN    REFERENCE 

BOOK. 

HEIGHT  OF  COLUMNS,  SPIRES  A 
TOWERS. 

ND 
F«t. 
1,000 

518 

1 
1 
1 

THE  WEIGHT  OF  BELLS 

Pound. 

lon.D.C 

Amuiipoors,  Bunniib 

iiS 
1 

4C 
40 

3fl 

1 

22 

&??^;p,^: 

HoiusB  of  Farlismeat 

Notre  Dams.  Paris. . 

■^■,; 

London. 

Ti,Hii™. 

cit^^'.N.y.'.::: 

-g. .  ,  . . 

600 

LENGTH  OP 
Name. 
Firth  of  Tay,  Sootlsnd. 


FEW  CELEBRATED  BRIDGES. 

Leii|[th  ft.  Type.  Spannii 


tM,000    IN     GOLD    BARS    AT    THE    U.    S.    MINT    IN    PHILADELPHIA. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


391 


BALLOONS. 


In  aerostation,  a  bag  or  hollow  pear- 
shaped  vessel,  made  of  varnished  silk 
or  other  light  material,  and  inflated 
with  some  gas  or  vapor  lighter  than 
the  air,  as  hydrogen,  carbureted  hy- 
drogen, heated  air,  etc.,  so  as  to  rise 
and  float  in  the  atmosphere.  When 
filled  with  gas  it  is  called  by  way  of 
distinction  an  air-balloon  {adrostaty 
etc.,  Fr. ;  lufthall,  luft-schiff,  etc., 
Ger.)  ;  when  with  heated  air  a  fire- 
balloon  or  Montgolfieb  b.  {balloon 
d  feu,  etc.,  Fr. ) . 

In  the  early  days  of  aerostation,  and 
indeed  for  some  years  afterwards,  bal- 
loons were  inflated  with  hydrogen  gas, 
obtained  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water  on  iron  filings  or  small 
fragments  of  iron ;  but  this  method  of 
filling  them  ultimately  gave  place  to 
the  cheaper  arid  more  convenient  sup- 
ply afforded  by  the  gas-light  compa- 
nies. Of  late  years,  the  coal-gas  fur- 
nished by  the  gas-works  has  been  gen- 
erally, if  not  solely,  used  for  the  infla- 
tion of  balloons. 

The  principles  of  ballooning  may  be 
referred  to  the  well-known  difference 
in  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  and  to 
the  physical  properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Pure  hydrogen,  weighed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  is  about  16  times 
lighter  than  common  air ;  but  when 
prepared  on  the  large  scale,  and  con- 
taining water  and  other  impurities,  it 
is  only  from  7  to  11  times  lighter  than 
the  atmosphere.  A  globe  of  atmos- 
pheric air  1  foot  in  diameter,  under 
like  circumstances,  weighs  1-25  lb. ;  a 
similar  globe  of  hydrogen  (reckoning 
it  only  as  6  times  lighter  than  common 
air),  will,  therefore,  have  an  ascen- 
sional force  of  1-30  lb.  Now  the 
weight  of  the  body  of  air  which  a  bal- 
loon displaces  must  exceed  the  gross 
weight  of  the  balloon  and  all  its  ap- 
pendages, in  order  for  the  latter  to 
ascend  in  the  atmosphere.  The  dif- 
ference of  the  two  weights  expresses 
the  ascensional  force.  The  aerostatic 
power  of  balloons  is  proportional  to 
their  dimensions,  in  the  ratio  of  the 
cubes  of  their  diameters.  Thus,  it  ap- 
pears that  a  balloon  of  60  feet  diame- 
ter filled  with  common  hydrogen  will 
ascend  with  a  weight  of  nearly  7,000 
lbs.,  besides  the  gas  case;  whilst  one 
of  only  IV2  feet  in  diameter  will 
barely  float,  owing  to  the  less  propor- 
tionate volume  of  gas  to  the  weight  of 
the  case  containing  it.  In  round  num- 
bers the  buoyancy  of  a  balloon  may  be 


reckoned  as  equal  to  1  oz.  for  every 
cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  it  contains,  less 
the  weight  of  the  case  and  appen- 
dages. The  carbureted  hydrogen  sup- 
plied by  the  gas-works  is  much  heavier 
than  hydrogen  gas,  and  consequently 
much  less  buoyant,  for  which  due  al- 
lowance must  be  made.  That  which 
possesses  the  least  illuminating  power 
is  the  lightest,  and  consequently  the 
best  adapted  for  aerostation. 

The  fabric  of  which  the  cases  of 
air-balloons  are  made  is  strong  thin 
silk,  covered  with  an  elastic  varnish 
of  drying  oil  or  india-rubber,  or,  what 
is  better,  a  solution  of  india-rubber  in 
either  chloroform  or  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon :  the  netting  is  of  strong  light  silk 
or  flaxen  cord ;  and  the  car,  of  basket- 
work.  Fire-balloons,  on  the  small 
scale,  are  generally  made  of  silver- 
paper,  and  are  inflated  with  the  fumes 
of  burning  alcohol  by  means  of 
a  sponge  dipped  in  that  liquid,  and 
suspended  just  within  the  mouth  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  following  table  will  prove  use- 
ful to  the  amateur  aeronaut  or  bal- 
loonist : 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE     RELATIONS 
BETWEEN    THE    DIAMETERS. 
SURFACES.  AND  CAPACI- 
TIES OF  SPHERES. 


Diameters. 

Surfaces. 

Cubical  content 

1 

3.141 

.523 

2 

12.567 

4.188 

3 

28.274 

14.137- 

4 

50.265 

33.51 

5 

78.64 

65.45 

10 

314.159 

523.6 

15 

706.9 

1767.1 

20 

1256.6 

4189 

25 

1963.5 

8181 

30 

2827 

14137 

40 

5026 

33510 

Owing  to  the  increasing  rarity  of 
the  atmosphere  as  we  ascend  from  the 
earth's  surface,  balloon  cases  are  made 
very  much  larger  than  is  required  to 
contain  the  necessary  quantity  of  gas, 
to  allow  for  its  expansion  as  it  rises 
into  a  rarer  medium.  A  cubical  foot  of 
gas  measured  at  the  level  of  the  sea, 
occupies  a  space  of  two  feet  at  an  ele- 
vation of  Hy*  miles. — Cooley*s  Cyclo- 
pedia. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   BBFBRBNCE    BOOK. 


AERIAL    NAVIGATION. 


No  motive  power  machine  auffi- 
cieatly  light  and  powerful  to  lift  itself 
from  the  groaod  aad  maiDtaiD  itself  in 
the  air  lor  any  considerable  time  has 
yet  been  iDvented.  Aerial  navigation 
is  therefore  at  present  limited  to  tbe 
use  of  bBlloODs  filled  with  light  gas  or 
hot  air.  Common  coa]  gas  is  found  to 
be  the  cheapest  and  most  generally 
available  gaa  for  ballooning.  1,000  ■ 
cubic  feet  of  coal  gaa  will  lift  35 
pounds  weight.  But  bydrogen  is  tbe 
best  gas  for  the  purpose.  1.000  cubic 
feet  of  hydrogen  gas  will  lift  from  GO 
to  70  pounds.  It  ia  the  lightest  of  all 
substani'es.  It  is  Rfteen  timea  lighter 
than   air,    and   over   eleven    thousand 


times  lighter  than  water.  One  of  the 
cheapest  ways  to  make  hydrogen  for 
bpUoona  ia  to  dissolve  linc  in  sulphuric 
acid :  the  latter  ia  composed  of  sul- 
phur and  hydrogen.  When  the  acid 
is  poured  on  zinc,  the  sulphur  unites 
with  the  metal  and  sets  free  tbe  hy- 
drogen, which  bubbles  up,  and  is  con- 
ducted in  a  pipe  to  the  balloon.  Vari- 
ous efforts  to  propel  and  steer  balloons 
have  been  made,  by  means  of  pro- 
pellers turned  by  hand :  also  by  the 
use  of  tbe  electrical  storage  battery. 
Balloons  are  generally  made  of  cotton 
cloth  or  silk,  varnished  with  linseed 
oil,  and  dissolved  rubber  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  oil. 


HfiW    TO    HARNESS    A    HORSE. 


Every  one  should  know  hon  to  bar 
ness  a  horse,  and  our  se<ond  engia\ing 
shon'B  tbe  harness  placed  on  a  horse 
with  the  buckles  unfastened  and  an 
English  collar.  The  hrst  engiaving 
shows  the  harness  fastened  to  the  shaft 
and  a  Dutch  collar  jn  place  of  tbe  Fng 
lish  collar.  If  a  Dutch  collar  is  used 
slip   this  over  the   horse  s   head    then 


nut  on 
t-uglisl 


of  the  harness  If  an 
s  nied  reverse  the  col 
.  that  the  wide  part  mil  be  up 
peimost  and  fone  it  oiei  the  borses 
head  (.lipping  it  oter  the  ears  then  at 
the  narrow  part  of  tbe  horses  neck 
turn  the  collar  around  so  that  the  nar 
ion  part  will  be  uppermost  and  slip 
It    back   on   to   the   horses   sbonldera 


SCIBNTIPIC   AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


If  th?  hames  are  too  tight  to  allow  the 
collar  to  slip  over  the  ears.  UDfasten 
the  hames,  and  after  the  collar  is  oa, 
buckle  them  once  more  in  front.  Neit, 
put  on  the  saddle  and  breeching,  slip- 
ping the  crupper  over  the  horaea 
tail  by  doubliag  the  hair  of  the  tail 
with  the  right  hand  and  alipping  the 
crupper  over  the  bunch  thus  formed, 
drawing  out  the  hair  completely 
through  the  crupper.  Fasten  the  in- 
ner belly  band,  first  passing  it  througli 
the  loop  of  (he  collar  strap  No.  15  or 
the  martingale,  and  then  pushing  the 
saddle  forward  as  far  as  the  crupper 
will  allow  it  to  go. 

The  time  has  now  arrived  to  bridle 
the  horse.  The  halter  being  removed, 
the  horse's  head  is  taken  by  the  fore- 
lock  with   three   fingers   or   the   right 


band,  leaving  the  forefinger  and  thnmb 
free,  and  holding  the  bridle  in  the  left 
hand.  Pass  tbe  head  piece  of  the 
bridle  to  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of 
the  right  hand  and  slip  tbe  bit  into  the 
horse's  mouth  with  tbe  left  hand, 
which  is  then  raised  to  assist  tbe  right 
hand  in  pulling  the  bead  piece  back 
over  the  horse's  ears.  Should  there  be 
aa;  difficulty  in  making  the  horse  open 
his  mouth,  the  bit  should  be  held  to  his 
teeth  while  dangling  from  tbe  right 
hand,  and  then  with  the  thumb  and 
second  finger  of  the  left  hand  press 
the  gums  of  the  horse's  mouth  at  the 
junction  of  the  lips  gently  against  the 
teeth.  This  will  quickly  force  any 
borse  to  open  his  mouth.  When  tbe 
bit  is  in  place,  the  throat  strap  is 
buckled.     If  a  curb  bit   is   used,   the 


lerbellybuid:  30,  out< 


894 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


turb  chain  must  be  twisted  until  it 
becomes  flat,  and  then  hooked,  pass- 
ing under  the  jaw  of  the  horse  to  the 
eurb  chain  hook  in  the  opposite  side 


of  the  bit.  The  reins  are  now  buckled 
in  the  slots  at  the  curb  next  below  the 
bit  ring.  Lift  up  the  shafts  above  the 
horse's  back,  then  draw  up  the  car- 
riage, slipping  the  ends  of  the  shafts 
through  the  shaft  tugs  on  the  sides  of 


the  saddle.  The  traces  are  then  run 
through  the  loop  at  the  side  of  the 
shafts  and  secured  to  the  trace  hooks 
on  each  side  of  the  whiflSetree.  After 
the  traces  are  taut,  fasten  the  breech- 
ing or  hold-back  straps. 


PASSPORTS. 


Passports  are  granted  and  issued  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  and  by  diplo- 
matic representatives  of  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  or  by 
United    States    Consuls.     The    fee   is 


$1,  and  the  necessary  blank  and  full 
information  as  to  the  procedure  re- 
quired will  be  sent  on  request.  Ad- 
dress the  Secretary  of  State,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  FACTORIES. 


The  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  of  the  State  of 
New  York  for  1899  gives  some  inter- 


esting figures.  In  April,  May,  June, 
1899,  the  figures  (New  York  State) 
are  as. follows: 


ACCIDENTS  IN  APRIL,  MAY,  JUNE.  1899. 


INDUSTRIES. 


Stone  and  clay  products 

Metals,  machinery,  apparatus 

Wood.. 

I-«ather,  rubber,  pearl,  etc . . . 

Chemicals,  oils,  explosives . . . 

Pulp,  paper,  etc 

Printing 

Textiles 

Clothing,  millinery,  launder- 
ing  

Food,  tobacco,  liquors 

Distribution  of  water,  gas, 
electricity 

Building  industry 

Total 


Firms  Reporting. 

Establish- 

Employ- 

ments. 

ees  Jun.30 

277 

19,764 

1,321 

123,467 

536 

31,482 

343 

31.169 

163 

13,164 

105 

8,201 

576 

38.293 

327 

59,709 

514 

65,220 

474 

45,600 

26 

7,043 

269 

9,313 

4,931 

452,425 

Establish- 
ments in 
which  ac- 
cid'ts  oc- 
curred. 


39 
260 
84 
20 
32 
27 
58 
53 

16 
66 

11 
25 


691 


Injuries. 


Employ- 
ees injured 
in  this 
period. 


75 
817 
145 

25 
145 

87 

88 
135 

22 
178 

69 
61 


1,847 


Propor- 
tionate 
number  in 
one  year. 


300 
3,268 
580 
100 
580 
348 
352 
540 

88 
712 

276 
244 


Per  ann'm 

in  each 

1,000 

employed. 


15.18 

26.47 

18.42 

3.21 

44.06 

42.43 

9.19 

9.04 

1.35 
15.61 

37.28 
26.20 


7,388 


16.33 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


395 


CAUSE  OR  AGENT  OF  ACCIDENTS   IN 
NEW  YORK. 
Machinery. 

Engines,  power  transmiKsion,  belt^,  etc . .  46 

Lifting  apparatus 50 

Circular  saws 102 

Presses  and  stamping  machines 135 

Other  machines  and  machine  tools 319 

Total— Machinery 652 

Hand  tools  (saws,  axes,  etc.) 110 

Explosives  of  all  kinds 26 

Hot  liquids,  steam,  acids,  etc 115 

Fall  of  objects,  collapse  oi  structures,  etc.  374 

Fall  of  the  person 197 

Loading,  unloading,  etc.,  by  hand '54 

Vehicles  and  animals 71 

All  other 193 

Grand  Total 1,792 

Cause  not  reported 55 

PERIOD  OF  DISABILITY. 

Not  over  one  week : 

Less  than  one  day 45 

One  day 85 

From  2  to  7  days 492 

622 

From  one  week  to  one  month: 

Over  1  to  2  weeks 292 

Over  2  to  3  weeks 169 

Over  3  to  4  weeks 95 

656 

Over  1  month  to  2  months 128- 

Over  2  months  (but  less  than  "3 

months) 42 

Total 1,348 

Total  days  lost 19,980 

Average  days  lost  per  capita  .  .  15 

Still  disabled  at  time  of  report 

(June  30) 27 

No  time  lost  (i.e.  less  than  one 

hour) 161 

Time  lost  not  reported 282 

Fatal  accidents 29 

Total 1,847 


NATURE  OF  INJURIES. 

Fatal 29 

Non-fatal : 

Internal 29 

Loss  of  eye 8 

Head  and  face,  except  the  eye 191 

Loss  of  limb 3 

Arms  and  hands 336 

Fingers 638 

Legs  and  feet 381 

Other  parts  of  the  body  or  several 

parts  at  once 197 

Not  reported 35 

Total 1,847 


FATAL  ACCIDENTS  IN  VARIOUS 

OCCUPATIONS. 

Period.  Rate 

per  1,000 

Raih-oad  brakemen. . .  .  1900-02  15.8 

Gloucester  fishermen. . .  1892-00  13.2 

Gunpowder  manufacture  . . .  .-00  10.5 
Railroad  switchmen  and 

flagmen 1900-02  7.2 

Railroad  firemen 1900-02  7 . 2 

Railroad  engineers 1900-02  6.8 

Dynamite  manufacturers  ....  -00  6 . 7 
Railroad  conductors  . . .  1900-02  6.1 
Anthracite  coal  miners  1892-01  5 . 6 
Bituminous  mine  labor- 
ers   1892-01  4.7 

Anthracite  mine  labor- 
ers   1892-01  4.6 

Lead  and  zinc  miners  of 

Missouri 1892-01  3.3 

Metal  miners  of  Colorado  1896-01  3 . 2 
Copper  miners  of  Mon- 
tana.   1891-00  2.8 

Anthracite  fire-bosses.   .  1892-01  2.5 

Paid  firemen  in  cities. . .  1885-00  2.5 

Bituminous  coal  miners.  1892-01  2.2 

It  is  shown  by  this  table  that  railroad  brake- 
men  have  the  highest  fatal  accident  figure, 
being  respectively  15.8  per  1,000. — Engineer^ 
ing  and  Mining  Journal. 


ANNUAL  FIRE  LOSSES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  FOURTEEN  YEARS— 

1890-1903— CHRONICLE  FIRE  TABLES. 


Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Years. 

Property 

Insurance 

Years: 

Property 

Insurance 

Loss. 

Loss. 

Loss. 

Loss. 

1890 

S108,993,792 

$65,015,465 

1897 

$116,354,575 

$66,722,145 

1891 

143,764,967 

90,576,918 

1898 

130.593,905 

73,796,080 

1892 

151,516,098 

93,511,936 

1899 

153,597,830 

92,683,715 

1893 

167,544,370 

105,994,577 

1900 

160,929  805 

95,403,650 

1894 

140,006,484 

89,574,699 

1901 

165,817,810 

100,798,645 

1895 

142,110,233 

84,689,030 

1902 

161,078,040 

94,460,525 

1896 

118,737,420 

73,903,800 

1903 

145,302,155 

Total  property  loss  in  the  United  States  in  14  years 

Total  insurance  loss  in  the  United  States  in  14  years 

Total  property  loss,  United  States  and  Canada,  Jan.  1,  1904,  to  Sept.  1,  1904 


$3,371,912,031 

1,988,644,949 

194,172,850 


396 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


WHAT  TO  DO  IN  CASE  OF  FIRE. 


BY    CHIEF   EDWARD   F.    CBOKEB   OF 

In  case  of  fire  immediately  send 
alarm  from  the  nearest  alarm  box ; 
wait  at  alarm  box  until  the  arrival 
of  the  firemen  so  as  to  notify  them  as 
to  the  location  of  the  fire.  Occupants 
of  premises  should  endeavor  to  ex- 
tinguish fire,  if  possible,  previous  to 
the  arrival  of  the  firemen,  but  do  not 
delay  an  instant  in  sending  in  alarm. 
Keep  cellars  and  closets  under  stair- 
ways entirely  free  from  rubbish.     Al- 


THE   NEW   YORK   FIRE   DEPARTMENT. 

ways  endeavor  to  keep  perfectly  cool 
until  the  arrival  of  the  Department; 
do  not  jump,  as  the  firemen  will  save 
you,  and  are  very  prompt  in  reaching 
the  scene  of  a  fire  once  the  alarm  is 
turned  in.  Keep  small  chemical  fire 
extinguishers  on  each  floor  in  all  build- 
ings. In  case  of  fire,  endeavor  to  keep 
all  doors  shut,  thereby  avoiding 
draughts  and  preventing  the  rapid  ex- 
tending of  fire. 


THE  COST  OF  LIVING. 


July  1. 

Bread- 
Btufifs. 

Meats. 

Dairy 

and 

Garden. 

Other 
Food. 

Clothing. 

Metals. 

Miflcella- 
neous. 

TotaL 

1860 

20.530 
15.749 
18.057 
26.154 
45.616 
25.404 
31.471 
36.537 
38.416 
29.116 
25.322 
24.809 
22.171 
20.460 
25.657 
24.848 
18.777 
21.812 
15.672 
17.054 
17.461 
20.369 
25.494 
19.018 
17.871 
16.370 
15.311 
15.156 
16.984 
14.351 
14.867 
19.782 
17.426 
14.963 
15.115 
14.765 
10.504 
10.587 
12.783 
13.483 
14.898 
14.904 
20.534 
17.473 
18.244 

8.973 

7.485 

7.150 

10.115 

15.685 

16.112 

17.153 

14.278 

13.210 

13.181 

14.161 

12.177 

11.055 

10.114 

11.560 

13,287 

10.726 

10.036 

8.181 

8.239 

9.230 

11.381 

13.740 

11.210 

11.172 

9.205 

8.906 

8.667 

9.416 

8.244 

8.036 

9.217 

8.700 

10.135 

9.389 

8.622 

7.058 

7.529 

7.694 

7.988 

8.906 

9.430 

11.628 

9.269 

9.033 

12.662 
10.813 
13.406 
13.530 
26.053 
18.049 
23.472 
18.418 
23.614 
18.121 
16.112 
20.799 
16.019 
15.629 
19.142 
14.918 
15.912 
11.790 
10.608 
10.253 
12.594 
11.311 
14.685 
12.250 
11 .  369 
10.872 
10.241 
11.188 
11.849 
9.695 
10.711 
12.455 
10.403 
11.710 
10.394 
9.874 
7.872 
8.714 
9.437 
10.974 
10.901 
11.030 
12.557 
13.083 
10.648 

8.894 

7.653 

10.987 

16.359 

27.303 

21.057 

20.821 

20.167 

19.720 

16.347 

13.308 

13.823 

14.845 

13.625 

13.678 

14.418 

12.914 

13.321 

11.346 

9.884 

11.539 

11 .  663 

11.627 

10.726 

9.323 

8.712 

8.570 

9.252 

9.917 

10.912 

9.749 

9.339 

8.733 

9.188 

8.478 

8.689 

8.529 

7.887 

8.826 

9.157 

9.482 

9.086 

8.748 

9.186 

10.406 

22.439 
21.147 
28.413 
45.679 
73.485 
49.307 
45.377 
38.169 
35.694 
35.309 
31.480 
30.624 
32.427 
29.411 
27.260 
25.318 
21.747 
21.850 
19.836 
20.420 
21.984 
20.982 
21.202 
20.209 
19.014 
17.740 
18.063 
18.174 
17.447 
17.107 
17.264 
16.501 
15.648 
15.871 
13.860 
15.315 
13.602 
13.808 
14.663 
15.021 
16.324 
15.098 
15.533 
17.136 
16.514 

25.851 
22.600 
23.207 
37.079 
69.192 
38.956 
41.762 
35.426 
27.385 
28.355 
26.612 
27.371 
32.643 
32.298 
25.254 
23.515 
20.452 
15.578 
15.789 
15.149 
18.708 
19.295 
19.832 
18.071 
16.272 
14.132 
14.466 
16.035 
15.366 
14.782 
15.506 
15.107 
14.827 
14.030 
12.015 
11.021 
13.232 
11.642 
11.843 
15.635 
14.834 
15.344 
16.084 
16.544 
15.428 

15.842 
16.673 
17.290 
24.264 
31 . 653 
25.551 
27.922 
25.529 
24.786 
24.201 
21.786 
21.907 
21.319 
21.652 
19.582 
18.398 
15.951 
15.160 
14.836 
16.286 
17.139 
16.900 
16.660 
15.764 
14.686 
13.666 
13.669 
15.153 
14.155 
14.600 
15.416 
13.691 
14.252 
14.716 
14.041 
13.233 
13.520 
12.288 
12.522 
12.969 
16.070 
16.617 
16,826 
16.766 
16.919 

116.191 

1861 

101.920 

1862 

118.510 

1863 

173.180 

1864 

278.987 

1865 

194.436 

1866 

207.978 

1867 

188.524 

1868 

182.825 

1869 

164.630 

1870 

148.781 

1871 

151.610 

1872 

160.479 

1873 

143.089 

1874 

143.133 

1875 

134.702 

1876 

116.479 

1877 

109.647 

1878 

96.268 

1879 

97.285 

1880 

1881 

1882, 

1883 

108.655 
111.901 
123.230 
107.248 

1884 

99.706 

1885 

1886 

90.697 
89.226 

1887 

93.624 

1888 

95.134 

1889 

89.691 

1890.... 

1891 

1892 

91.549 
96.092 
90.105 

1893 

90.613 

1894 

83.292 

1895 

81.519 

1896 

74.317 

1897 

72.455 

1898 

77.768 

1899 

85.227 

1900 

91.415 

1901 

91.509 

1902 

101.910 

1903 

99.466 

1904 

97.192 

Note. — Breadstuffs  include  many  quotations  of  wheat,  com,  oats,  rye,  and  barley,  be- 
sides beans  and  peas;  meats  include  live  hogs,  beef,  sheep,  and  many  provisions,  lard,  tfulow, 
etc.;  dairy  and  garden  products  include  eggs,  vegetables  and  fruits;  other  foods  include  fish, 
liquors,  condiments,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  etc.;  clothing,  includes  the  raw  material  of  each 
industry,  and  many  quotations  of  woolen,  cotton  and  other  textile  goods,  as  well  as  hides, 
leather,  boots  and  shoes ;  metals  include  various  quotations  of  pig  iron,  and  partially  manu- 
factured and  finished  products,  as  well  as  minor  metals,  coal,  and  petroleum.  The  mis- 
cellaneous class  embraces  many  grades  of  hard  and  soft  lumber,  lath,  brick,  lime,  glass,  turpen* 
Vme,  hemp,  linseed-oil,  paints,  fertilizers,  and  drugs. — Dun'a  Review. 


8C1BNTIPIC   AMERICAN  RBPBREINCB    BOOK. 


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398 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Key  of  A. 


Key  of  F.       Key  of  B  Flat. 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Roman  Catholics 216,000,000 

Trotestants    137,000,000 

Greek,     Armenian      and 

Abyssinian  Ctiurches. .      95,000,000 


Total  of  Christians 


448,000,000 


Buddhists   and   Brahmins  672,000,000 

Mohammedans 200,000,000 

Jews 7,000,000 

Other  creeds 125,000,000 

Total  non-Christians     1,004,000,000 


THE    CHRISTIAN    ADVOCATE'S    TABLE    OF    DENOMINATIONS. 


Denominations. 


Summary  for  1903. 


Adventists  (6  bodies) 

Baptists  (13  bodies) 

Brethren  (River)  (3  bodies) 

Brethren  (Plymouth)  (4  bodies).  .  ,  , 

Catholics  (8  bodies) 

Catholic  Apostolic 

Chinese  Temples 

Chris  tadelphians 

Christian  Connection 

Christian  Catholics  (Dowie) 

Christian  Missionary  Association. .  . . 

Christian  Scientists 

Church  of  God  (Winebrennarian).  . . 

Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem 

Communistic  Societies  (6  bodies).  .  . 

Conip-egationalists 

Disciples  of  Christ 

Dunkards  (4  bodies) 

Evangelical  (2  bodies) 

Friends  (4  bodies) 

Friends  of  the  Temple 

German  Evangelical  Protestant.  .  .  . 

German  Evangelical  Synod 

Jews  (2  bodies) 

Latter-Day  Saints  (2  bodies). 

Lutherans  (22  bodies) 

Swedish  Evangelical  Miss.  Covenant, 

Mennonites  (12  bodies) 

Methodists  (17  bodies) 

Moravians 

Presbyterians  (12  bodies) 

Protestant  Episcopal  (2  bodies).  .  .  . 

Reformed  (3  bodies) 

Salvation  Army 

Schwenkfeldians 

Social  Brethren 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture 

Sniritualists 

Theosonhical  Societv 

United  Brethren  (2  bodies) 

Unitarians 

Univeraalists 

Independent  Congregations 

Grand  total  in  1903 

Grand  total  in  1902 


Ministers. 

Churches. 

Communi- 
canta. 

1,556 

2,377 

89.476 

35,829 

51,492 

4,726,775 

151 

108 

3.605 

314 

6.661 

i3.'422 

11,185 

9,891,869 

95 

10 

1.491 

47 

~ 

63 

1,277 

i,"348 

1,340 

101,697 

104 

110 

40,000 

10 

13 

764 

1,118 

550 

60.283 

460 

580 

38.000 

143 

144 

7.969 

22 

3.084 

6,"2i3 

5,891 

669.704 

6,667 

11,157 

1.236.798 

3,231 

1,171 

116.194 

1,415 

2,642 

162.998 

1.354 

1,093 

116.656 

4 

4 

340 

100 

155 

20,000 

945 

1,213 

209.791 

301 

570 

143.000 

1,525 

1,324 

342.072 

7,343 

12,275 

1,715,910 

291 

307 

33,400 

1,138 

673 

59,892 

39,634 

57,572 

6.192,494 

127 

115 

16,096 

12,393 

15,452 

1,661,522 

5,150 

6,867 

782.543 

1,919 

2,491 

390,678 

2,361 

696 

26,009 

3 

4 

306 

17 

20 

913 

4 

1,500 

334 

46,030 

1 

70 

1,900 

2.368 

4,861 

280,114 

540 

452   1 

71,000 

734 

786   ■ 

53,638 

54 

156 

14,126 

149,963 

196,719 

29,323,168 

147,732   1 

194,072 

28,840,099 

PABT  II. 


CHAPTEB    I. 


GBOMETBICAIi    CONSTBUCTIONS. 


GEOMETRICAL    FIGURES. 


1.  Acute  Angle. — An  acute  angle  is  less 
than  a  right  angle,  or  less  than  90  degrees. 

2.  AiyrERNATB  Angles. — The  internal  an- 
gles made  by  two  lines  with  a  third,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  it.  If  the  two  lines  are  parallel, 
the  alternate  angles  are  equal.  If  the  par- 
allels AB,  CD,  be  cut  by  the  line  EF,  the 
angles  AUH,  OHD,  as  also  the  angles  BGH 
and  OHC,  are  called  alternate  angles. 

3.  Arc. — Any  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  or  other  curve ;  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

4.  5, 6,  and  7.  Conic  Sections. — Formed  by 
the  intersections  of  cones  and  planes.  The 
conic  sections  are  the  ellipse,,  parabola,  and 
hyperbola.  If  the  section  be  tslken  i>arallel  to 
the  base  of  the  cone  its  outline  will  form  a 
perfect  circle.  If  the  section  be  taken  parallel 
to  one  side  of  the  cone  it  will  in  outline  have 
the  form  of  a  parabola  (6).  If  the  section  be 
taken  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  its  outline 
will  have  the  form  of  a  hyperbola  (7).  Any 
other  section  through  the  cone  will  in  outline 
have  the  form  of  an  ellipse  (5). 

8.  Chord. — A  right  line  marking  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

9.  Circle. — 1.  In  geometry,  a  plane  figure, 
comprehended  by  a  single  curve  line,  called  its 
circumference,  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
dbtant  from  a  point  called  the  center.  Of 
course  all  lines  drawn  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference,  or  periphery,  are  equal  to  each 
other.  2.  In  popular  use,  the  line  that  com- 
prehends the  figure,  the  plane  or  surface  com- 
prehended, and  the  whole  body  or  solid  matter 
of  a  round  substance,  are  denominated  a  cir- 
cle; a  ring:  an  orb;   the  earth. 

10.  Curve. — A  curve  line  is  one  which  may 
be  cut  by  a  right  line  in  more  points  than  one. 
A  curve  line  is  that  which  is  neither  a  straight 
line  nor  composed  of  straight  lines. 

11.  Cube. — _A  regular,  solid  body  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

12.  Cylinder. — A  solid  body  supposed  to 
be  generated  by  the  rotation  of  a  parallelo- 
gram round  one  of  its  sides ;  or  a  long,  circular 
body,  of  uniform  diameter,  and  its  extremi- 
ties forming  equal  parallel  circles. 

13.  Diagonal. — The  line  extending  from 
one  angle  to  another  of  a  quadrilateral  or 
multilateral  figure,  and  dividing  it  into  two 
parts. 

14.  Diagram. — A  figure,  draught,  or 
scheme  delineated  for  the  purpose  of  demon- 
strating the  properties  of  any  figure,  as  a 
square,  triangle,  circle,  etc. 

1 5.  Diameter. — A  right  line  passing  through 
the  center  of  a  circle,  or  other  curvilinear  fig- 


ure, terminated  by  the  curve,  and  dividing 
the  figure  symmetrically  into  two  equal  parts. 

16.  Ellipse. — In  conic  sections,  a  figure 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  and  cone 
when  the  plane  passes  obliquely  through  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  cone. 

17.  Equilateral  Triangle. — A  triangle 
having  all  three  sides  equal. 

18.  Hexagon. — A  plane  figure  of  six  sides 
and  six  angles.  If  the  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  it  is  a  regular  hexagon.  The  cells  of 
honey-comb  are  hexagons,  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  bees  instinctively  form  their  cells  of 
this  figure,  which  fills  any  given  space  without 
any  interstice  or  loss  of  room. 

19.  Htpothenuse. — ^The  subtense  or  longest 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  or  the  line  that 
subtends  the  right  angle. 

20.  Rectangular  Triangle. — If  one  of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  a  right  angle,  the 
triangle  is  rectangular. 

21.  Right  Angle. — A  right  angle  is  one 
formed  by  a  right  line  falling  on  another  per- 
pendicularly, or  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  mak- 
ing the  quarter  of  a  circle. 

22.  Isosceles  Triangle. — If  two  of  the 
sides  only  are  equal  in  a  triangle  it  is  an  isos- 
celes or  equicrural  triangle. 

23.  Oblique  Line. — An  oblique  line  is  one 
that,  falling  on  another,  makes  oblique  angles 
with  it. 

24.  Obtuse  Angle. — An  angle  greater  than 
a  right  angle,  or  containing  more  than  90 
degrees. 

25.  Scalene  Triangle. — One  in  which  all 
the  three  sides  are  unequal. 

26.  Secant. — The  secant  of  a  circle  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  circumference  on  one  side  to  a 
point  without  the  circumference  on  the  other. 

27.  Oval. — A  body  or  figure  in  the  shape  of 
an  egg,  or  of  an  ellipse. 

28.  Parallelogram.- — 1.  In  geometry,  a 
right-lined  quadrilateral  figure,  whose  oppo- 
site sides  are  parallel,  and  consequently  equal. 
2.  In  common  use,  this  word  is  applied  to 
quadrilateral  figures  of  more  length  than 
breadth. 

29.  Sector. — A  part  of  a  circle  compre- 
hended between  two  radii  and  the  included 
arc ;  or  a  mixed  triangle,  formed  by  two  radii 
and  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

30.  Parallelopiped. — A  regular  solid  com- 
prehended under  six  parallelograms,  the  op- 
posite ones  of  which  are  similar,  parallel,  and 
equal  to  each  other;  or  it  is  a  prism  whose 
base  is  a  parallelogram.  It  is  always  triple  to 
a  pyramid  of  the  same  base  and  height.     Or  a 


399 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


parallelopiped  is  a  solid  figure  bo\inded  by  six 
faces,  parallel  to  each  other,  two  and  two. 

31.  Parallel  Lines. — One  line  is  parallel 
to  another,  when  the  lines  are  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance apart  throughout  the  whole  length. 

32.  Segment  of  a  Circle. — Tliat  part  of 
the  circle  contained  between  a  chord  and  anf 
arc  of  that  circle,  or  so  much  of  the  circle  as 
is  cut  off  by  the  chord.  The  segment  of  a 
sphere  is  a  part  cut  off  by  a  plane. 

33.  Pentagon. — A  plane  figure  having  five 
angles,  and  consequently  five  sides. 

34.  Perpendicular. — In  geometry,  a  line 
falling  at  right  angles  on  another  line,  or  mak- 
ing equal  angles  with  it  on  each  side.  Thus 
if  the  straight  line  AD,  falling  on  the  straight 
line  BC,  make  the  angles  BAD,  DAC  equal  to 
one  another,  AD  is  called  a  perpendicular  to 
BC. 

35.  Quadrangle. — A  plane  figure  having 
four  angles,  and  consequently  four  sides. 

36.  Rectangle. — A  four-sided  figure  hav- 
ing only  right  angles.  A  right-angled  paral- 
lelogram. 

37.  Quadrant. — The  quarter  of  a  circle  or 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 

38.  Quadrilateral. — Having  four  sides, 
and  consequently  four  angles. 

39.  Tangent. — In  the  figure,  let  AH  be  a 
straight  line  drawn  touching  the  circle  ADE 
at  A,  one  extremity  of  the  arc  AB,  and  meet- 
ing the  diameter  iB  produced,  which  passes 
through  the  other  extremity  B  to  the  point  H ; 
then  AH  is  the  tangent  of  the  arc  AB,  or  of 
the  angle  ACB,  of  which  AB  is  the  measure. 

40.  Radius. — A  right  line  drawn  or  extend- 
ing from  the  center  of  a  circle  to  the  periphery ; 
the  semidiameter  of  the  circle.  In  trigonom- 
etry, the  radius  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  90  de- 
grees. 

41.  Trapezittm. — A  plane  figure  contained 
under  four  right  lines,  of  which  no  two  are 
parallel. 

42.  Trapezoid. — A  plane,  four-sided  figure, 
having  two  of  the  opposite  sides  parallel  to 
each  other. 

43.  Reflection. — In  the  figure,  let  AB 
represent  a  smooth  polished  surface,  or  mirror, 
and  suppose  a  ray  of  light  proceeding  in  the 
direction  LP  to  impinge  on  the  surface  at  P, 
and  to  be  reflected  from  it  in  the  direction  PR. 


Frpm  P  draw  PQ  perpendicular  to  AB^  then 
the  angle  LPQ  is  called  the  angle  of  incidence, 
and  QPR  the  angle  of  reflection. 

44.  Superficies.  A  superficies  consists  of 
length  and  breadth;  as,  the  superficies  of  a 
plate  or  of  a  sphere.  Superficies  is  recti- 
linear, curvilinear,  plane,  convex,  or  concave. 

45.  Rhomboid. — A  figure  having  some  re- 
semblance to  a  rhomb;  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  opposite  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  but  which  is  neither  equilateral  nor 
equiangular. 

46.  Semicircle. — The  half  of  a  circle;  the 
part  of  a  circle  comprehended  between  its 
diameter  and  half  of  its  circumference. 

47.  Square. — ^A  rectilinear  figure  having 
four  equal  sides  and  four  right  angles. 

48.  Rectilinear  Triangle. — One  in  which 
the  three  lines  or  sides  are  all  right  lines,  as 
distinguished  from  curvilinear  triangle. 

49.  Rhomb.  Rhombus. — An  oblique-angled, 
equilateral  parallelogram,  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  sides  are  equal  and  the  opposite 
sides  parallel,  but  the  angles  unequal,  two  of 
the  angles  being  obtuse  and  two  acute. 

50.  Sine.— In  the  circle  ACH,  let  AOH  be 
a  diameter,  and  let  CE  be  perpendicular  there- 
to; then  shall  CE  be  the  sine  of  the  arc  CH, 
or  of  the  angle  COH,  and  of  its  supplement 
CO  A.  The  sine  of  a  quadrant,  or  of  a  right 
angle,  is  equal  to  the  radius.  The  sine  of  any 
arc  is  half  the  chord  of  twice  that  arc. 

51.  Acute-angled  Triangle. — One  hav- 
i  ng  all  three  of  its  angles  acute. 

52.  An  Equilateral  Triangle. — One  hav- 
ing all  the  three  sides  equal. 

53.  Polygon. — A  plane  figure  of  many  an- 
gles, and  consequently  of  many  sides;  par- 
ticularly, one  whose  perimeter  consists  of 
more  than  four  sides. 

54.  ObTUS ANGULAR    TrI ANGLE.  —  If    One    of 

the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  obtuse,  the  triangle 
is  called  obtusangular  or  amblygonous. 

55.  Curvilinear  and  Spherical  Trian- 
gles.— If  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle  are  all 
curves,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  curvilinear. 
If  the  sides  are  all  arcs  of  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  spherical. 

56.  MixTiLiNEAR  Triangle. — If  some  of 
the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  right  and  others 
curve,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  mixtilinear. 


GEOMETRICAL  CONSTRUCTIONS.* 


1. 

To  divide  a  given  line  A  B  into  two  equal 
parts;  and  to  erect  a  perpendicular  through 
the  middle. 

With  the  end  A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the 
dotted  circle  arcs  with  a  radius  greater  than 
half  the  line.  Through  the  crossings  of  the 
arcs  draw  the  perpendicular  C  D.which  divides 
tho  line  into  two  equal  parts. 


From  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  A  B,  erect 
a  perpendicular  C  D. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle 
arcs  at  A  and  B  equal  distances  from  C.  With 
A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs 
at  D.  From  the  crossing  D  draw  the  required 
perpendicular  D  C. 


From  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from  the 
line  A  B,  draw  a  perpendicular  to  the  line. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arc 
so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at  A  and  B.  With  A 
and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  cross  arcs  at 
D  with  equal  radii.  Draw  the  required  per- 
pendicular through  C  and  crossing  D. 


At  the  end  of  A  to  a  given  line  A  B,  erect  a 
perpendicular  A  C. 

With  the  point  D  as  a  center  at  a  distance 
from  the  line,  and  with  A  D  aa  radius,  draw 
the  dotted  circle  arc  so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at 
E  through  E  and  D,  draw  the  diameter  E  C: 
then  join  C  and  A,  which  will  be  the  required 
perpendicular. 


*  Copjrright,  1895,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.    Published  by  special  permission  of,  and  arrange- 
ment with  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


403 


5. 

Throush  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from 
the  line  A  B,  draw  a  line  C  D  parallel  to  A  J5. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  E  D. 
with  ^  as  a  center,  draw  throuf>ch  C  the  dotted 
arc  F.  C.  With  the  radius  F  C  and  ^  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arc  at  D.  Join  C  with 
the  cross  at  D,  which  will  be  the  required 
parallel  line. 

On  a  given  line  A  B  and  at  the  point  B,  con- 
struct an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  CDS. 

With  Z>  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  C 
E;  and  with  the  same  radius  and  ^  as  a  ce.  ter, 
draw  the  arc  O  F;  then  make  O  F  equal  to  C 
E;  then  join  B  F,  which  will  form  the  required 
angle,  F  B  O^C  D  E. 

7. 

Divide  the  angle  AC  B  into  two  equal  parts. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  D 
E;  with  D  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  at  F  with  equal  radii.  Join  C  F,  which 
divides  the  angle  into  the  required  parts. 

Angles    A  C  F^F  C  B^HA  C  B). 

8. 

Divide  an  angle  into  two  equal  parts,  when 
the  lines  do  not  extend  to  a  meeting  point. 

Draw  the  lines  C  D  and  C  E  parallel,  and  at 
equal  distances  from  the  lines  A  B  and  F  O. 
With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  B  G; 
and  with  B  and  G  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  H.  Join  C  H,  which  divides  the  angle 
into  the  required  equal  parts. 

To  construct  a  parallelogram,  with  the 
given  sides  A  and  B  and  angle  C. 

Draw  the  base  line  D  E,  and  make  the  angle 
F  D  E'^'C;  lines  D  E^B  and  D  F^A;  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  by  cross  arcs  at  G,  and 
the  problem  is  thus  solved. 

10. 

To  divide  the  line  A  Bin  the  same  propor- 
tion of  parts  as  A  C.         . 

Join  C  and  B,  and  through  the  given  divi- 
sions 1,  2,  and  3  draw  lines  parallel  with  C  B, 
which  solves  the  problem. 

11.     • 

To  find  the  center  of  a  circle  which  will  pass 
through  three  given  points  A,  B,  and  C. 

With  B  as  a  center,  draw  the  arc  D  E  F  G; 
and  with  the  same  radius  and  A  as  a  center, 
draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  F'  also  with  C  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arcs  E  and  G.  Join  D 
and  F,  and  also  E  and  G,  and  the  crossing  o  is 
the  required  center  of  the  circle. 

12. 

To  construct  a  square  upon  a  given  line 
A  B. 

With  A  £  as  radius  and  A  and  B  as  centers, 
draw  the  circle  arcsA  E  D  and  B  E  C.  Divide 
the  arc  B  E  in  two  equal  parts  at  F,  and  with 
E  F  aA  radius,  and  E  as  center,  draw  the  circle 
C  F  D.  Join  A  and  C  B  and  D,  C  and  D, 
which  completes  the  required  square. 

13. 

Through  a  given  point  A  in  a  circumference, 
draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 


Through  a  given  point  A  and  center  C, 
draw  the  line  B  C.  With  A  as  a  center,  draw 
the  circle  arcs  B  and  C;  with  B  and  C  as  cen- 
ters, draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  E;  then  join  D 
and  E,  which  is  the  required  tangent. 

14. 

From  a  given  point  A  outside  of  a  circum- 
ference, draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 

Join  A  and  C,  and  upon  A  C  as  a  diameter 
draw  the  half  circle  ABC,  which  cuts  the  given 
circle  at  B.  Join  A  and  B,  which  is  the  re- 
quired tangent. 

15. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  the  circle  A  B  C  aX  C. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  diam- 
eter A  C  extended  beyond  D-  from  C  set  off 
the  given  radius  R  to  D;  then  D  is  the  center  of 
the  required  circle,  which  tangents  the  given 
circle  at  C. 

16. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  two  given  circles. 

Join  the  centers  A  and  B  of  the  given  circles 
Add  the  given  radius  R  to  each  of  the  radii  of 
the  given  circle,  and  draw  the  cross  arcs  C, 
whicli  is  the  center  of  the  circle  required  to 
tangent  the  other  two. 

17. 

To  draw  a  tangent  to  two  circles  of  different 
diameters. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D;  draw  the  radii  A  C 
and  a  c  parallel  with  one  another.  Join  A  a, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D.  On  C  D  as  a  diam- 
eter, draw  the  half  circle  C  e  Z>;  on  c  Z>  as  a 
diameter,  draw  the  half  circle  c  /  D;  then  the 
crossings  e  and  /  are  the  tangenting  points  of 
the  circles. 

18. 

To  draw  a  tangent  between  two  circles. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles ; 
draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs,  and  join  the  cross- 
ing m,  n,  which  line  cuts  the  center  line  at  a. 
With  a  C  as  a  diameter,  draw  the  half  circle 
a  f  C;  and  with  a  c  as  a  diameter,  draw  the 
half  circle  c  e  a;  then  the  crossings  e  and  /  are 
the  tangenting  points  of  the  circles. 

19. 

With  a  given  radius  r,  draw  a  circle  that  will 
tangent  the  given  line  A  B  and  the  given  circle 
CD. 

Add  the  given  radius  r  to  the  radius  R  of  the 
circle,  and  draw  the  arc  c  d.  Draw  the  line  c  e 
parallel  with  and  at  a  distance  r  from  the  line 
A  B.  Then  the  crossing  c  is  the  center  of  the 
required  circle  that  will  tangent  the  given  line 
and  circle. 

20. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  circle  A  jB  at  C,  and  the 
line  D  E. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  tangent 
G  F;  bisect  the  angle  F  G  E;  then  o  is  the 
center  of  the  required  circle  that  will  tangent 
A  B  at  C,  and  the  line  D  E. 


21. 


To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 


404 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  At  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

Through  the  point  C,  draw  the  line  E  F  at 
right  angles  to  A  B;  set  off  from  C  the  radius  r 
of  the  given  circle.  Join  O  and  F.  V/ith  G 
and  F  as  centers  draw  the  arc  crosses  m  and  n. 
Join  m  n,  and  where  it  crosses  the  line  E  F  \a 
the  center  for  the  required  circles. 

22. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  bX  C^  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

From  C,  erect  the  perp>endicular  C  G;  set 
off  the  given  radius  r  from  C  to  H.  Vfith  H 
as  a  center  and  r  as  radius,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  on  the  circle.  Through  the  cross  arcs 
draw  the  line  /  G;  then  G  is  the  center  of  the 
circle  arc  F  I  C,  which  tangents  the  line  at  C 
and  the  circle  at  F. 

23. 

Between  two  given  lines,  draw  two  circles 
that  will  tangent  themselves  and  the  lines. 

Draw  the  center  line  A  B  between  the  ^iven 
lines;  assume  D  to  be  the  tangenting  pomt  of 
the  circle.**;  draw  Z>  C  at  right  angles  to  A  B. 
With  C  as  center  and  C  D  as  radius,  draw  the 
circle  E  D  F.  From  E,  draw  E  rh  at  right 
angles  to  EF\  and  from  F  draw  F  m  at  right 
angles  to  F  ^ ;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  for 
the  required  circles. 

24. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  given 
lines  A  B  and  C  D  inclined  to  one  another 
and  the  one  tangenting  point  E  being  given. 

Draw  the  center  line  G  F.  From  E,  draw 
E  F  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  then  F  is  the  center 
of  the  circle  required. 

25. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  lines  and 
go  through  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  F  C, 
which  bi.sects  the  angle  of  the  lines. 

Through  C  draw  A  B  at  right  angles  to  C  F; 
bisect  the  angles  DAB  and  E  B  A,  and  the 
crossing  on  C  F  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

26. 

To  draw  a  cyma,  or  two  circle  arcs  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  two  parallel  lines  at 
given  points  A  and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars.  Draw  A  m 
at  right  angles  from  A ,  and  £  n  at  right  angles 
from  B:  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  of  the 
circle  arcs  of  the  required  cyma. 

27. 

To  draw  a  talon,  or  two  circle  arcs,  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  meet  two  parallel 
lines  at  right  angles  in  the  given  points  A 
and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars;  then  m  and  n 
are  the  centers  of  the  circle  arcs  of  the  required 
talon. 

28. 

To  plot  out  a  circle  arc  without  recourse  to 
its  center,  but  its  chord  A  3  and  height  h  being 
given. 

With  the  chord  as  radius,  and  .4'and5a8 
centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs  A  C  and 
B  D.     Through  the  point  0  draw  the  lines 


AO  o  and  BO  o.  Make  the  arcs  C  cA  o  and 
D  o  =  B  o.  Divide  these  arcs  into  any  desired 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  number  them  as 
shown  on  the  illustration.  Join  .4  and  B  with 
the  divisions,  and  the  crossings  of  equal  num- 
bers are  points  in  the  circle  arc. 

29. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle. 

Bisect  two  of  the  angles  in  the  triangle,  and 
the  crossing  C  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

30. 

To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  circle. 

With  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  center  C 
draw  the  arc  D  F  E;  with  the  same  radius, 
and  D  and  E  as  centers,  set  off  the  points  A 
and  B.  Join  A  and  B,  B  and  C,  C  and  A, 
which  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

31. 

To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  through  the 
center  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D,  ana  com- 
plete the  square  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

32. 

To  describe  a  square  about  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameters  A  B  and  C  D  at  right 
angles  to  one  another;  with  the  radius  of  the 
circle,  and  A,  B,C,  and  D  as  centers,  draw  the 
four  dotted  half  circles  which  cross  one  another 
in  the  corners  of  the  square,  and  thus  com- 
plete the  problem. 

33. 

To  inscribe  a  pentagon  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  from  the  center 
C  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D.  Bisect  the 
radius  X  C  at  E;  with  E  as  center,  and  D  B 
as  radius,  draw  the  arc  D  E,  and  the  straight 
line  D  F  is  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  penta- 
gon. 

34. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B. 

From  B  erect  B  C  perpendiciflar  to  and  half 
the  length  of  A  B;  join  A  and  C  prolonged  to 
D;  with  C  as  a  center  and  C  B  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  B  D'  then  the  chord  B  B  is  the  radiu<9 
of  the  cii*cle  circumscribing  the  pentagon. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  B  />  as  radius, 
draw  the  cross  O  in  the  center. 

35. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B 
without  resort  to  its  center. 

From  B  erect  B  o  perpendicular  and  equal  to 
A  B;  with  C  as  center  and  C  o  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  D  o;  then  A  D  is  the  diagonal  of  the 
pentagon.  With  A  D  a»  radius  and  A  as  cen- 
ter, draw  the  arc  7)  E;  and  with  E  as  center 
and  A  B  a.s  radius,  finish  the  cross  E,  and  thus 
complete  the  pentagon. 

36. 

To  construct  a  hexagon  in  a  given  circle. 

The  radius  of  the  circle  is  equal  to  the  side 
of  the  hexagon. 

37. 

To  construct  a  Heptagon. 

The  appotem  a  in  a  hexagon  is  the  length  of 
I    the  side  of  the  heptagon. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Set  off  A  B  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle ; 
draw  a  from  the  center  C  at  right  angles  to 
A  B;  then  a  is  the  required  side  of  the  hep- 
taiEon. 

38. 

To  construct  an  octagon  on  the  given  line  A  B. 

Prolong  ABUiC.  With  B  as  center  and  A 
B  as  radius,  draw  the  circle  A  F  D  E  C;  from 
B,  draw  B  /  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  divide  the 
angles  A  B  D  and  D  B  C  each  into  two  equal 
parts;  then  B  E  is  one  side  of  the  octagon. 
With  A  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  arcs  H  KE 
and  A  KI,  which  determine  the  points  H  aiid 
/,  and  thus  complete  the  octagon  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

39. 

To  cut  off  the  corners  of  a  square,  so  as  to 
make  of  it  a  regular  octagon. 

With  the  comers  as  centers,  draw  circle  arcs 
through  the  center  of  the  square  to  the  side, 
which  determines  the  cut-off. 

40. 

The  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  trianicle  whose  ba^^e  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  tl^  sides,  and,  the  height  a  equal  to 
the  appotem  of  the  i>olygon. 

The  rea«)n  of  this  is  that  the  area  of  two  or 
more  triangles  ABC  and  ADC  having  a 
common  or  equal  base  h  and  equal  height  h  arc 
alike. 

41. 

To  construct  any  regular  polygon  on  a  given 

line  A  B  without  resort  to  its  center. 

Extend  A  B  to  C  and,  with  B  as  center, 
draw  the  hidf  circle  A  D  B.  Divide  the  half 
circle  into  as  many  parts  as  the  number  of 
sides  in  the  polygon,  and  complete  the  con- 
struction as  shown  on  the  illustration. 

42. 

To  construct  an  isometric  ellipse  by  com- 
pasess  and  six  circle  arcs. 

Divide  O  A  and  O  B  each  into  three  equal 
parts;  draw  the  quadrant  A  C.  From  C,  draw 
the  line  C  c  through  the  point  1.  Through  the 
points  2  draw  d  e  at  an  angle  of  45**  with  the 
major  axis.  Then  2  is  the  center  for  the  ends 
of  the  ellipse ;  e  is  the  center  for  the  arc  d  c;  and 
C  is  the  center  for  the  arc  c  /. 

43. 

To  construct  a  Hyperbola  by  plotting^ 

Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  vertexes 
A  a,  and  foci  /  f.  Set  off  any  desired  number 
of  parts  on  the  axis  below  the  focus,  and  num- 
ber them  1 ,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.  Take  the  distance 
a  1  as  radius,  and,  with /'  as  center,  strike  the 
cross  1  with  /'  1  =o  1.  With  the  distance  A  1, 
and  the  focus  /  as  center,  strike  the  cross  1 
with  the  radius  F  1  =  A  1,  and  the  cross  1  is  a 
point  in  the  hyperbola. 

44. 
To  drarv  an  Hyperbola  by  a  pencil  and  a  atringt 

Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  foci  /' 
and  /,  and  the  vertexes  A  and  a.  Take  a  rule 
and  fix  it  to  a  string  at  e;  fix  the  other  end  of 
the  string  at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the 
string  should  be  such  that  when  the  rule  R  is 
in  the  position  /T.the  loop  of  the  string  should 
reach  to  A;  then  move  the  rule  on  the  focus  /', 


and  a  pencil  at  P,  stretching  string,  will  trace 
the  hyperbola. 

45. 

To  consbrtict  a  Pardbcla  by  plotting. 

Having  given  the  axis,  vertex,  and  focus  of 
the  parabola.  Divide  the  transverse  axis  into 
any  desired  number  of  parts  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and 
draw  ordinates  through  the  divisions;  take  the 
distance  A  1,  and  set  it  off  on  the  1st  ordinate 
from  the  focus  /  to  a,  so  that  A  l=fa.  Repeat 
the  same  operation  with  the  other  ordinates — 
that  is.  set  off  the  distance  A  5  from  /  to  «,  so 
that  A  5=/  e;  and  so  the  parabola  is  con- 
structed. 

46. 
To  draw  a  Parabola  with  a  pencil  and  a  8tring, 

Having  given  the  two  axes,  vertex,  and  focus 
of  the  parabola.  Take  a  sauare  cde,  and  fix  to 
it  a  string  at  e;  fix  the  other  end  of  the  string 
at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the  string  should 
be  such  that  when  the  square  is  in  the  position 
of  the  axis  A  /,  the  string  e^ould  reacn  to  the 
vertex  A.  Move  the  square  along  B  B,  and 
the  pencil  P  will  describe  the  parabola. 


47. 


Shield's  anti-friction  curve. 


R  represents  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  and 
C  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  is  the  center  line  of  the  shaft. 
From  o,  set  off  the  small  distance  o  a;  and  set 
off  a  1=R.  Set  off  the  same  small  distance 
from  a  to  b,  and  make  b  2'-i2.  Continue  in 
the  same  way  with  the  other  points,  and  the 
anti-friction  curve  is  thus  construoteid. 

48. 

Isometric  Perspective. 

This  kind  of  perspective  admits  of  scale 
measurements  the  same  as  any  ordinary  draw- 
ing, and  gives  a  clear  represjcntation  of  the 
object.  It  is  easily  learned.  All  horisontal 
rectangular  lines  are  drawn  at  an  angle  of  30**. 

All  circles  are  ellipses  of  proportion,  ai 
shown  in  No.  42,  on  the  following  page. 

49. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 

With  a  as  a  center,  draw  two  concentric  cir- 
cles with  diameters  equal  to  the  long  and  short 
axes  of  the  desired  ellipse.  Draw  from  o  any 
number  of  radii.  A,  B,  etc.  Draw  a  line  B  b' 
parallel  to  n  and  b  b'  parallel  to  m,  then  b  is  a 
point  in  the  desired  ellipse. 


50. 


To  draw  an  eUipse  with  a  string. 


Having  given  the  two  axes,  set  off  from  c 
half  the  great  axis  at  a  and  b,  which  are  the 
two  focuses  of  the  ellipse.  Take  an  endless 
string  as  long  as  the  three  sides  in  the  tri- 
angle a  b  c,  fix  two  pins  or  nails  in  the  focuses, 
one  in  a  and  one  in  b,  lay  the  string  around  a 
and  b,  stretch  it  with  a  pencil  d,  which  then 
will  describe  the  desired  ellipse. 

51. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 

Divide  the  long  axis  into  three  equal  parts, 
draw  the  two  circles,  and  where  they  intersect 
one  another  are  the  centers  for  the  tangent 
arcs  of  the  ellipse  as  shown  by  the  figure. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.  407 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


62. 

To  draw  an  dlipBe  by  circle  arcs. 

Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  the  short  axis 
from  A  to  6,  divide  h  into  three  equal  parts, 
set  off  two  of  these  parts  from  o  towards  c 
and  c  which  are  the  centers  for  the  ends  of  the 
ellipse.  Make  equilateral  triangles  on  c  c,  when 
e  e  will  be  the  centers  for  the  sides  of  the  ellipse. 
If  the  long  axis  is  more  than  twice  the  short 
one,  this  construction  will  not  make  a  g^K>d 
ellipse. 

53. 

To  construct  an  ellipte. 

Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  half  the  long  axis 
from  c  to  /  /,  which  will  be  the  two  focuses  in 
the  ellipse.  Divide  the  long  axis  into  any 
number  of  parts,  say  a  to  be  a  division  point. 
Take  A  a  as  radius  and  /  as  center  and  describe 
a  circle  arc  about  6,  take  a  £  as  radius  and  /  as 
center  describe  another  circle  arc  about  &,tnen 
the  intersection  b  is  a  point  in  the  ellipse,  and 
so  the  whole  elliptse  can  be  constructed. 

54. 

To  draw  an  ellipae  that  vrill  tangent  two  parallel 
lines  in  A  and  B. 

Draw  a  semicircle  on  A  B,  draw  ordinates 
in  the  circle  at  right  angle  to  A  B,  the  corre- 
sponding and  equal  ordinates  for  the  ellipse 
to  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  lines,  and  thus  the 
elliptic  curve  is  obtained  as  shown  by  the 
figure. 


55. 


To  construct  a  cydoid. 


The  circumference  C  =  3.14  D.  Divide  the 
rolling  circle  and  base  line  C  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts,  draw  through  the  division  point 
the  ordinates  and  abscissas,  make  a  a'  =  \  d, 
b  b'  =  2fe,  c  c  —  3  f,  then  o  6'  and  </  are  points 
in  the  cycloid.  In  the  Ejncycloid  and  Hypo- 
cydoid  the  abscissas  are  circles  and  the  ordi- 
nates are  radii  to  one  common  center. 


56. 


Evolute  of  a  circle. 


Given  the  pitch  p,  the  angle  v,  and  radius  r. 
Divide  the  angle  v  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
draw  the  radii  and  tangents  for  each  part, 
divide  the  pitch  p  into  an  equal  number  of 
equal  parte,  then  the  first  tangent  will  be  one 
part,  second  two  parts,  third  three  parts,  etc., 
and  so  the  Evolute  is  traced. 

57. 

To  construct  a  spired  with  compasses  arid  four 

centers. 

Given  the  pitch  of  the  spiral,  construct  a 
square  about  the  center,  with  the  four  sides 
together  equal  to  the  pitch.  Prolong  the 
sides  in  one  direction  as  shown  by  the  ngure, 
the  corners  are  the  centers  for  each  arc  of  the 
external  angles. 


58. 


To  construct  a  Parabola. 


Given  the  vertex  A,  axis  z,  and  a  point  P. 
Draw  A  B  aX  right  angle  to  x,  and  B  P  parallel 
to  X,  divide  A  B  and  B  P  into  an  equal  num- 
ber of  equal  parts.  From  the  vertex  A  draw 
lines  to  the  divisions  on  B  P,  from  the  divi- 


sions on  A  B  draw  the  ordinates  parallel  to  », 
the  corresi>onding  intersections  are  points  in 
the  parabola. 


59. 


To  construct  a  Parabola. 


Given  the  axis  of  ordinate  B,  and  vertex  A . 
Take  A  as  a  center  and  describe  a  semicircie 
from  B  which  gives  the  focus  of  the  parabola  at 
/.  Draw  any  ordinate  y  at  right  angle  to  the 
abscissa  A  r,  take  a  as  radius  and  the  focus  / 
as  a  center,  then  intersect  the  ordinate  y,  by 
a  circle-arc  in  P  which  will  be  a  point  in  the 
parabola.  In  the  same  manner  the  whole 
Parabola  is  constructed. 

60. 

To  draw  an  arithmetic  spiral. 

Given  the  pitch  p  and  angle  v,  divide  them 
into  an  equal  number  of  equal  parts,  say  6 : 
makeO  1-0  1,0  2- 0  2,  0  3=0  3,  0  4-0  4, 0  6 
—0  5,  and  0  6 —  the  pitch  p;  then  join  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  6  and  6,  which  will  form  the 
spiral  required. 

THE  CIRCLE. 

Notation  of  Letters. 

d  —  diameter  of  the  circle. 

r= radius  of  the  circle. 

p  =  periphery  or  circumference. 

a  =  area  of  a  circle  or  part  thereof. 

b  —  length  of  a  circle  arc. 

c— chord  of  a  s^sment,  length  of. 

A  =  height  of  a  segment. 

«=«side  of  a  rectangular  polygon 

»= center  ahgle. 

tr  =  polygon  angle. 

All  measures  must  be  expressed  by  the  same 

unit. 

FORMULAS  FOR  THE  CIRCLE. 

Periphery  or  Circumference. 
p  =  „  d=3.l4rf. 

p  =  27r  r  =  6.28r. 

p  =  2  V  jra  =  3.54  \' a. 

2a         4a 

p =   --. 

r  a 

Diameter  and  Radius, 
p          p 
d = . 


It        3.14 
p  p 

2n  6.28 

a 


rf-2|/ 


1.128  Va 


564  Va. 


Area  of  the  Circle. 

nd^ 

a 0.785d« 

4 

a  =  »r»=3.14r2. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


pa       p2 

62. 

o= — = . 

KTV 

4n     12.56 

6- 0.0176n>, 

jjr     pd 

180 

^"  2"  4' 

1806                 b 
v- 57.296-. 

TT »  3. 141 59265358979323846264338327950288 

jrr                   r 

4197169399 

63. 

2jr-.6.283185 

M 

3ir-9.424778 

w  -180 , 

4jr- 12.566370 

2 

&r- 15.707963 

6ir-- 18.849556 

t)-2(180''— tu). 

7jr-21.991148 

64. 

8;r-25.132741 

ca+4.V      «» 

97r  =  28.274334 

Sh         2h 

ijr  =  0.785398 

i>r- 1.047197 

c-2  V2Ar  — A«. 

i»r=  1.570796 

65. 

i7r  =  0.392699 

ac 

i;r»  0.523599 

A«- 0.261799 
|t-»  2.094394 

v-r:-)- 

5i5»r- 0.008726 

I 

66. 

1 

--0.318310 
2 

'/"-r;--)' 

-=0.636619 

r 

^\^ 

K 

3 

a+b+c 

— ^0.954929 

67. 

4 

r  — V,     to— ly, 

— ^1.273239 

u;-f-t>  =  180°,  u'>t>. 

7b 

6 

, 

68. 

—  1.909869 

D-B  +  C,     A'^-J5'  +  C-180^ 

8 

B^D—C,     A  +B  +C-180°. 

—  2.546478 

A'^A,       B'^B. 

12 

3.819718 

69. 

A+fi+C- 180°, 

360 

-114.5915 

A'^A,     B'^B. 

;r2=  9.869650 

70. 

E  +  C  =  A+D-180°, 

V»r=  1.772453 

r 

4/ — ^0.564189 

D  =  B  +  c, 
E^A+B. 

A 

71. 

4/  — ^1.253314 

(a+6)2-o2+2a6  +  b2. 

y  — ^0.797884 

72. 

(a— 5)2-a2— 2a6  +  62. 

Log*^  ,r  =  0.49714987 
61. 

The  periphery  of  a  Circle  ] 

IS  commonly 

ex- 

73. 

(0  +  6)  (0— 6)-a2— fta. 

pressed  by  the  Greek  letter  ic 

=  3.14 

when 

the 

diameter  d=l  or  the  unit. 

For 

any  other 

74. 

• 

value  of  the  diameter  d,  we 

will 

denote 

the 

a  :  6  — c  :  d. 

periphery  by  the  letter  p,  r^^ 

>  radius,  and 

a  = 

area  of  the  circle.     The  periphery  of  a  circle 

ad  — 6c, 

is    equal    to    3    14-100    times    its 

diameter. 

c  — chord. 

A-B. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK.  411 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


75. 

a  : 6— c : rf. 

ad— 6r. 

76. 

a  :  c^c  '.  6, 

ab^c^. 

c=  Vab. 

77. 

A  :  B^a  :  h. 

78. 

a  '  x^x  :  a — x, 

-|/-^+(,)    i 

79. 

c2=a2  +  62, 

rt2=c2— 62, 

62=e2— .a2. 

80. 

f2=a2+5Z_2fed, 

81. 


82. 


83. 


84. 


85. 


86. 


024.^2 c2 


d  = 


26 
c2=a2+62  +  26d, 


A2-  f  a2— c(2, 
c2— a2— 62 


d  = 


26 


a  :  6  =  A  :  c, 


ac     o/i 

A  = 

6       c 
c2     cA 

d- 

6       a 

a  : 

c  =  rf  :  (6 — d)f 

<f  = 

ah 
c+a 

v  = 

V. 

a  : 

c  =  b  :  rf, 

ad 

=  6c. 

a  : 

(  =  <  :  6, 

<2  = 

'db. 

/2  = 

"(a  +  b)   (a- 

-6) 

<- 

V  o2— 62. 

87. 


aR 


X ,     a-  f'/2+(/2_r)2 


<=  |^o2— (R— r)2,     8in.t> .. 

a 


88. 


<=  -^a2_(/24.r)2, 


a-  Vt^+(R  +  r)^. 


89. 


/         52 


/=2f— r. 


5  =  2  i/r2— (r— F)2.     r  =  ia  +  y). 


90. 


^    n2 


-»«d2, 


Z 


n  = 


91. 


V»r2d24.p. 


To  ^n<f  <Ae  2en0<A  0/  a  Spiral. 


l^=vm^- 


>rr2 


n- 


I 


icr 


92. 


KT*       r 

P .     P^Piich. 

I       n 


To  find  the  length  of  a  Spiral. 
l  =  irn  (R+r), 


I (72Jt_r2). 

P 

93. 

Periphery  of  an  Ellipse. 

p  =  i2  VD2  +  1.4674//2. 

94. 

To  construct  a  screw  Helix. 

95. 

96. 


To  square  a  Circumference. 
R  =  0.555355  rf  =  1 . 1 107  r = 0.7071  S. 
5  =  0.785398  d«  1.57079  r- 1,4142  R 
d  =  1.27322  5  - 1.79740 /?- 2r. 

To  square  a  Cirdeplane. 
R  =0.626657  rf=  1.263314  r- 0.7071  S 
iS«0.886226d=  1.77245  r- 1.4142  « 
rf  =  1.12838  iS- 1.6367  « -2  r. 


CHAPTER   II. 


MACHINE    EliBMENTS 


The  Machine  Elements  or  Powers  are  the 
Lever  and  the  Inclined  Plane.  Every  ma- 
chine when  analyzed  is  found  to  be  made  up 
of  these  elements,  either  singly  or  in  com- 
bination; for  example,  pulleys,  gear  wheels, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  levers,  while  screws,  cams, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  inclined  planes. 

There  are  four  distinct  types  of  levers,  as 
shown  in  our  illustration. 

1st.  The  Ck)mmon  Lever,  consisting  of  a 
straight  inflexible  bar  movable  on  a  fulcrum. 
The  section  of  the  bar  extending  from  the 
fulcrum  to  the  point  where  the  power  is  ap- 
plied is  called  the  Power  Arm,  and  the  section 
extending  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point 
where  the  weight  is  applied  is  called  the 
Weight  Arm. 

2a.  The  Angular  or  Bell  Crank  Lever.  This 
is  distinguished  from  the  Common  Lever  in 
having  its  power  arms  disposed  at  an  angle 
to  the  weignt  arms. 

3d.  The  Wheel  and  Axle,  or  Revolving 
Lever.  A  wheel  and  axle  or  two  concentric 
wheels  take  the  place  of  the  power  and  weight 
arms.  The  weight  is  attached  to  a  rope  coiled 
on  one  of  the  wheels,  and  the  power  is  at- 
tached to  a  rope  coiled  on  tbe  other  wheel. 
The  relation  of  this  lever  to  the  common  lever 
is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  this  relation  remains  constant 
even  when  the  wheels  are  revolving. 

4th.  The  Pulley.  Another  type  of  revolv- 
ing lever,  but  differing  from  the^  wheel  and 
axle  type  in  that  a  single  wheel  is  used  and 
the  fulcrum  is  not  necessarily  always  at  the 
center  of  the  wheel. 

E^h  of  these  types  of  the  simple  lever  is 
capable  of  three  cfiflferent  arrangements  usu- 
ally termed  "Orders."  In  the  First  Order 
the  fulcrum  lies  between  the  weight  and  the 

Eower.  In  the  Second  Order  the  weight  lies 
etween  the  fulcrum  and  the  power.  In  the 
Third  Order  the  power  lies  between  the  ful- 
crum and  the  weight.  The  second  order  gives 
the  longest  power  arm  relative  to  the  weight 
arm,  and  consequently  is  the  most  powerful 
lever  of  the  three.  The  formula  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  power  required  to  bal- 
ance a  ^ven  weight,  are  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  illustration.  In  measuring  the  arms 
of  the  angular  levers  the  measurements 
should  not  be  taken  along  the  length  of  the 
arms,  but  in  the  horizontal  plane  as  shown, 
because  this  measurement  represents  the  true 
theoretical  length  of  the  lever  arm.  As  the 
lever  is  moved  about  the  fulcrum,  the  ratio 
of  the  power  arm  to  the  weight  arm  changes 
as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  first  order 
of  angular  levers,  beca'use  the  arm  that  is  ap- 
proaching the  horizontal  plane  is  increasing 
in  length,  while  the  other  which  is  moving 
toward  the  vertical  plane  is  decreasing  in 


length.  The  same  is  true  in  a  modified  form 
of  the  second  and  third  orders  of  angular 
levers. 

In  the  case  of  the  pulleys  the  power  and 
weight  arms  bear  a  definite  relation  to  each 
other.  No  matter  what  their  size  may  be, 
the  power  arm  will  always  be  of  the  same  length 
as  tne  weight  arm  in  pulleys  of  the  first  order, 
consequently  the  power  must  be  equal  to  the 
weight  in  order  to  keep  the  lever  in  equilib- 
rium. In  pulleys  of  the  second  order  the 
power  arm  will  be  twice  the  length  of  the 
weight  arm.  consequently  the  power  must  be 
equal  to  half  of  the  weight  in  order  to  keep 
the  lever  in  equilibrium;  and  in  pulleys  of 
,the  third  order  the  power  arm  will  be  half  the 
'length  of  the  weight  arm,  consequently  the 
power  must  equal  twice  the  weignt  in  order 
to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  lever. 

The  compoimd  levers  consist  of  two  or  more 
simple  levers  of  the  same  or  different  orders 
coupled  together,  either  for  the  purposes  of 
convenience  or  to  increase  the  power. 

Of  the  two  compound  common  levers  illus- 
trated, Figure  1  shows  two  common  levers 
of  the  first  order  coupled  together,  and  Fig- 
ure 2  represents  a  common  lever  of  the  first 
order  coupled  to  a.  common  lever  of  the  sec- 
ond order. 

The  compound  revolving  lever  illustrated 
is  a  combination  of  a  wheel  and  axle  of  the 
second  order,  operating  a  piilley  of  the  second 
order.  This  compound  lever  is  also  called  a 
"Chinese  windlass,"  owing  to  its  early  use 
by  the  Chinese  for  lifting  heavy  weights,  such 
as  draw-bridges,  etc. 

The  compound  pulleys  or  tackle  shown  are 
various  combinations  of  pulleys  of  the  same 
or  different  orders.  As  in  the  case  of  the  sim- 
ple pulleys,  the  weight  and  power  arms  bear 
a  constant  relation  to  each  other,  and  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  give  the  numerical  value 
of  the  power  in  terms  of  the  weight,  or  vice 
versa,  afforded  by  the  different  types  of  tackle, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  individual  pulleys 
they  comprise.  The  following  simple  formula 
is  applicaole  to  all  tackle  in  which  a  continu- 
ous length  of  rope  is  used,  as  in  Figures  1,  2, 
and  3:  Power  equals  weight  divided  by  the 
number  of  ro'pe  'parts  supporting  the  weight. 
In  Figure  3,  for  instance,  there  are  five  such 
parts,  not  counting  of  course  the  part  on 
which  the  power  is  applied.  Figures  4  to  9 
are  all  rather  complex,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  power  is  transmitted  to  the  weight  through 
one  or  more  movable  pulley  blocks  connected 
by  separate  ropes.  Figures  4  and  5  show 
tackle  arrangements  called  Spanish  burtons. 
A  general  formula,  applicable  to  any  number 


W 


of  pulleys  arranged  as  in  Fig.  6,  is  P=  oa  —  l 


418 


414 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


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SCIKNTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFEREJNCE    BOOK. 


416 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in   which  P  represents   the   power,    W   the 

weight,  and  n  the  number  of  ropes  used.    The 

general  formula  for  the  arrangement  shown 

W 
in  Figure  7  is  P=-r—.     The  general  formula 

2«> 

for  the  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  8  is 

W 

P  =»  — .     The  general  formula  for  the  arrange- 

W 
ment  shown  in  Figure  9  is  P  =  -=r — ;. 

3"     1 

There  are  three  general  classes  of  inclined 

planes,  the  simple  inclined  plane,  the  wedge 

or  movable  inclined  plane,  and  the  screw  or 

revolving   inclined   plane.     There   are   three 

general  types  of  simple  inclined  planes,  as 

fllustrated.     1st.  That  in   which  the   power 

acts  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclined 

face    of    the    inclined    plane.       2d.  That    in 


which  the  power  acts  parallel  with  the  base 
qf  the  inclined  plane.  3d.  That  in  which  the 
power  acts  at  an  an^le  both  to  the  face  and  to 
the  base  of  the  inclined  plane.  The  formuls 
for  determining  the  mechanical  advantage 
secured  by  the  different  forms  of  inclined 
planes  are  given  in  the  illustration.  In  the 
third  type  of  inclined  plane  the  relation  of 
power  to  weight  changes  as  the  weight  is 
drawn  up  the  plane,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  angle  B  becomes  gradually  larger. 

There  are  two  types  of  weages,  the  single 
wedge  and  the  double  wedge.  The  latter  is 
the  more  common  t^pe. 

Under  revolving  inclined  planes  we  have 
the  screw  together  with  the  cam  (not  illus- 
trated here),  which  are  mort  commonly  used 
in  machinery  than  any  other  type  of  inclined 
plane. 


CHAPTER    III. 


mechanicaij  movements. 


TOOTHED     GEAR. 

1.  Spur  Gears. — The  ordinary  form  of 
toothed-wheel.  The  smaller  of  two  inter- 
meshing  gear-wheels  whether  a  spur-  or  bevel- 
wheel  is  called  a  Pinion. 

2.  Gear  with  Mortised  Teeth. — This  is 
what  is  ordinarily  known  as  a  Cos-wheel 
among  machinists.  The  wheel  is  ordinarily 
made  of  iron  and  the  teeth  of  wood. 

3.  Step  Gear. — The  face  of  this  gear  is 
divided  into  sections  with  the  teeth  of  the 
different  sections  arranged  in  steps;  that  is, 
one '  in  advance  of  the  other.  Step  gear- 
wheels are  useful  in  heavy  machinery,  as 
they  give  a  practically  continuous  bearing 
between  the  intermeshmg  teeth  of  the  gear- 
wheels. 

4.  Obuqtie  Toothed  Gear. — The  teeth 
are  cut  diagonally  across  the  working  face  of 
the  wheel  so  as  to  give  the  gear-wheel  a  side 
thrust.  In  a  double  obli  que  t  oothed-gear,  usu- 
ally called  a  V-toothed  gear,  the  thrust  in 
one  direction  is  neutralized  by  an  equal 
thrust  in  the  opposite  direction.  As  in  the 
stepped-gear  it  gives  a  continuous  bearing 
of  the  teeth. 

5.  Internal  or-  Annular  Gear. — The 
teeth  are  formed  on  the  inner  periphery  of  a 
ring.  This  type  of  gear  is  used  in  heavy 
machinery,  because  it  offers  a  greater  hold 
for  the  teeth  of  the  driving  pinion.  There  is 
less  sliding  friction  between  the  teeth  than  in 
the  usual  outside  spur-gear  and  pinion. 

0.  Star  Wheel  Gears. — The  teeth  are  so 
formed  as  to  permit  an  appreciable  separation 
of  the  gear-wheels  without  preventing  them 
from  properly  meshing  one  with  the  other. 
These  gears  are  used  on  wringing  machines,  etc. 

•  7.  Elliptical  Gears. — Due  to  their  ellip- 
tical form,  while  the  driving-gear  rotates  at 
constant  speed,  the  other  gear  will  be  rotated 
at  a  variable  speed.  That  is,  its  motion  will 
first  be  accelerated  and  then  retarded.  They 
are  used  in  some  machines  to  produce  a  slow 
powerful  stroke  followed  by  a  quick  return. 

8.  Ano'^lar  Gears. — These  gears  have  a 
rectangular  form  and,  as  in  the  elliptical 
gears,  they  serve  to  transform  uniform  rotary 
movement  into  variable  rotary  movement. 
However,  this  movement  is  more  jerky  than 
that  produced  by  elliptical  gears.  Angular 
gears  are  very  seldom  used. 

^  9.  Lantern  Gear. — The  teeth  consist  of 
pins  which  lie  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
gear-wheel,  and  are  secured  at  their  ends  in 
two  disks  or  gear  heads.  The  pins  are  so 
spaced  as  to  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur- 
l^ar.  The  lantern-gear  permits  limited  slid- 
ing movement  of  the  spur-gear  along  its  axis. 
It  can  be  very  cheaply  made,  but  is  u.«ed  chiefly 
for  light  work,  such  as  clock  mechanism,  etc. 


10.  Crown  Gear. — ^The  teeth  project  per- 
I     pendicularly  from  a  side  face  of  the  wneel 

instead  of  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  wheel. 
When  in  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur-gear 
or  a  lantern-gear,  it  forms  a  cheap  method  of 
transmitting  power  from  one  shalft  to  another 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.  Crown  gears 
are  useful  for  light  work,  and  were  common 
in  old  clock  mechanisms.  They  used  to  be 
known  as  Contrate  wheels. 

11.  Bevel  Gears. — The  ordinary  gear  for 
transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  an- 
other at  an  angle  thereto.  When  the  wheels 
are  of  the  same  sixe  and  operate  on  shafts, 
lying  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  one  with  the 
other,  they  are  called  Miter  gears. 

12.  Worm  or  Screw  Gear. — An  endless 
screw  engages  a  spur-gear  with  spirally 
disposed  teeth.  The  screw  is  called  a  worm, 
and  the  spur-gear  a  worm-wheel.  A  much 
diminished  but  very  powerful  motion  is  com- 
municated from  the  worm  to  the  worm-wheel. 
It  is  used  in  heavy  machinery. 

13.  CURVED  Worm  Gear. — The  working 
face  of  the  worm  is  curved  so  that  a  number 
of  teeth  will  be  in  mesh  with  the  worm- 
wheel,  thus  giving  greater  strength.  It  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  cut  the  thread  of  this 
worm  correctly  owing  to  its  varying  pitch. 
The  gear  is  called  the  saw-tooth  gear  when 
the  teeth  and  thread  are  V-shaped,  as  illus- 
trated. 

14.  Spiral  or  Helical  Gears. — The 
teeth  are  spirally  disposed  on  the  working 
faces  of  the  wheels  so  that  they  will  transmit 
motion  to  shafts  lying  at  right  angles  one 
with  the  other. 

15.  Skew  Gears. — The  gears  rotate  on 
shafts  which  lie  in  different  planes  and  at  an 
angle  with  each  other.  The  drawing  shows 
a  ske^  spur-gear  meshing  with  a  bevel-gear. 
The  same  term  would  apply  to  two  bevel 
gears  Isring  in  different  planes  and  at  angles 
to  each  other. 

16.  Rack  and  Pinion. — A  spur-gear  en- 
gages a  toothed  bar.  Rectilinear  motion  is 
by  this  mechanism  transformed  to  rotary 
motion  or  vice  versa.  It  is  quite  common 
in  heavy  machinery  to  find  a  worm  meshing 
with  and  driving  a  rack. 

17.  Spherical  or  Globoid  Gear.  —  A 
spiral  thread  is  cut  on  a  spherical  body  and 
meshes   with   the   spiral    teeth   of  the   spur 

Einion.     The  latter  is  so  mounted  that  it  may 
e  swung  to  different  positions  on  the  spher- 
ical gear,  thus  varying  its  speed  of  rotation. 

18.  Gear  with  Roller  Teeth. — The 
teeth  project  from  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel, 
and  consist  of  pins  carrying  rollers.  This 
construction  is  used  to  reduce  friction. 

19.  Pin  Wheel. — The  flat  face  of  the  gear 
is  studded  with  pins  which  are  adapted  to 


417 


418 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


mesh  with  slots  formed  in  the  edge  of  a 
pinion.  The  pinion  is  so  mounted  that  it  can 
be  moved  toward  or  from  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  to  vary  its  speed  of  rotation.  When 
the  pinion  is  moved  past  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  its  direction  of  rotation  is  reversed. 

20.  Spiral  Hoop  Gear. — A  spiral  thread  is 
formed  on  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel  and  this 
meshes  with  a  worm-wheel.  The  latter  is 
moved  forward  one  tooth  at  each  complete 
rotation  of  the  spiral  hoop.  This  gives  a 
powerful  drive,  though,  of  course,  at  a  greatly 
diminished  speMod. 

21.  Intermittent  Gear  or  Geneva  Stop. 
— The  driving-wheel  is  provided  with  a  single 
tooth  adapted  to  engage  one  of  a  series  of 
notches  in  the  other  wheel.  At  each  com- 
plete rotation  of  the' driving-wheel  the  other 
wheel  is  moved  forward  one  notch  but  no 
more,  due  to  the  concave  space  between  the 
notches  which  fits  closely  against  the  circum- 
ference of  the  other  wheel.  In  the  Geneva 
stop  one  of  these  spaces  is  formed  with  a 
convex  outline,  as  illustrated.  When  this 
space  is  reached  both  wheels  are  prevented 
from  further  rotation  forward.  The  Geneva 
stop  is  used  on  watches  to  prevent  winding 
up  the  main  spring  too  tightly. 

22.  Intermittent  Bevel.  Gear  or  Miti- 
LATBD  Gear. — The  teeth  are  formed  only  at 
intervals  on  the  face  of  the  gears.  The 
space  between  the  teeth  in  the  driving-|;ear  is 
convex,  and  that  between  the  teeth  in  the 
other  gear  is  concave,  so  that  when  the  teeth 
are  not  in  mesh  with  each  other  these 
convex  and  concave  portions  fit  into  each 
other  and  prevent  the  driven  gear  from  mov- 
ing forward  under  its  own  momentum. 

23.  Variable  Gears. — The  gear  wheels 
are  made  up  of  gear  sectors  of  different  radial 
length,  which  produce  suddenly  varying  mo- 
tions of  the  driven  gear  due  to  the  varying 
leverage  between  the  wheels.  The  segments 
are  arranged  on  different  planes  so  as  not  to 
interfere  one  with  the  other. 

24.  Scroll  Gears. — The  gears  have  a 
scroll  form  which  produces  a  gradually  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  speed  during  each 
rotation.  These  gears  are  also  calleci  cam 
gears. 

25.  Elliptical  Bevel  Gears. — They  pro- 
duce variable  motion  of  a  shaft  lying  at  right 
angles  to  the  driving  shaft.  This  gear  is 
used  on  bicycles  to  give  increased  power  on 
the  downstroke  of  the  pedal  and  a  quick 
movement  on  the  return. 

26.  Variable  Pin  Wheel. — A  cone  is  pro- 
vided with  pins  arranged  spirally  thereon,  and 
these  mesh  with  teeth  formed  on  the  other 
cone.  When  one  cone  is  rotated  at  a  con- 
stant speed  the  other  moves  with  a  ^raduallv 
increasing  or  decreasing  speed  during  each 
rotation. 

27.  Cam-toothed  Pinion. — The  pinion 
consists  of  two  oppositely  disposed  heart- 
shaped  teeth,  mounted  side  by  side,  on  a 
shaft.  The  gear-wheel  with  which  they 
mesh  has  teeth  alternately  arranged  on  oppo- 
site  side   faces.     Due    to    the    form    of    the 

Cinion  teeth,  the  gear-wheel  is  locked  after 
eing  moved  forward  by  one  tooth  until  the 
other  tooth  comes  into  mesh  with  a  tooth 
on  the  other  face  of  the  wheel. 

28.  Bevel  Scroll  Gear. — The  gear-wheel 
consists  of  a  bevel  spiral  scroll  which  meshes 
with  a   bevel   pinion.      As   the   spiral   scroll 


rotates  it  causes  the  pinion  to  slide  forward 
on  its  shaft,  and  thus  varies  its  speed. 

FRICTION  GEAR. 

29.  Flat-faced  Friction  Gear. — A  com- 
mon t3rpe  of  friction  gear.  The  wheels  are 
usually  faced  with  rubber  or  leather  to  in- 
crease the  frictional  hold  between  the  wheels. 
One  of  the  wheels  is  joumaled  in  bearings 
which  can  be^  adjusted  toward  the  other 
wheel  so  as  to  increase  the  frictional  engage- 
ment. 

30.  Grooved  Friction  Gear. — The  faces 
of  the  wheels  are  grooved  so  as  to  increase  the 
bearing  surface.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained oy  pressing  the  wheels  but  slightly  into 
engagement  with  each  other,  as  this  produces 
little  loss  of  pK>wer  by  friction. 

^  31.  Adjustable    Friction    Pinion. — The 

Sinion  is  formed  of  a  disk  of  rubber  or  other 
exible  material  held  between  two  washers. 
When  these  washers  are  tightened  together 
they  press  out  the  rubber  between  them, 
crowding  it  into  closer  contact  with  the  V- 
groove  of  the  gear  with  which  it  engages. 

32.  Beveled  Friction  Gear. — Two  cone 
frustums  are  used  to  convey  motion  from'  one 
shaft  to  another  at  right  angles  thereto. 

33.  Friction  Drums. — The  drums  have 
concave  faces  which  permit  them  to  transmit 
motion  one  to  the  other  while  lying  at  an 
acute  angle  with  each  other. 

34  to  40.  Variable  .  Speed  Friction 
Gear. — 34,  a  pinion,  en^pages  the  flat  face  of 
the  friction  disk.  Variable  motion  is  pro- 
duced by  moving  the  pinion  across  the  face 
of  the  disk.  When  the  center  of  the  disk  is 
reached  no  motion  is  transmitted.  Beyond 
the  center  the  direction  of  motion  transmitted 
is  reversed.  35.  Motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  friction  disk  to  another  lying  parallel,  but 
not  in  alignment  therewith,  through  an  inter- 
mediary pinion.  This  pinion  can  be  moved 
vertically  to  engage  different  points  on  the 
friction  disks,  and  thus  produce  any  desired 
variation  in  the  speed  transmitted.  36.  Two 
convex  friction  disks  are  so  arranged  that  one 
may  be  swung  through  an  angle  bringing  dif- 
ferent points  on  its  surface  into  contact  with 
the  face  of  the  other  disk.  In  this  manner 
the  speed  of  the  motion  transmitted  is  varied. 
This  gear  is  used  on  sewing-machines.  37. 
Two  parallel  friction  disks  are  each  provided 
with  an  annular  concavity.  Motion  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  disk  to  the  other  by  a  friction 
pinion  mounted  between  the  disks,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  rotated  to  engage  differ- 
ent points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  concavities, 
thereby  varying  the  speed  transmitted. 
38.  A  cone  with  concave  face  is  engagea  by  a 
pinion  which  may  be  swimg  about  a  center 
to  engage  different  points  on  the  face  of  the 
cone.  39.  Two  cones  with  concave  faces  are 
mounted  on  shafts  running  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Motion  is  transmitted  from  one 
cone  to  the  other  through  a  friction  pinion 
mounted  to  swivel  so  as  to  engage  different 
points  on  the  faces  of  the  cones.  40.  Two 
friction  cones  are  mounted  on  parallel  shafts, 
and  between  them  runs  a  friction  pinion  hav- 
ing two  faces,  one  engagine  the  upper  cone 
and  the  other  engaging  the  lower  cone.  This 
provides  a  broad  bearing  surface.  The 
pinion  may  be  moved  to  different  positions 
along  the  faces  of  the  cones,  and  thereby  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  speed. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   EEFBRENCE   BOOK.  41fl 


-J 


CapyHght,  ian,  bj  Muim  A  Oi 


420 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAIN    GEAR. 

41.  Sprocket  Wheel. — The  wheel  is  pro- 
vided with  teeth  adapted  to  fit  in  between  the 
links  of  a  chain.  The  chain  may  be  of  the 
ordinary  oval  welded  link  type  or  of  the  flat 
riveted  type  used  on  bicycles. 

42.  Link-belt  Wheel. — The  chain  is 
made  up  of  square  links  which  are  engaffed 
by  ratchet-shaped  teeth  on  the  chain  wheel. 

43.  Pocket  Wheel. — The  wheel  ia  formed 
with  pockets  into  which  the  links  of  the  chain 
are  adapted  to  fit. 

44.  Side-toothed  Wheel. — The  wheel  is 
formed  with  two  sets  of  teeth  between  which 
the  chain  travels.  The  teeth  bear  against 
the  ends  of  the  outer  links  of  the  chain. 

45.  Side  and  Center  Toothed  Chain 
Wheel. — This  wheel  is  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  44,  but  has  in  addition  a  row  of  teeth 
alon^  the  center  which  bear  against  the  cen- 
ter link  of  the  chain. 

46.  Toothed-link  Chain  and  Wheel. — 
The  links  are  formed  with  projecting  teeth 
which  fit  into  notches  on  the  rim  of  the  chain 
wheel. 

47.  "Silent"  Chain  and  Wheel. — This  is 
a  special  type  of  chain  in  which  each  link  is 
formed  with  a  tooth  at  each  end.  The  teeth 
of  adjacent  links  coact  to  completely  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  teeth  of  the  chain  wheel. 
The  construction  is  such  as  to  produce  a 
noiseless  operation  of  the  chain  gear  even  at 
high  speeds. 

48.  Detachable  Toothed-link  Belt  and 
Wheel. — Each  link  is  formed  with  a  tooth, 
which  meshes  with  the  teeth  of  the  chain 
wheel.  The  construction  of  each  link  is  such 
that  it  may  be  readily  slipped  into  or  out  of 
engagement  with  the  next  Imk  of  the  chain. 

ROPE    GEAR. 

49.  V-PuLLEY. — The  ordinary  type  of  pul- 
ley for  round  ropes  or  cables.  Owing  to  the 
V-shaped  construction  of  the  pulley  groove, 
the  rope  wedges  tightly  into  engagement 
with  the  pulley. 

50.  Pulley  with  Flexible  Filling. — In 
order  to  secure  frictional  engagement  .of  the 
cable  with  this  pulley,  the  pulley  groove  is 
provided  with  rubber,  leather,  wooden,  or 
other  filling. . 

51.  Pdlley  with  Ribbed  Groove. —  In 
this  construction  of  puUev  the  required  grip 
is  produced  by  forming  ribs  in  the  bottom  of 
a  pulley  groove. 

52.  Pulley  with  Gripping  Lugs. — The 
flanges  of  this  pulley  are  formed  with  lugs 
which  kink  the  rope  or  cable  as  shown,  thus 
producing  the  required  grip. 

53.  Rope  Sprocket-wheel. — An  old  form 
of  rope  gear  used  in  hoists  and  the  like. 

54  and  55.  Gripping  Pulleys. — Gripping 
arms  are  provided  which  grip  the  cable  at  the 

foint  where  the  cable  presses  into  the  pulley, 
n  54  the  gripping  arms  are  wedged  inward 
by  the  side  walls  of  the  pulley  groove  when 
pressed  downward  by  the  cable.  These  arms 
are  normally  h  Id  up  by  coil  springs.  In  55 
the  cable  is  gripped  by  the  toggle  movement 
of  hinged  clips  placed  at  intervals  along  the 
periphery  of  the  pulley. 

56.  Cable  Sprocket-wheel. — The  cable 
is  provided  with  clamps  which  enter  sockets 
formed  in  the  cable  wheel.  This  is  a  form  of 
cable  gear  commonly  used  at  present  in  ele- 
vating and  conveying  machinery. 


CLUTCHES. 

57.  Common  Jaw  Clutch. — One  member 
of  the  clutch  is  mounted  to  slide  on  a  feathered 
shaft,  and  the  other  member  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  machinen'^  is  normally  sta- 
tionary on  this  shaft.  When  the  alidable 
member  is  moved  forward  the  teeth  on  its 
forward  edge  intermesh  with  the  teeth  of  the 
other  member,  setting  the  machinery  in  mo- 
tion. The  slidable  member  is  movea  forward 
by  means  of  a  forked  lever  which  is  hinged  to 
a  split  collar  mounted  loosely  between  flanges 
on  the  clutch  member. 

58.  Claw  Clutch. — The  slidable  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  body  portion  with 
two  claw  arms  which,  when  moved  forward, 
are  adapted  to  engage  opposite  sides  of  a  bar 
on  the  other  member  of  the  clutch. 

59.  Lever  Clutch. — The  slidable  naembcr 
is  provided  with  a  lever  loosely  hinged  to  its 
forward  end.  The  other  member  of  the 
clutch  consists  of  a  disk  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  face.  These  are  engaged  by  the 
hinged  arm  when  the  shaft-  rotates  in  one 
direction,  but  the  arm  moves  freely  over 
them  when  rotated  in  the  .opposite  direction. 

60.  Knee  and  Rose  Clutch. — A  crank 
arm  is  attached  to  the  slidable  member  of  the 
clutch,  and  engages  a  pin  on  an  arm  loosely 
hinged  to  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

61.  Ratchet  Clutch. — The  clutch  mem- 
bers are  formed  with  ratchet  teeth,  so  that 
when  the  motion  of  the  driving  shaft  is  re- 
versed, the  members  will  be  disengaged. 

62.  Pin  Clutch. — The  slidable  member  is 
provided  with  radial  arms  formed  with  pins 
at  their  outer  ends  which  are  adapted  to  enter 
sockets  formed  along  the  (>eriphery  of  a  disk 
on  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

63.  Friction  Disk  Clutch. — The  two 
clutch  members  are  each  formed  with  disks 
preferably  faced  with  rubber  dr  leather,  so 
that  when  pressed  together  their  frictional 
engagement  will  cause  a  transmission  of  mo- 
tion from  the  rotating  disk  to  the  other. 

64.  Friction  Groove  ^Clutch. — One  of 
the  clutch  members  is  formed  with  a  groove 
in  its  face  to  receive  the  lip  of  the  other  mem- 
ber which  is  cup-shaped.  Both  the  lip  and 
the  side  walls  of  the  groove  are  slightly 
tapered  to  insure  a  close  fit,  even  after  the 
parts  have  been  partly  worn  away  by  friction. 

65.  Stud  Clutch. — Engagement  between 
the  two  members  of  the  clutch  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  stud  on  each  disk  adapted  to 
enter  a  notch  formed  in  the  periphery  of  the 
opposing  disk. 

66.  Friction  Band  Clutch. — One  mem- 
ber of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  pulley  provideil 
with  a  steel  band  which  encircles  and  fits 
tightly  on  its  periphery.  The  other  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  lever  provided  with 
pins  at  its  outer  ends,  which  are  adapted  to 
engage  the  steel  band.  Since  this  band  is  not 
fastened  to  the  pulley,  any  shock  due  to 
suddenly  throwing  the  clutch  members  into 
enga^^ement  will  be  taken  up  by  the  steel  band 
slipping  on  the  face  of  the  pulley. 

67.  Friction  Cone  Clutch. — The  clutch 
is  made  up  of  two  cones,  one  adapted  to  fit 
into  the  other.  The  frictional  engagement 
causes  one  to  drive  the  other. 

68.  Self-releasing  Cltttch. — The  clutch 
disks  are  provided  with  inclined  teeth,  so  that 
in  case  the  resistance  to  the  driven  shaft  in- 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


creases  beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  clutch 
members  will  automatically  move  apart. 

69.  Cam  Clutch. — One  of  the  members  is 
cup  shaped, -and  within  this  the  other  mem- 
ber operates.  The  latter  comprises  a  number 
of  cam-shaped  arms  hinged  to  a  body  portion, 
and  so  arranged  that  when  moved  in  one 
direction  they  will  bind  against  the  inner 
wall  of  the  drum,  but  when  moved  in  the  op- 
posite direction  they  will  be  automatically 
disengaged  therefrom. 

70.  V-GROOVKD  Clutch. — The  clutch  disks 
are  formed  with  annular  V-grooves -adapted 
to  fit  into  each  other,  and  thus  increase  the 
friction  surface  of  the  clutch  members. 

71.  Expansion  Clutch.  —  The  slidable 
member  is  provided  with  a  number  of  mov- 
able ring  segments  connected  by  radial  arms 
to  the  main  bodv  of  the  clutch  and  adapted 
to  bear  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum 
or  cup  which  constitutes  the  other  member  of 
the  clutch.  When  the  slidable  member  is 
moved  forward,  by  reason  of  the  toggle  ac- 
tion of  the  radial  arms,  the  segments  are 
brought  into  frictional  engagement  with  the 
other  member  of  the  clutch. 

72.  CoiL-GRiP  Clutch.  —  The  movable 
member  of  the  clutch  is  formed  with  a  num- 
ber of  coils  of  steel  in  which  there  is  a  central 
conical  opening.  This  is  moved  over  the 
cone  which  constitutes  the  opposite  member 
of  the  clutch,  producing  the  required  fric- 
tional engagement  of  the  two  members. 

ANGLE    SHAFT    COUPLINGS    AND 
UNIVERSAL  JOINTS. 

73.  Crank  and  Hinqed-fin  Coupling. — 
A  coupling  for  shafts  which  lie  at  an  angle  to 
each  other.  One  shaft  carries  a  hinged  pin 
which  fits  into  an  opening  in  the  outer  end 
of  a  crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft. 

74.  Double-sleeve  Angle  Coupling. — 
Each  shaft  carries  a  crank  arm  provided  with 
a  pin  at  its  outer  end ,  which  lies  parallel  with 
its  respective  shaft.  The  two  pins  enter  a 
coupling  device  consisting  of  two  sleeves  in- 
tegrally formed,  but  Ijnng  at  an  angle  with 
each  other  which  corresponds  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  shafts.  Through  this  double- 
sleeve  coupling,  motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  shaft  to  the  other,  the  pins  sliding  back 
and  forth  in  the  sleeve  openings. 

75.  Cross-bar  Angle  Coupling. — This  is 
used  for  coupling  two  parallel  but  offset 
shafts.  Each  shaft  carries  a  yoke  piece  pro- 
vided with  sleeves  at  its  outer  ends.  The 
couiiling  member  is  a  cross-shaped  piece,  its 
arms  fitting  into  the  sleeves  of  the  yoke 
pieces,  and  permitting  the  necessary  lateral 
play  as  the  shaft  rotates.  This  form  of 
coupling  is  also  applicable  to  shafts  which  lie 
at  an  angle  with  each  other. 

76.  Pin  and  Slot  Coupling. — A  crank 
pin  carried  by  one  shaft  engages  a  slot  in  a 
crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft.  The 
motion  transmitted  is  variable,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  leverage  varies  as  the  pin  moves 
up  and  down  in  the  slot. 

77.  RiNG-GiMBAL  Universal  Joint. — The 
ends  of  the  shafts  are  provided  with  yoke 
members  whose  arms  are  pivoted  to  a  ring- 

fjimbal,  the  pivot  pins  of  the  two  yoke  pieces 
ying  at  rii^ht  angles  to  each  other.  This 
coupling  will  communicate  motion  at  any 
angle  under  45  degs.  For  angles  of  over  45 
degs.  a  double-link  universal  joint  is  used. 


78.  DouBLE-LiNjc  Untversal  Joivt. — A 
link  forked  at  each  end  is  hinged  to  two  rixi£s, 
which  are  mounted  in  the  yoke  pieces  on  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.  In  place  of  ringps  cross 
pieces  such  as  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
often  used. 

79.  Hooke's  Angular  Coupling. — The 
shafts  are  connected  by  two  double  links 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram. Intermediate  of  the  shafts  tlie  links 
are  connected  with  ball-and-socket  joints. 

80.  Ball-and-socket  Universal  Joint. — 
Socket  pieces  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 
shafts,  and  these  are  provided  with  metal 
bands  which  encircle  the  ball  that  constitutes 
the  coupling  member.  The  bands  enter 
grooves  in  the  ball  which  lie  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

^  81.  "Almond"    Angular    Coupling. — A 
side  view  of  the  coupling  is  shown  at  1  and  a 
plan  view  at  2.     Between  the  shafts  to    be 
coupled  is  a  fixed  stud  on  which  a  bell  crank 
is  mounted  to  turn.     The  bell  crank  is  per- 
mitted to  slide  axially  on  the  stud.      The 
bell  crank  is  connected  at  the  ends  by  ball- 
and-socket  joints  with  links  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.     Now,  as  the  power  shaft 
rotates,  rotary  motion  will  be  communicated 
to  the  other  shaft  through  the  bell  crank, 
which  will  rock  and  also  slide  axiaUy  on  the 
stud. 

82.  Flexible  Shaft. — Two  shafts  are  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  shaft  consisting  of  a  coil 
spring,  or  a  metal  tube  in  which  a  helical  saw^- 
slot  has  been  cut.  This  flexible  shaft  will 
permit  transmission  of  motion  through  a 
wide  angular  range. 

83.  Linked  Flexible  Shaft. — The  flex- 
ible shaft  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  links 
coupled  together  with  universal  joints.  A 
coil  spring  fits  loosely  over  the  links  and  pre- 
vents them  from  lupking.  This  spring  in 
turn  is  covered  witn  a  flexible  tube.  The 
shaft  will  transmit  motion  about  almost  any 
curve  or  angle.  It  can  be  used  for  heavy 
work. 

84.  Right-angle  Coupling. — The  ends  of 
the  shafts  are  formed  with  heads  in  which  are 
drilled  a  number  of  sockets.  A  Series  of  rods, 
each  bent  to  form  a  right  angle,  enter  these 
slots  and  form  the  coupling  links  between  the 
shafts.  As  the  shafts  rotate  these  rods  slide 
in  and  out  of  their  sockets. 

RATCHET    MOVEMENTS. 

85.  The  teeth  of  a  ratchet  wheel  are  en- 
gaged by  a  pawl  hinged  to  a  rocking  arm. 
The  ratchet  wheel  is  rotated  only  on  the 
forward  stroke  of  the  arm. 

86.  A  rocking  lever  carries  two  pawls,  one 
on  each  side  of  its  fulcrum.  The  wheel  is 
rotated  both  by  the  downward  and  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever;  for  while  one  pawl  is 
rotating  the  wheel,  the  other  swings  to  posi- 
tion to  take  a  new  hold  on  the  ratchet  wheel. 
The  rotation  of  the  ratchet  wheel  is  thus 
kept  nearly  constant. 

87.  A  ratchet  crown-wheel  or  rag-wheel 
U  engaged  by  pawls  depending  from  two 
arms  loosely  pivoted  on  the  axle  of  the 
ratchet-wheel.  These  two  arms  are  con- 
nectied  by  links  to  a  common  power  arm. 
Rectilinear  reciprocating  movement  of  the 
latter  in  the  line  of  the  arrow  produces  an 
almost  constant  rotation  of  the  ratchet- 
wheel, 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


88.  The  action  of  this  ratchet  mechaniam 
is  very  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  86. 
except  that  the  pawls  are  hooked  ana 
ratchet-wheel  is  rotated  by  an  alternating 
pulling  rather  than  pushing  action  of  the 
pawls. 

89.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  principle 
pictured  in  Fig.  88,  and  shows  a  rocking 
lever  with  two  pawls  hinged  thereon  en- 
gaging a  ratchet  rack. 

90.  Another  modification  of  the  principle 
shown  iix  88.  The  rocking  lever  is  mounted 
on  a  fixed  stud  and  is  provided  at  the  center 
with  a  pin  which  enters  a  slot  in  a  ratchet 
bar.  The  latter  is  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  opposite  edges  which  are  en- 
gaged by  hooked  pawls  pivoted  on  the 
rocking  lever.  These  pawls  are  crossed,  as 
shown,  so  that  they  will  be  kept  by  grav- 
ity in  constant  engagement  with  the  ratchet 
teeth.  Now,  when  the  lever  is  rocked  the 
pawls  will  alternately  act  to  lift  the  ratchet 
bar. 

91.  A  common  construction  used  for 
rotating  a  ratchet-wheel  against  a  spring 
resistance.  A  dog  mounted  on  a  fixed 
pivot  drops  by  gravity  or  by  spring  pressure 
against  the  ratchet  teeth  and  holds  the 
wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl  is  being 
swung  back  for  a  fresh  hold  on  the  ratchet- 
wheel. 

92.  This  shows  the  method  of  rotating  an 
ordinary  spur  gear-wheel  by  means  of  a 
pawl.  The  pawl  is  provided,  with  a  tooth 
at  its  outer  end  which  fits  between  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.  The  pawl  is  hinged  to 
the  lower  arm  of  the  bell-crank  lever 
mounted  on  the  gear  shaft.  The  operating 
lever  also  mounted  on  this  shaft  is  permitted 
a  certain  amount  of  play  between  two  pins 
on  the  shorter  arm  of  the  bell  crank-lever. 
A  rod  connects  the  operating  lever  with  the 
pawl.  When  the  lever  is  raised  it  first  lifts 
the  pawl  out  of  engagement  with  the  gear, 
then,  coming  in  contact  with  the  upper  pin 
on  the  bell  crank-lever,  it  moves  the  pawl 
and  bell  crank  back  to  the  desired  position. 
On  lowering  the  operating  lever  the  pawl  is 
first  brought  into  engagement  with  the  gear 
and  then  the  lower  pin  on  the  bell  crank  is 
encountered,  and  the  gear  is  caused  to  ro- 
tate. This  arrangement  prevents  wearing 
away  of  the  teeth — a  common  defect  in  the 
ordinary  type  of  ratchet  me&hanism. 

.  93.  The  pawl  is  kept  in  contact  with  the 
ratchet-wheel  by  the  weight  of  the  lever  on 
which  it  is  formed.  By  pulling  the  rope 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  lever  the  pawl 
will  be  drawn  out  of  engagement  with  the 
ratchet-wheel,  and  the  latter  will  be  turned 
by  friction  of  the  rope  on  the  wheel  hub. 

94.  A  reversible  spur-gear  rrtchet  me- 
chanLsm.  Mounted  on  the  shaft  which 
carries  the  spur-gear  is  a  bell  crank-lever. 
This  at  one  end  carries  a  double-toothed 
pawl,  one  of  which  teeth  meshes  with  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.  The  pawl  is  so  ehaped 
that  it  will  withdraw  the  tooth  from  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth  on  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever.  When  it  is  dtisired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  pawl  is 
moved  over  to  the  position  shown  in  dottetl 
lines,  bringing  its  other  tooth  into  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth. 

95.  The  ratchet-wheel  is  intermittently 
rotated  by  the  oscillation  of  a  lever  which 
carries  a  spring-pressed  pawl.     On  the  up- 


ward stroke  the  ratehet  is  turned  by   the 

fmwl  which  is  backed  by  a  shoulder  on  the 
ever.  On  the  return  stroke  a  dog  holds  the 
ratchet-wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl 
snaps  past. 

■  96.  Ratchet  teeth  are  formed  on  a  ball 
which  rests  in  a  socket  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  lever.  A  spring  pawl  on  this  lev«*  en- 
gages the  ratchet  teeth  at  any  position  of 
the  lever.  This  construction  is  useful  for 
ratchet  braces  which  have  to  be  operated  in 
inconvenient  places. 

97.  A  device  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibratory  motion.  A  springp-pressed  pin 
engages  the  teeth  of  a  revolvmg  crown- 
wheel ratchet,  and  is  thereby  caused  to 
vibrate.  •      ^ 

98.  A  device  for  converting  recipro- 
cating motion  into  intermittent  rotary 
motion.  The  crown-wheel  ratchet  is  inter- 
mittently rotated  by  a  reciprocating  lever 
carrying  a  pawl  which  engages  the  ratchet 
teeth. 

99.  Internal  ratchet  used  on  ratchet 
braces,  etc.  The  drill  spindle  carries  a 
number  of  spring-pressed  pawls  which  bear 
against  the  internal  ratchet  teeth  formed  in 
the  handle  of  the  brace. 

100.  Ball  ratchet  device  for  lawn  mow- 
ers, etc.  In  the  hub  of  a  wheel  is  a  groove  in 
which  a  ball  is  carried.  A  spring  presses  this 
ball  down  against  a  shaft  on  which  the  wheel 
turns.  When  the  wheel  rotates  forward,  the 
ball  wedges  in  between  the  shaft  and  ths 
groove,  causing  the  shaft  to  turn  with  the 
wheel.  When  the  direction  of  rotation  is 
reversed,  the  ball  is  forced  up  against  the 
spring,  releasing  the  shaft.* 

ESCAPEMENTS. 

101.  Recoil  Escapement. — This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  escapement  used  on  clocks.  The 
pallets  carried  oy  the  pendulum  are  so 
mounted  that  when  a  tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel,  which  is  driven  by  the  clock-train,  is  just 
escaping  from  one  of  the  pallets,  another  tooth 
falls  on  the  other  pallet  near  its  point.  As  the 
pendulum  swings  on,  however,  the  taper  face 
of  the  pallet  bearing  against  the  tooth  causes 
the  escape  wheel  to  turn  slightly  backward. 
As  the  pendulum  swings  back,  it  receives  an 
impulse  from  the  escape  wheel  which  is  greater 
by  reason  of  this  recoil.  The  principal  value 
oi  the  recoil,  however,  is  to  overcome  any  un- 
evenness  in  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  train, 
which  might  otherwise  stop  the  clock. 

102.  Dead-beat  Escapement. — A  form  of 
escapement  used  on  the  best  clocks.  The  teeth 
of  the  escape  wheel  fall  '  'dead"  upon  the  pal- 
lets, that  is,  the  pallets  are  so  cut  that  as  the 
pendulum  continues  to  swing  they  slide  on 
the  teeth  without  turning  the  escape  wheel 
backward.  The  ends  of  tHe  pallets  are  formed 
with  inclined  faces,  termed  "impulse  faces," 
against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escap>e  wheel 
bear  when  giving  impulse  to  the  pendulimi. 
The  value  of  this  escapement  lies  m  the  fact 
that  it  gives  a  very  even  beat  of  the  pendulum 
even  when  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  the 
force  exerted  by  the  clock  train. 

103.  Lever  Escapement. — This  is  an  es- 
capement used  on  watches.  The  anchor  on 
which  the  pallets  are  carried  is  secured  to  a 
lever,  formed  with  a  notch  in  one  end.  This 
notch  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  the  arbor  of  the 
balance  wheel.  The  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
alternately  bear  against  the  inclined  faces  of 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  pallets  and  oscillate  the  lever,  which  turns 
the  balance  wheel  alternately  in  opposite 
directions. 

104.  Verge  Escapement. — ^A  form  of  es- 
capement used  in  old-fashioned  watches.  The 
escape  wheel  is  a  crown  wheel,  and  its  teeth, 
on  opposite  sides,  are  engaged  by  two  pallets, 
carried  on  the  shaft  of  the  balance  whe^.  The 
escapement  teeth,  acting  alternately  on  the 
pallets,  lift  and  clear  them,  thus  rocking  the 
shaft  and  balance  wheel,  which  governs  the 
frequency  of  the  escape. 

105.  Star  Wheel  JBscapement. — The  es- 
cape has  but  few  teeth  and  is,  therefore,  called 
a  star  wheel.  The  pallets  act  on  teeth  that 
lie  diametrically  opposite  each  other.  This 
escapement  has  a  dead-beat  action. 

ICHB.  Crown  Tooth  Escapement. — An  old 
form  of  recoil  escapement,  in  which  a  crown 
escape  wheel  is  used.  The  pallets  are  mount- 
ed to  enga^  opposite  sides  of  the  wheel.  This 
tyi>e  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  pendulum  must  oscillate  through  a  very 
wide  angle  in  order  to  permit  the  teeth  to 
escape  from  the  pallets,  which  requires  a 
greater  pressure  in  the  clock-train  and  heavier 
parts  and  produces  greater  friction  on  the 
pallets. 

107.  Lantern  Wheel  Escapement. — An 
old-fashioned  type  of  escapement,  in  which 
the  escape  wheel  is  a  lantern  wheel,  and  the 
pallets  are  two  plates  set  at  angles  on  a  rock- 
ing arm. 

108.  Pin- wheel  Escapement. — A  dead- 
beat  escapement  used  in  many  of  the  best 
turret  clocks.  The  escape  wheel  is  formed 
with  pins  which  drop  on  to  the  *  'dead ' '  faces 
of  the  pallets,  but  nve  impulses  to  the  pen- 
dulum by  sliding  on  the  inclined  "impulse" 
faces  of  the  pallets.  It  is  found  best  in  prac- 
tice to  cut  the  "dead"  faces  so  as  to  give  a 
very  slight  recoil. 

109.  Old-fashioned  Crown  Wheel  Ea- 
cafement. — This,  in  appearance,  is  quite  sim- 
ilar to  the  escapement  shown  in  Figure  106, 
but  is  different  in  action.  The  inclined  faces 
of  the  teeth,  which  are  very  long,  act  to  lift 
the  pallets. 

1 10.  Ring  Escapement. — A  form  of '  *  dead- 
beat"  escapement.  The  pallets  are  formed 
on  the  inside  of  the  ring,  within  which  the 
escape  wheel  turns. 

Ill  and  112.  Gravity  Escapements. — A 
tvpe  of  escapement  in  which  the  impulse  from 
the  escape  wheel  is  not  given  directly  to  the 
pendulum,  but  through  the  medium  of  two 
weights,  usually  the  arms  on  which  the  pallets 
are  carried  and  which  are  alternately  lifted  by 
the  escape  wheel  and  dropped  against  the  pen- 
dulum. Figure  111  shows  the  four-legged 
¥'avity  escapement  used  on  turret  clocks, 
he  escape  wheel  is  formed  with  four  legs  or 
teeth,  and  carries  eight  pins,  four  on  one  face 
of  the  hub  and  four  on  the  other.  The  pal- 
let arms  are  pivoted  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
point  from  which  the  pendulum  swings.  The 
pallets  which  are  formed  on  these  arms  are 
arranged  to  lie  one  on  one  side  and  the  other 
on  the  other  side  of  the  escape  wheel.  The 
pallet  arms  are  each  provided  with  a  stop 
piece  against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape- 
ment will  alternately  rest.  In  the  illustra- 
tion, a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  is  resting 
against  the  stop  on  the  right-hand  arm.  As 
the  pendulum  swings  toward  the  right,  the 
tooth  will  escape  from  the  stop,  permitting 
the  wheel  to  rotate  \mtil  it  encounters  the 


stop  on  the  left-hand  arm,  at  the  same  time 
a  pin  on  the  wheel  engages  the  end  of  the 
pallet  at  the  left,  and  lifts  the  pallet  arm.  In 
the  meantime  the  right-hand  pallet  arm  swings 
with  the  pendulum  to  the  end  of  its  stroke, 
but  falls  with  it  on  the  return  stroke  until 
stopped  by  a  pin  on  the  escape  wheel.  It 
will  t>e  evident  that  the  angle  through  which 
the  pallet  arm  falls  with  the  pendulum  is 
greater  than  that  through  which  it  is  lifted  by 
the  pendulum,  and  it  is  this  difference  in 
travel  which  gives  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
Figure  112  shows  a  double,  three-leg^d  es- 
capement which  is  used  for  very  large  clocks. 
Two  three-leg^^  escape  wheels  are  used  with 
three  Ufting  pins  held  between  them  like  the 

gins  of  a  lantern  wheel.  The  pallets  operate 
etween  the  wheels.  A  stop  piece  is  placed  on 
one  of  the  pallet  arms  for  the  forward  wheel, 
and  the  other  arm  carries  a  stop  for  the  rear 
wheel.  The  teeth  of  one  wheel  are  set  60 
doerees  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  action 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  four-le«ged  escape- 
ment. A  tooth  of  the  forward  w^el  is  shown 
resting  on  its  stop.  When  this  is  released  by 
the  swinging  pendulum,  the  wheels  rotate, 
lifting  the  left-hand  pallet  until  a  tooth  of  the 
rear  wheel  engages  its  stop.  The  right  pallet 
arm,  however,  continues  to  be  lifted  by  the 
pendulum,  and  then  falls  with  it,  saving  it 
impulse  until  arrested  by  a  lifting  pin,  only 
to  be  lifted  again  when  the  pendulum  releases 
the  rear  wheel  from  its  stop. 

GEARING. 

113.  A  means  for  changing  rectilinear  recip- 
rocating motion  to  rotarsr  reciprocating  motion 
and  vice  versa.  Two  intermeshing  pinions 
engage  internal  racks  formed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  frame. 

114.  Means  for  changing  rotary  motion  to 
rectilinear  reciprocating  motion.  A  jotating 
sector  or  pinion  formed  with  teeth  on  only  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  imparts  reciprocating 
motion  to  a  rack  frame  by  first  engaging  the 
teeth  at  one  side  of  the  rack,  ana  tnen  the 
teeth  on  the  other  side  of  the  rack.  See  Fig- 
ure 1 15  for  gravity  return. 

115.  Another  method  of  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  reciprocating  motion. 
A  rotating  sector  engages  the  teeth  of  a  rack 
during  a  part  of  its  rotation  and  thereby  lifts 
the  rack,  but  as  soon  as  the  rack  clears  the 
sector  teeth,  it  drops  by  gravity,  ready  to  be 
lifted  up  when  it  again  encounters  the  teeth 
of  the  sector.  See  Figure  114  for  power  re- 
turn. 

116  A  movement  designed  as  a  substitute 
for  a  crank.  The  rack  frame  is  formed  with 
internal  racks  on  opposite  sides,  but  these 
racks  lie  in  different  planes.  Two  separate 
pinions  are  employed  which  mesh  respectively 
with  these  racks.  The  pinions  are  mounted 
loosely  on  a  shaft,  but  carry  pawls  which  en- 
gage with  ratchet  wheels  secured  to  the  shaft. 
On  the  forward  stroke  of  the  rack  frame  the 
pinions  will  both  be  rotated  but  in  opposite 
directions.  However,  due  to  their  ratchet 
and  pawl  connection  with  the  shaft,  only  one 
pinion  turns  the  shaft.  On  the  return  stroke 
the  rotation  of  the  pinions  will  be  reversed 
but  the  shaft  will  continue  to  rotate  in  the 
same  direction,  driven  this  time  by  the  other 
pinion  of  the  pair. 

117.  Sun  and  Planet  gearing.  A  gear 
wheel,  called  the  "sun"  wheel,  rotating  on  a 
fixed  center,  is  engaged  by  a  gear  wheel  caUed 


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the  planet  wheel,  which  revolves  about  the 
8un  wheel.  This  construction  was  used  by 
James  Watt  in  one  of  his  steam  engines  bs^  a 
substitute  for  a  crank.  The  planet  wheel  was 
rigidly  secured  to  the  connecting  rod  and  con- 
nected by  an  arm  to  the  center  of  the  sun  wheel . 
At  each  complete  revolution  of  the  planet 
wheel  about  the  sun  wheel,  the  latter  was 
caused  to  rotate  twice. 

118  and  119.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  irregular  reciprocal  motion.  In 
1 18  two  intermeshing  spur  gears  are  provided 
with  crank  arms  connected  hy  a  working 
beam.  If  the  gears  are  of  equal  size  the  mo- 
tion transmitted  to  the  rod  secured  to  the 
working  beam  will  be  uniform.  If,  however, 
the  gears  are  of  different  'sizes,  the  motion  of 
this  rod  will  vary  greatly.  In  119  a  still  more 
complex  movement  is  produced,  since  there 
are  three  intermeshing  gear  wheels  of  unequal 
sizes  and  two  connected  working  beams. 

120.  Irregular  oscillatory  motion  is  given 
to  a  hinged  arm  by  pivoting  at  its  outer  end 
a  cam-shaped  gear  wheel  which  is  rotated  by 
a  continuously  driven  pinion.  Any  desired 
motion  of  the  arm  may  be  produced  by  vary- 
ing the  shape  of  the  cam  pear. 

121.  Means  for  convert mg  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotarv  motion.  An 
elliptical  gear  rotates  at  uniform  speed  and 
drives  a  spur  pinion.  The  latter  is  secured  to 
a  shaft  which  slides  between  the  arms  of  two 
forked  levers.  A  spring  keeps  the  pinion  in 
mesh  with  the  elliptical  gear. 

122.  Means  for  converting  constant  rotary 
motion  into  intermittent  rotary  motion.  The 
driving  wheel  is  formed  with  teeth  through  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  equal  to  the  toothed 
periphery  of  the  pinion.  The  latter  Ls  cut 
away  at  one  place  to  fit  the  plane  portion  of 
the  driving  wheel.  This  prevents  the  pinion 
from  rotatmg  until  a  pin  on  the  wheel  strikes 
a  projecting  arm  on  the  pinion  and  guides  the 
teeth  of  the  gears  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

123.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotary  motion.  A  crown 
wheel  eccentrically  mounted  is  driven  bjr  a 
pinion  rotating  at  uniform  speed.  The  point 
of  engagement  of  the  crown  wheel  with  the 
pinion  varies  radially,  causing  the  wheel  to 
rotate  at  a  variable  speed. 

124.  The  mechanism  is  so  arranged  as  to  im- 
part planetary  movement  to  a  pinion.  An 
internal  gear  wheel  formed  with  a  pulley 
groove  in  its  periphery  is  mounted  to  rotate 
on  a  sleeve  wnich  carries  a  spur  gear  at  one 
end  and  a  pulley  at  the  other.  The  gear 
wheels  are  belted  to  a  driving  pulley  in  such 
manner  as  to  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 
A  spur  pinion  which  fits  in  between  the  teeth  of 
the  two  gears  is  rotated  thereby  on  its  own 
axis  and  revolves  about  the  center  of  the  two 
gears  at  a  speed  which  is  the  differential  of 
the  speeds  of  the  two  gears. 

125.  The  construction  here  shown  is  adapted 
to  produce  a  slow  forward  movement  of  a  rack 
with  a  quick  return.  The  rack  is  mounted  to 
slide  longitudinally  and  is  driven  by  a  toothed 
sector.  The  latter  if  provided  with  a  slotted 
arm  which  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  a  rotating 
disk.  The  forward  movement  will  take  place 
while  the  pin  ia  passing  through  the  larger 
arc  subtended  by  the  two  dotted  radial  lines 
shown,  and  there  turn  while  the  pin  is  pass- 
ing through  the  smaller  arc. 

126.  A  means  for  converting  reciprocating 
motion  into  continuous  rotary  motion.     A 


double-faced  reciprocating  rack  engages  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  a  pair  of  toothed 
sectors.  The  sectors  are  mounted  on  a  pair 
of  shafts,  disposed  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rack.  The  shafts  carry  pinions  which  engage 
opposite  sides  of  the  central  pear  wheel.  The 
rotary  motion  alternately  miparted  to  the 
sectors,  is  conveyed  through  these  pinions  to 
the  gear  wheel,  each  pinion  alternately  acting 
to  drive  the  wheel  when  its  respective  sector 
is  in  mesh  with  the  rack,  and  then  to  be 
driven  by  the  gear  wheel  until  its  sector  is 
brought  again  in  mesh  with  the  rack.  Thus 
a  continuous  rotary  motion  is  produced. 

127  Mechanism  for  converting  uniform 
rotary  motion  into  irregular  rotary  motion. 
Mounted  eccentrically  on  the  driving  shaft  is 
a  gear  wheel  which  transmits  motion  to  an- 
other gear  wheel  through  an  intermediate 
pinion.  Pivoted  to  the  centers  of  the  two 
gear  wheels  are  two  links  whose  outer  ends 
are  connected  by  a  hinge  pin  on  which  the 
pinion  rotates.  These  links  serve  to  hold  the 
pinion  constantly  in  mesh  with  the  gears,  no 
matter  what  the  position  of  the  eccentric  is. 

128.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  reciprocating  motion.  A 
rack  frame  mounted  to  slide  longitudinally  is 
driven  by  an  eccentric-toothed  sector.  The 
racks  are  placed  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of 
movement  and  are  provided  with  jaws  at  each 
end  adapted  to  mesh  with  pins  projecting 
above  the  face  of  the  sector.  As  the  sector 
rotates  it  transmits  a  gradually  accelerated 
longitudinal  movement  to  the  rack  frame 
until  the  outer  pin  engages  the  jaw  at  the  end 
of  the  rack.  The  rack  frame  is  then  driven 
by  this  pin  until  the  opposite  rack  is  engaged 
by  the  sector  teeth. 

129  to  132.  Mangle  Gears. — So-called  be- 
cause of  their  use  on  mangle  machines.  129. 
The  larger  wheel  is  formed  with  a  cam  groove ' 
which  guides  the  pinion.  The  shaft  of  the 
latter  is  ordinarily  provided  with  a  universal 
joint,  which  permits  it  to  move  vertically  and 
thus  keep  in  mesh  with  the  crown  .  teeth 
formed  on  the  large  wheel.  The  pinion 
meshes  first  with  the  outer  and  then  with  the 
inner  ends  of  the  teeth  on  the  larger  gear, 
driving  the  latter  first  in  one  direction,  and 
then  in  the  other.  130  shows  another  form 
of  the  same  moveinent.  The  pinion  moves 
radially  in  the  slot  shown  in  dotted  lines,  and 
engages  first  the  outer  and  then  the  inner  line 
of  teeth  on  the  mangle  wheel,  causing  the 
latter  to  rotate  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  the  othet-.  131.  The  mangle  wheel  is 
formed  with  an  internal  gear,  and  the  pinion 
is  guided  by  a  cam  groove.  This  construc- 
tion and  that  shown  in  Figure  130  produce 
uniform  motion  through  an  almost  complete 
rotation,  and  this  is  followed  by  a  auick  re- 
turn due  to  the  smaller  radius  of  the  inner 
circle  of  teeth.  132.  In  this  construction,  as  in 
that  of  Figure  129,  the  same  speed  is  main- 
tained in  both  directions  of  rotation.  The 
mangle  wheel  in  Figure  132  is  formed  with 
teeth  on  both  faces;  the  pinion  first  engages 
the  teeth  on  one  face  of  the  wheel,  and  then 
passing  through  the  opening  eng^ages  the 
teeth  on  the  opposite  face,  thus  reversing  the 
direction  of  rotation. 

133  to  137.  Differential  Gear. — 133.  Two 
worm  wheels,  one  of  which  has  more  teeth 
than  the  other,  engage  a  single  worm.  Sup- 
pose that  one  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the 
other  has  101;  then  at  every  complete  rotar- 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


tion  of  the  latter  wheel  it  will  be  one  tooth 
behind  the  former  wheel,  and  at  the  end  of 
100  rotations  the  former  would  have  made  a 
complete  rotation  relative  to  the  latter.  If  the 
worm  be  cut  with  a  single  thread  it  would  have 
to  make  100  times  101,  or  10,100  rotations  in 
order  to  produce  this  result.  This  construc- 
tion is  used  on  certain  counting  devices. 
134.  Two  bevel  gears  are  connected  by  a  pair 
of  small  bevel  pinions  mo\mted  in  a  frame,  as 
shown  in  the  side  elevation  1.  If  the  gear 
wheels  should  be  rotated  at  di£Ferent  veloci- 
ties the  frame  would  rotate  at  the  mean  veloc- 
ity. 135.  A  rapidly  rotating  shaft  carries  a 
fear  wheel  eccentrically  mounted  thereon, 
'he  latter  is  carried  along  into  engagement 
with  a  fixed  internal  gear  or  rack,  and  is  there- 
by rotated  at  a  slow  speed.  136.  Two  con- 
centrically mounted  bevel  gears  of  different 
diameters  engage  with  a  third  bevel  gear. 
The  latter  rotates  at  the  mean  of  the  velocities 
of  the  other  two.  137.  A  hollow  screw  threaded 
into  a  frame  is  formed  with  an  internal  thread, 
of  slightly  different  pitch,  adapted  to  receive  a 
smfidler  screw,  which  is  so  mounted  in  the 
frame  that  it  may  slide  longitudinally,  but 
cannot  rotate.  If  the  larger  screw  should 
have  ten  threads  to  the  inch,  and  the  smaller 
screw  eleven,  the  latter  would  move  outward 
one-eleventh  part  of  an  inch  while  the  former 
was  fed  inward  an  inch. 

138.  Uniform  rotary  motion  converted  into 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion.  A  rack 
frame  arranged  to  slide  longitudinally  is  en- 
gaged by  a  toothed  sector  which  meshes  with 
the  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  rack  to  drive  the 
frame  forward,  and  then  with  the  teeth  on 
the  other  side  to  drive  the  frame  back. 

J 39.  Variable  speed  gear  for  producing  fast 
and  slow  motion.  It  comprises  two  pairs  of 
toothed  sectors  so  arranged  as  to  properly 
mesh  with  each  other.  The  driving  gear 
shown  at  the  right  is  provided  with  two  arms 
which  carry  studs  at  their  outer  ends.  These 
studs  lie  below  the  lower  face  of  the  gears  and 
engage  studs  formed  on  the  lower  face  of  the 
driven  gear,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines,  thus 
guiding  the  wheels  after  one  pair  of  sectors 
have  moved  out  of  mesh  and  before  the  other 
pair  have  come  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

140.  Mechanism  for  producing  increased  or 
decreased  speed  on  the  same  line  of  shafting. 
A  fixed  bevel  gear  wheel.  A,  meshes  with  two 
bevel  gear  wheels,  B,  which  in  turn  mesh 
with  a  pinion,  E^  carried  on  the  right-hand 
shaft.  The  bevel  wheels,  B,  are  mounted  in 
a  bracket  which  turns  freely  on  the  shaft  of 
pinion,  E.  Each  wheel,  B,  carries  a  pinion, 
C,  which  meshes  with  a  bevel  gear  wheel,  D, 
carried  by  the  left-hand  shaft.  The  change 
of  speed  from  one  shaft  to  the  other  is  due 
to  the  planetary  movement  of  the  wheels,  B 
and  C.  When  the  multiple  of  the  teeth  in  A 
and  C  exceeds  that  of  B  and  D  the  shafts 
wiU  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 

CAMS    AND    CAM    MOVEMENTS. 

141  and  142.  Cylinder  or  Drum  Cams. — 
In  Figure  141  a  groove  is  formed  in  the  curved 
face  of  a  cylinder  or  drum.  A  roller  on  the 
end  of  a  pivoted  arm  fits  into  this  groove. 
As  the  drum  rotates  the  arm  will  be  swung  to 
various  positions,  guided  by  the  groove  in  .the 
cam.  In  Figure  142  the  roller  bears  against 
the  rim  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  made  of  such 
shape  as  to  give  the  desired  motion  to  the 
*cver.     In  this  form  of  cam,  while  the  roller 


is  positively  moved  down  by  the  cam  rim,  it 
is  raised  up  by  a  spring  on  the  lever,  which 
tends  to  bold  it  constantly  against  the  cam. 
In  the  first  type  of  cam  the  motion  is  positive 
in  both  directions. 

143.  Beveled  Cam. — This  form  of  cam  is 
used  to  give  motion  to  a  lever  whose  axis  lies 
at  an  angle  with  the  cam-shaft.  The  cam  is 
of  conicfd  form  with  curved  edges  against 
which  the  lever  bears.  In  our  illustration  we 
have  shown  a  sliding  rod  in  place  of  a  rocking 
lever.  The  conical  face,  it  wiU  readily  be 
seen,  must  lie  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
rod.    . 

144.  Face  Cam. — The  cam  groove  is  cut  in 
the  face  of  a  disk,  and  this  on  being  rotated 
guides  the  movement  of  the  rocking  lever 
which  carries  a  roller  that  enters  this  groove. 

145.  Clover-leaf  Cam. — This  is  a  form  of 
disk  cam  which  gives  a  positive  drive  to  a 
sliding  lever.  The  cam  acts  between  two 
rollers  on  the  lever,  and  is  so  cut  as  to  exactly 
fill  the  space  between  these  rollers  at  all  times. 

146.  Heart  Cam. — Another  form  of  disk 
cam.  This  is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  recti- 
linear motion  to  a  sliding  rod  which  bears 
against  its  edge.  To  lay  out  this  cam,  divide 
the  desired  line  of  travel  of  the  rod  into  any 
convenient  number  of  equal  spaces,  starting 
from  the  center  of  the  roller,  and  from  the 
center  of  the  cam  describe  arcs  passing  through 
the  dividing  points.  Twice  the  number  of 
radial  lines  should  be  laid  off  from  the  center 
of  the  cam,  the  lines  being  equsdly  spaced  an- 
gularly. The  successive  points  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  radial  lines  and  the  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  centers  for  a  series  of  arcs  with  radii 
equivalent  to  the  radius  of  the  roller.  The 
curve  drawn  tangent  to  these  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  outline  of  the  cam. 

147.  Means  are  here  shown  for  converting 
rotary  motion  into  alternating  reciprocating 
motion  of  two  rods.  The  rods  are  attached 
to  pivoted  levers  carrying  rollers  which  bear 
against  the  edges  of  two  ovsd  disk  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft. 

148.  Rotary  motion  is  here  converted  into 
variable  rectilinear  motion.  The  end  of  a 
sliding  lever  rests  on  the  irregular  edge  of  a 
disk  cam,  and  is  there  by  caused  to  move  up 
and  down  following  the  irregularities  of  the 
cam.  The  cam  shown  gives  three  recipro- 
cations of  the  rod  for  each  rotation  of  the  cam 
shaft. 

149.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion  of 
a  shaft  into  rocking  motion  of  a  lever.  The 
lever  is  caused  to  rock  by  a  cam  with  an  ob- 
lique face  on  which  the  roller  of  the  lever 
bears.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  motion 
shown  in  Figure  142. 

150.  Means  for  converting  rocking  motion 
of  a  shaft  into  imiform  rectilinear  motion  of  a 
rod.  The  rod,  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
bearings,  carries  a  pin  which  engages  a  slot  in 
the  cam  on  the  rocking  shaft.  The  cam  slot 
is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  motion  to  the  rod. 

151.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  a  shaft  is 
here  converted  into  intermittent  reciprocating 
motion  of  a  slide.  A  cam  lever  hinged  at  its 
lower  end  to  a  fixed  point  is  connected  by  a 
rod  at  its  upper  end,  to  the  slide.  A  crank 
arm  on  the  rotating  shaft  carries  a  pin  which 
enters  a  curved  slot  in  the  cam  lever.  The 
crank  arm  causes  the  lever  to  rock,  carrying 
the  slide  with  it.  The  cam  slot  should  form 
an  arc  with  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the  crank 
arm,  so  that  while  the  crank  pin  is  passing 


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throui^  this  arc  the  slide  will  remain  station- 
ary. This  motion  is  used  on  certain  types  of 
sewing  machines  and  printing  presses. 

152.  The  type  of  cam  used  on  the  needle 
bars  of  some  sewing  machines.  A  pin  on  a 
rotating  disk  engages  a  slot  in  a  cam  yoke  on 
the  needle  bar.  This  slot  is  formed  with  a 
curve  at  one  place,  which  holds  the  bar  sta- 
tionary, while  the  pin  is  passins  through  it. 
This  causes  the  needle  to  stop  wnile  the  shut- 
tle passes. 

153.  This  cam  motion  di£Fers  from  that  of 
Figure  152,  in  that  it  causes  the  sliding  bar  to 
stop  midway  of  its  upward  stroke  and  midway 
of  its  downward  stroke.  The  cam  slot  com- 
prises two  parallel  sections  connected  by  two 
curved  sections.  While  the  pin  on  the  rotat- 
ing disk  passes  through  the  curved  sections 
the  bar  is  held  stationary. 

154.  The  cam  here  shown  causes  the  sliding 
bar  to  stop  at  the  end  of  each  stroke.  The 
cam  is  triangular,  with  curved  faces,  and 
rotates  between  the  two  parallel  working 
faces  of  a  cam  frame  on  the  sliding  bar.  While 
the  outer  face  of  the  cam  engaj^es  the  frame 
the  bar  is  held  stationary.  This  is  a  form  of 
cam  motion  used  in  place  of  an  eccentric  for 
operating  the  valve  of  a  certain  French  engine. 

155.  A  peculiar  variable  intermittent  mo- 
tion of  the  sliding  rod  is  given  by  the  planetary 
action  of  a  cam  mounted  on  a  rotating  disk. 
The  cam  shaft  passes  through  the  disk  and 
carries  a  pinion  which  meshes  with  a  station- 
ary internal  gear  wheel. 

156.  A  rectangular  motion  is  imparted  to 
the  cam  frame  by  two  triansular  curved  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft.  The  frame  is 
mounted  to  slide  laterally  in  bearings,  which 
in   turn   dre  permitted  to  slide  vertically  in 

Sooves  on  two  stationary  supports.  The 
une  is  made  up  of  two  horizontal  rails  on 
which  one  of  the  cams  acts,  and  two  vertical 
rails  on  which  the  other  cam  acts  The  illus- 
tration shows  the  frame  about  to  be  moved 
downward  by  the  forward  cam  acting  on  the 
lower  rail  while  the  rear  cam  prevents  any 
lateral  movement.  On  the  next  quarter  rota- 
tion of  the  cam  shafts  a  lateral  movement  will 
ensue,  due  to  the  rear  cam  acting  on  the  right- 
hand  vertical  rail.  At  the  same  time  the  for- 
ward cam  will  hold  the  frame  against  vertical 
movement.  During  the  third  quarter  of  the 
rotation  the  frame  will  be  lifted,  and  during 
the  last  quarter  it  will  be  moved  back  lateraUy 
to  the  position  illustrated.  If  the  cams  are 
both  of  the  same  size,  the  motion  of  the  frame 
will  trace  a  perfect  square. 

157.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibrating  motion.  A  forked  lever  en- 
gages opposite  edges  of  a  disk  cam,  and  is 
thereby  caused  to  vibrate.  This  cam,  as  that 
in  Figure  145,  is  so  cut  that  its  opposite  edges 
are  everywhere  equidistant  when  measured 
through  the  center.  For  this  reason  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  cam  must  always  be  cut 
with  an  odd  number  of  projections. 

158.  A  recently  patented  mechanism  for 
imparting  power  to  the  dasher  shaft  of  a 
chum.  A  rocking  movement  is  imparted  to 
the  shaft  from  a  rotating  cam.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a  forked  piece  or  follower 
mounted  to  turn  in  a  socket  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  shaft.  The  follower  engages 
a  spline  on  the  cam  and  is  thereby  guided 
first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the  other  of  the 
cam,  rocking  the  shaft  on  its  axis. 


159.  Trammel  Giear. — A  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of 
a  shaft,  and  vice  versa.  Pivoted  to  the  rod 
are  two  blocks  which  slide  respectively  in  two 
slots  in  the  face  of  the  disk  which  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles.  This  movement 
was  patented  seventy  years  ago,  but  is  con- 
stantly being  reinvented  as  a  substitute  for 
the  crank. 

160.  Mechanism  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.  This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  eccentric  used  on  steam  engines, 
etc.,  for  communicating  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion to  the  vfidves  from  the  crank  shaft.  The 
rod  is  provided  with  a  circular  strap  which  is 
bolted  over  a  disk  or  ring  eccentrically 
mounted  on  the  crank  shaft- ^ 

161.  This  form  of  eccentric  is  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Figure  160,  but  an  oval  cam  frame 
or  yoke  is  used  in  place  of  a  circular  strap,  so 
as  to  produce  a  rectilinear  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod.  This  form  of  eccentric  acts 
directly  on  the  valve  rod  which  travels  be- 
tween fixed  guides. 

162.  Spiral  Cam  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.  The  cam  is 
formed  with  a  flange  or  spline,  disposed  spi- 
rally on  the  curved  face  of  the  wheel.  Tlie 
spline  engages  a  notch  in  a  rod  and  gives  the 
latter  a  reciprocating  movement  when  the 
cam  is  rotated. 

163.  Elliptical  Crank. — Two  cranks  are 
connected  with  a  single  pitman,  the  outer  one, 
through  a  connecting  link.  The  circular 
movement  of  the  inner  crank  causes  the  outer 
end  of  the  pitman  to  move  in  an  elUptical 
orbit,  thereby  increasing  its  leverage  at  cer- 
tain points. 

164.  A  device  for  gripping  a  bar  or  cable. 
The  bar  travels  between  a  fixed  guide  and  the 
cam-shaped  head  of  a  lever.  When  the  lever 
is  thrown  up,  friction  of  the  bar  on  the  cam 
tends  to  rotate  the  latter  until  it  becomes 
wedged  between  the  cam  and  the  fixed  guide. 

165.  Lever  Toggle-joint. — A  device  com- 
monly used  on  letter-presses.  One  of  the  two 
connected  arms  is  pivoted  to  the  platen  of 
the  press  and  the  other  is  hinged  to  a  fixed 
standard.  By  lifting  the  lever  on  one  of  the 
toggle  arms  the  arms  will  be  brought  into  ver- 
tical alignment  with  each  other,  producing  a 
powerful  pressure  on  the  platen. 

166.  Screw  Toggle  Press. — Two  toggle  arms 
are  hinged  to  the  letter-press  and  at  their 
outer  ends  are  hinged  to  nuts  on  the  feed 
screw.  The  screw  is  cut  with  right-  and  left- 
hand  threads,  so  that  when  turned  in  opera- 
tive direction  it  will  draw  the  arms  toward 
each  other  and  press  the  platen  downward. 

167.  Bell  Crank  Toe  Levers.— Two  tell 
crank  levers  are  provided  with  projecting  toes 
which  bear  against  each  other  When  one  of 
these  levers  is  swung  on  a  center  it  causes  the 
other  to  swing  also,  but  at  a  variable  speed, 
due  to  the  varying  leverage.  This  mecha- 
nism is  used  for  a  type  of  valve  gear. 

168.  Wiper  Cam. — A  type  of  cam  used  on 
certain  stamp  mills  to  lift  the  hammer.  The 
cam  bears  against  a  flan^ced  collar  on  the  ham- 
mer spindle,  which  permits  the  latter  to  rotate. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MOVEMENTS. 

169.  Device  for  transmitting  recipfocatixijK 
motion  from  one  pair  of  rods  to  another  pair 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.  The  rods  are 
all  connected  by  links  so  that  when  two  op- 
posed rods  are  moved  inward  or  toward  Mtcb 


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other,  the  other  two  rods  will  be  moved  out- 
ward, and  vice  versa.  Also  if  two  adjacent 
rods  be  moved  the  one  outward,  and  the 
other  in  ward,  the  opposite  rods  will  be  moved 
one  outward  and  the  other  inward  respec- 
tively. 

170.  Means  for  converting  rotary  into  recip- 
rocating motion.  A  bent  shaft  carries  at  its 
outer  end  an  arm  which  is  loosely  moimted 
thereon.  The  lower  end  of  this  arm  engages 
a  slot  in  a  bar  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
suitable  guides.  As  the  bent  shaft  rotates, 
the  arm  which  is  prevented  from  rotating 
with  the  shaft  is  given  a  rocking  movement 
in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  and  thus  imparts 
a  reciprocating  movement  to  the  bar. 

171.  Movement  used  on  hand  stamps.  The 
plate  which  carries  the  type  normally  lies  face 
upward  against  an  ink  pad,  and  is  formed  with 
a  flanse  at  each  end  in  which  cam  slots  are 
cut.  The  type  plate  is  pivoted  in  a  yoke 
piece  to  which  the  handle  is  secured,  the 
pivot,  pins  passing  through  slots  in  the  up- 
rights of  the  frame.  When  the  handle  is 
depressed,  the  type  plate  is  carried  down- 
ward and  at  the  same  time  rotated  by  engage- 
ment with  two  pins  which  operate  in  the  cam 
slots  so  that  tne  type  will  face  downward 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  paper. 
The  parts  are  returned  to  normal  position  by 
a  spring  on  release  of  the  handle. 

172.  A  peculiar  device  for  alternately  rock- 
ing a  pair  of  levers  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 
rod.  The  rod  carries  a  bell  crank  lever,  A. 
This  lever  is  normally  held  in  the  position 
illustrated  by  two  pins  against  which  it  is 
pressed  by  the  spring-pressed  rod.  Two  bell 
crank  levers,  B  and  C,  connected  by  a  bar, 
are  hinged  adjacent  to  the  rod.  With  the 
parts  in  the  position  illustrated,  when  the 
rod  is  drawn  forward,  one  arm  of  the  bell 
crank.  A,  will  engage  a  pin  at  the  end  of 
lever,  B,  and  will  oe  thereby  turned  until  it 
engages  a  stop  piece,  Z>,  on  the  rod,  after 
which  it  will  operate  to  swing  bell  crank,  B, 
on  its  axis.  Owing  to  the  connection  be- 
tween the  levers  B  and  C,  the  latter  will  also 
be  sv/ung  but  in  the  opposite  direction.  On 
return  of  the  rod  the  bell  crank  lever.  A,  is 
brought  to  normal  position  by  the  two  posi- 
tion pins,  and  when  next  the  rod  is  drawn 
forward,  the  other  arm  of  lever  A  will  engage 
a  pin  on  lever  C,  returning  both  levers  B  and 
C  to  their  original  positions. 

173.  Mechanism  for  transmitting  rotary 
motion  at  increased  speed  from  one  shaft  to 
another  in  alignment  therewith.  The  lower 
or  driving  shaft  carries  a  crown  wheel  at  its 
upper  end  which  is  engaged  by  a  second  crown 
wneel  having  universal  joint  connection  with 
a  stationary  central  post.  The  latter  is  sup- 
ported from  the  frame  by  cross  arms,  which 
are  adapted  to  engage  slots  cut  in  the  second 
crown  wheel,  and  thus  prevent  the  wheel 
from  rotating.  The  upwardly  projecting  frame 
of  the  second  crown  wheel  is  connected  to  a 
wheel  on  the  upper  shaft,  but  eccentric  there- 
to, by  means  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  The 
driven  crown  wheel  is  thus  tilted  so  as  to 
engage  the  teeth  of  the  driving  wheel.  As 
the  latter  rotates  the  driven  wheel  is  given  a 
rocking  or  wobbling  movement,  which  rotates 
the  upper  shaft.  A  slight  movement  of  the 
lower  shaft  thus  produces  a  complete  rota- 
tion of  the  upper  shaft. 

174.  A  device  for  converting  reciprocating 
into  rotary  motion  and  vice  versa.     Two  inter- 


meshing  gear  wheels  are  provided  with  spring 
pawls  oppositely  disposed  on  the  gears,  and 
adapted  alternately  to  snap  into  engagement 
with  a  lug  on  a  reciprocating  rod  and  thereby 
impart  rotary  motion  to  the  gears. 

175.  A  device  for  spacing  apart  a  number 
of  bars.  The  bars  are  arranged  to  slide  w^ith 
a  certain  amount  of  friction  between  ^uide 
pieces.  Normally  they  are  crowded  together 
m  a  group  by  a  pair  of  coil  springs.  A  pair 
of  rotating  spur  wheels  whose  teeth  engage 
the  pointed  ends  of  the  bars  are  mounted  on 
either  side  to  slide  vertically  in  suitable  guide- 
wajrs.  The  vertical  movement  of  the  gears 
carries  the  bars  downward  against  the  springs 
and  the  slow  rotary  movement  of  the  gears 
successively  releases  the  bars  at  regular  inter- 
vals. The  bars  remain  where  released,  being 
held  by  frictional  engagonent  with  the  guide 
pieces. 

176.  An  early  form  of  flexible  shaft  coup- 
ling. One  of  the  shafts  is  pointed  and  fits 
into  a  socket  in  the  other  shaft.  Each  shaft 
carries  a  collar  and  these  are  connected  by  a 
flat  spiral  spring. 

177.  Centrifugal  hanmier.  Two  ham- 
mers are  hinged  on  a  rapidly  revolving  disk. 
As  the  disk  revolves,  these  hammers  are  al- 
ternately swimg  by  the  added  force  of  gravity 
and  of  centrifugal  action,  on  to  the  anvil.  A 
very  powerful  stroke  is  thus  given. 

178.  A  device  for  communicating^  recipro- 
cating motion  of  an  engine  to  a  rotating  crank 
in  such  manner  that  the  crank  will  have  a 
greater  throw  than  the  stroke  of  the  engine 
crosshead.  The  connecting  rod  acts  on  the 
crank  shaft  through  a  "lazy  tongs"  which 
multiplies  the  stroke  and  affords  a  better 
leverage  upon  the  same. 

179.  A  device  for  producing  two  rotations 
of  the  crank  shaft  of  an  engine  at  each  com- 

Elete  (forward  and  return)  stroke  of  the  croes- 
ead.  The  crosshead  of  the  engine  is  con- 
nected by  a  rod  to  a  pair  of  connected  levers, 
one  of  which  is  pivoted  on  a  fixed  pin  and  the 
other  to  the  working  be&m.  Owing  to  the 
toggle  action  of  the  levers  the  working  beam 
will  rise  and  fall  twice  while  the  crosshead 
moves  to  its  outer  position  and  returns. 

180.  A  device  for  converting  rocking  move- 
ment into  rectilinear  reciprocating  movement, 
usually  called  ' '  parallel ' '  motion.  Two  links 
pivoted  on  the  fixed  pin  A  connect  at  their 
outer  ends  with  two  links  pivoted  on  a  rod  at  D. 
The  latter  links  are  also  connected  to  a  pair  of 
links  pivoted  to  a  rock  arm  C.  The  dis- 
tance between  A  and  B,  the  fixed  pivot  of 
the  rock  arm,  is  equal  to  the  distance  be- 
tween B  and  C.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
double  link-quadrangle  swings  on  two  pivots, 
it  will  be  lengthened  when  swung  out  of  the 
vertical  position,  thus  giving  a  rectilinear 
motion  to  the  rod  Z>.  This  movement  is 
called  "Peaucellier's"  parallel  motion.  It  is 
used  to  give  rectilinear  movement  to  a  pump 
rod  or  to  the  piston  rod  of  an  engine. 

181.  Another  device  for  producing  recti- 
linear movement  of  a  pump  rod.  The  rod, 
instead  of  being  directly  connected  to  the 
working  beam  of  an  ennne,  is  connected 
thereto  by  cross  links.  This  motion,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  true  "parallel  motion,'*  but 
the  rod  is  strained  by  cross  connection. 

182  to  184.  Devices  for  overcoming  "dead" 
centers  of  cranks.  In  Figure  182  the  pitman 
is  connected  to  one  end  ofa  leaf  spring,  whose 
other  end  is  connected  to  the  crank  disk.    The 


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pitman  is  thus  permitted  to  play  between  two 
socket  lugs  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
disk.  Just  before  the  back  center  is  reached, 
the  pitman  slips  out  of  engagement  with 
the  lower  socket,  by  reason  of  the  tensile 
strain  on  the  spring,  then  on  the  return  stroke, 
the  connection  of  the  spring  being  above  the 
line  of  centers,  the  spring  vields  and  throws 
the  pitman  back  into  the  lower  socket,  and 
acts  upon  it  to  rotate  the  disk,  until  the 
forward  center  is  reached,  when  the  action 
will  be  the  reverse  of  that  just  described.  In 
183  the  pitman  is  attached  to  a  plate  secured 
to  the  flywheel  at  two  points  by  screws  pass- 
ing through  slots  cut  diagonally  in  the  plate. 
In  starting  the  wheql  from  either  of  its  dead 
centers,  the  pitman  will  cause  the  plate  to 
slide  on  its  diagonal  slots  and  the  pitman  will 
thus  carry  itself  out  of  the  dead  center.  The 
plate  will  then  be  returned  to  normal  position 
by  a  spring.  The  device  shown  in  184  is 
specially  applicable  to  machines  operated  by 
treadles.  Attached  to  the  pitman  is  a  piston 
acting  in  a  cylinder  pivoted  to  the  rod  on 
which  the  treadle  is  hinged.  Within  the 
cylinder  are  two  coil  springs  which  alter- 
nately act  on  the  piston  to  carry  the  crank 
over  the  two  dead  centers. 

185.  A  device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  lying  at  right  angles 
thereto.  The  driving  shaft  is  formed  with  a 
spiral  ribbon  which  acts  between  rollers  ra- 
dially mounted  on  a  wheel,  carried  by  the 
driven  shaft.  The  wheel  is  formed  with  a 
double  series  of  rollers,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  spiral  shaft,  but  the  forward  series  has 
been  cut  away  in  the  illustration  to  show 
detail.  The  action  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
worm  and  worm  wheel,  but  friction  is  reduced 
by  the  use  of  the  rollers. 

186.  An  internal  worm  gear  is  here  shown 
which  offers  the  same  advantages  as  the  inter- 
nal spur  gear,  namely,  that  of  greater  strength 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  area  of  contact  be- 
tween the  worm  and  the  worm  wheel  is  in- 
creased. The  worm  wheel  is  made  up  of  two 
hollow  sections,  clamped  together,  but  so 
spaced  as  to  form  a  slot  in  the  rim  through 
which  the  worm  shaft  passes. 

187.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  rocking  motion.  The  power  shaft  car- 
ries two  cams  formed  with  corrugated  peri- 
pheries. On  opposite  sides  of  the  rock  shaft 
are  two  rollers,  one  for  each  cam.  The  cams 
are  so  spaced  that  when  one  roller  is  being 
lifted,  the  other  will  fall.  Thus,  a  rocking 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  rock  shaft.  The 
same  effect  may  be  produced  by  using  a  sin- 
gle broad  cam  for  the  two  rollers,  but  spacing 
one  roller  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other  on 
the  rock  shaft. 

188.  Another  form  of  internal  worm  gear. 
A  worm  wheel  is  mounted  on  a  stationary 
bracket  and  engages  the  spiral  thread  formed 
in  a  ring.  As  the  ring  revolves  about  the 
gear,  the  latter  is  caused  to  slowly  rotate.  As 
in  Figure  186,  a  very  strong  construction  and 
powerful  transmission  is  afforded  by  this 
arrangement 

189.  A  sliding  toggle  movement  is  here 
shown  for  producing  great  pressure  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  impelling 
forccr  The  toggle  members  are  so  mounted 
and  are  of  such  shape  that  they  combine  the 
action  of  the  inclined  plane  with  the  ordinary 
toggle  action. 


190.  Means  for  giving  parallel  movement  to 
the  paddles  of  steamboats,  etc.  The  power 
shaft  carries  a  disk  which  is  connected  by  a 
series  of  hinged  links  with  a  ring  held  eccen- 
trically to  the  shaft,  between  pairs  of  rollers. 
The  paddles  are  attached  to  the  links  and  are 
thereby  kept  parallel,  while  the  disk  and  ring 
rotate.  This  same  arrangement  can  be  used 
to  communicate  motion  to  shafts  lying  out  of 
alignment  with  each  other,  one  of  the  shafts 
being  attached  to  the  rinc. 

191.  Device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  at  decreased  velocity. 
The  device  is  here  shown  diagrammatically. 
The  driving  shaft  carries  an  eccentric  A,  upon 
which  spur  gears  B  and  C  are  fitted  to  turn 
freely.  The  latter  are  permanently  secured 
together.  Wheel  B  meshes  with  internal  gear 
Z>,  on  the  driven  shaft,  and  wheel  C  meshes 
with  the  stationary  internal  gear  E.  In  oper- 
ation the  eccentric  carries  g^ar  C  about  gear 
E,  thereby  causing  it  to  rotate  on  its  own 
center.  The  ^  gear  B  will  be  revolved  by 
the  eccentric  in  one  direction  and  be  rotated 
in  the  opposite  direction  by  the  gear  C  to 
which  it  is  attached,  thus  causing  the  gear  D 
to  move  at  a  reduced  speed, 

192  to  196.  Ball-bearing  Devices. — In 
192  is  shown  a  ball-bearing  knuckle  joint  con- 
sisting of  a  flanged  socket  member  having 
sockets  for  the  reception  of  steel  friction  balls, 
and  a  second  member  formed  with  flanges 
which  bear  against  the  friction  balls.  When 
the  device  is  in  operation,  the  balls  will  roll 
back  and  forth  in  their  sockets  at  each  rota- 
tion of  the  knuckle  joint.  In  193  a  common 
form  of  ball-bearing  is  shown.  The  balls  are 
held  in  stationary  cups  and  bear  against  cones 
on  the  rotating  shaft.  194  shows  an  end- 
thrust  ball  bearing  of  common  form.  195 
shows  a  ball-bearing  wheel  or  caster.  The 
balls  are  arranged  to  travel  over  an  endless 
path,  being  guided  from  the  forward  end  of 
the  wheel  bearing,  through  a  passageway  in 
the  body  of  the  caster,  to  the  rear  of  the 
wheel  bearing  surface.     196  shows  the  same 

Principle  applied  to  a  worm  and  worm  wheel, 
'he  thread  of  the  worm  does  not  enga^  the 
teeth  of  the  worm  wheel,  but  communicates 
motion  thereto  through  a  series  of  balls.  The 
latter,  when  they  reach  the  end  of  the  worm 
thread,  are  guided  back  through  a  passage- 
way in  the  worm  body  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thread. 

197.  Means  for  converting  reciprocating 
rectilinear  movement  into  reciprocating 
rotary  movement.  A  primitive  form  of  turn- 
ing lathe.  The  wooden  shaft  or  other  objec  t 
to  be  turned,  is  mounted  to  rotate  freely  be- 
tween pivot  pins.  A  rope  coiled  about  the 
shaft  has  its  free  ends  secured  to  a  sprihg 
bow.  In  operation,  the  handle  of  the  bow 
is  seized  in  one  hand,  and  the  other  hand 
holds  the  tool  against  the  work,  which  is 
rotated  first  in  one  direction,  and  then  in  the 
other,  by  moving  the  bow  back  and  forth. 

198.  This  is  another  form  of  primitive  lathe 
which,  however,  is  adapted  to  be  driven  by 
foot  power.  The  rope,  which  is  woimd 
around  the  shaft  is  secured  at  its  upper  end 
to  a  spring,  usu  lly  the  end  of  a  thin  board, 
and  at  its  lower  end  to  a  pedal.  When  the 
1  atter  is  depressed,  the  shaft  will  rotate  toward 
the  cutting  to^  and  on  its  release  the  spring 
will  cause  it  to  rotate  back,  ready  tor  the  next 
downward  stroke  of  the  pedal.     This  type  of 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


487 


lathe  is  still  commonly  used  in  some  Eastern 
countries. 

199.  An  ancient  form  of  drill,  but  one  which 
is  still  used  by  jewelers.  Coiled  about  the 
spindle  of  the  drill  are  two  cords  whose  lower 
ends  are  secured  to  a  cross  piece  mounted  to 
slide  up  and  down  on  the  spindle.  When  the 
cross  piece  is  pressed  downward,  it  causes  the 
cords  to  uncoil,  rotating  the  spindle.  When 
the  cross  piece  reaches  the  bottom  of  its  stroke 
the  pressure  on  it  is  relieved,  and  due  to  the 
momentum  of  a  heavy  flywheel  on  the  spin- 
die,  the  latter  continues  to  rotate,  recoiling  the 
cords  and  lifting  up  the  cross  piece.  On  the 
next  downward  stroke  of  the  cross  piece,  the 
spindle  will  rotate  in  the  opposite  direction. 

200.  Trip  hammer.  A  rotating  disk  is 
formed  with  a  series  of  pins  adapted  con- 
secutively to  Repress  one  arm  of  a  bell  crank 
to  the  opposite  arm  of  which  a  hammer  weight 
is  connected  by  a  cord.  When  the  bell  crank 
clears  a  pin  on  the  di!>k,  the  weight  drops,  de- 
livering the  blow,  and  is  then  lifted  again  by 
the  next  pin  acting  on  the  bell  crank. 

201.  Means  for  converting  reciprocating 
motion  into  rotary  motion.  A  rope  attached 
at  one  end  to  a  foot  pedal  passes  over  an  inter- 
mediate pulley,  ana  is  attached  at  the  other 
end  to  the  weighted  crank  arm  of  a  shaft. 
The  arrangement  is  such  that  on  the  down- 
ward or  power  stroke  of  the  pedal.the  weighted 
arm  will  be  lifted  to  the  vertical  position, 
when  it  will  be  assisted  b}^  gravity  and  its  own 
momentum  to  continue  its  rotation  and  lift 
the  pedal  for  the  next  downward  stroke. 

202  to  205.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  motion.  In  202,  se- 
cured to  a  rotating  shaft  is  a  cam  formed  with 
projecting  horns,  which  are  adapted  to  suc- 
cessively engage  a  lug  on  a  sliding  rod.  The 
rod  is  thereby  given  a  trip-hammer  move- 
ment, dropping  by  gravity  as  the  lug  clears 
the  horns.  In  203,  a  disk  mounted  eccen- 
trically on  a  rotating  shaft  is  engaged  on 
opposite  sides  by  a  pair  of  rollers,  pivoted  to 
a  rod.  As  the  shaft  rotates,  the  rod  will  be 
moved  up  and  down,  following  the  eccentric 
movement  of  the  disk.  This  movement  is 
used  on  windmills  to  transmit  motion  from  the 
rotating  windmill  shaft  to  the  pump  rod.  In 
204  a  shaft  is  provided  with  radial  arms  bearing 
rollers  at  their  outer  ends.  These  are  adapted 
to  operate  within  a  frame  mounted  to  slide, 
and  formed  with  two  lugs  diagonally  disposed 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  frame.  When  the 
shaft  is  rotated,  by  means  of  the  crank  arm 
shown,  the  frame  will  be  moved  first  to  one 
side  by  one  of  the  rollers  engaging  one  of  the 
lugs,  and  then  in  the  opposite  direction  by 
another  of  the  rollers  moving  into  engage- 
ment with  the  other  lug.  In  205,  a  sliding 
carriage  is  formed  with  a  lug  adapted  to  be 
engaged  successively  by  a  series  of  pins  on  a 
revolving  disk.  The  carriage  will  be  moved 
forward  by  one  of  the  pins  until  the  latter 
clears  the  lug,  when  the  carriage  will  be 
moved  back  again  by  another  pin  engaging 
an  arm  of  a  bell  crank  whose  other  arm  en- 
gages the  carriage. 

206.  Automatic  release  for  a  winding  drum. 
A  winding  drum  is  mounted  to  turn  freely  on 
a  shaft.  A  hook  is  pivoted  on  the  face  of  the 
drum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  rotate  the 
drum  the  hook  is  brought  into  engagement 
with  a  taopet  on  the  shaft.  When,  however, 
the  weight  has  been  raised  to  a  predetermined 
position  by  the  winding  drum,  a  pin  strikes  the 


hook,  releasing  it  from  engagement  with  the 
tappet  and  permitting  the  weight  to  drop. 

207.  An  amusement  device  called  the  "Fly- 
ing Horse ' '  used  in  parks  and  fairs.  A  f ranr.e 
mounted  to  rotate  on  a  vertical  spindle,  is 
provided  with  a  simple  gear  wheel,  which 
meshes  with  a  driving  pinion.  By  alter- 
nately pulling  the  cords,  radiating  from  a 
crank  on  the  shaft  which  carries  the  pinion, 
the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses  at 
the  corners  of  the  frame,  are  enabled  to  keep 
the  apparatus  in  motion. 

208.  This  figure  shows  a  single  pulley  driv- 
ing four  other  pulleys  by  means  of  a  cross- 
shaped  connecting  rod.  This  form  of  drive 
is  occasionally  used  for  rotating  wheels  or 
cylinders  which  lie  so  close  to  each  other  that 
no  gearing  or  other  mechanism  for  transmit- 
ting motion  can  be  used. 

209.  This  figure  illustrates  the  rather  cu- 
rious fact  that  if  two  wheels  are  coupled  to- 
gether by  a  connecting  rod,  whose  crank  pins 
are  respectively  equally  distant  from  the 
centers  of  the  whee.s,  then  while  one  wheel 
is  constantly  rotated  in  one  direction  the 
other  may  be  rotated  in  the  same  direction, 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  desired. 

210.  A  stop  motion  used  in  brick  machines 
for  drawing  the  mold  back  and  forth,  and 
bringing  it  to  rest  at  each  stroke  to  permit 
of  depositing  the  clay  and  removing  the  brick. 
A  rotating  wheel  carries  a  crank  pin  which 
engages  a  slot  in  a  connecting  rod.  At  the 
end  of  its  forward  stroke,  and  at  the  end  of 
its  return  stroke  the  connecting  rod  will  re- 
main stationary,  while  the  crank  pin  moves 
from  one  end  of  the  slot  to  the  other. 

211.  A  device  used  in  sewing  machines  for 
feeding  the  goods  under  the  needle.  The 
feed  bar  is  formed  with  teeth  at  one  end  and 
the  opposite  end  is  pivoted  between  the  arms 
of  a  forked  lever.  The  feed  bar  is  lifted  by 
a  peripheral  projection  on  a  cam,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  forked  lever  is  moved  forward 
by  a  projection  on  the  side  face  of  the  cam, 
which  bears  against  a  lug  carried  on  the  lever. 
A  spring  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever  nor- 
mally holds  the  lug  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  cam. 

212.  Mevator  safety  device.  Secured  to 
the  side  of  the  elevator  shaft  is  a  plate 
formed  with  one  or  more  studs.  To  the  wind- 
ing drum  of  the  elevator  a  number  of  hooks 
are  pivoted.  When  the  drum  rotates  the 
hooks  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action, 
and  if  dangerous  speed  is  acquired,  they  swing 
out  far  enough  to  catch  hold  of  one  or  more 
of  the  studs,  bringing  the  drum  to  a  stop. 
The  shock  of  the  sudden  stoppage  is  usually 
taken  up  by  a  coil  spring  on  the  drum. 

213.  A  device  for  converting  oscillating 
motion  of  a  lever  into  intermittent  rotary 
motion.  A  crank  arm  which  is  provided  with 
two  pawls  hinged  to  its  upper  end,  is  oscil- 
lated within  the  rim  of  a  wheel.  The  pawls 
are  connected  by  a  cord  to  a  small  crank, 
which  may  be  turned  so  as  to  bring  one  pawl 
into  frictional  emragement  with  the  rim  of 
the  wheel,  and  thereby  cause  the  wheel  to 
rotate  intermittently.  When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  crank 
is  turned,  raising  the  first  pawl  and  bringing 
the  other  one  into  engagement  with  the  wheel. 

214.  Means  for  converting  rectilinear  mo- 
tion into  rotary  motion.  This  is  used  on 
certain  forms  of  drill  stocks.  The  drill  stock 
is  cut  with  two  spiral  grooves,  one  of  which 


438 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


is  left-handed  and  the  other  right-handed.  A 
ring  on  the  drill  stock  is  provided  with  a  fol- 
lower which  follows  one  of  the  grooves  on  the 
forward  stroke,  and  the  other  groove  on  the 
return  stroke,  thus  catising  the  drill  to  turn 
always  in  the  same  direction. 

215.  An  automatic  bench  clamp,  used  by 
carpenters  for  holding  the  work  while  planing, 
etc.  Pivoted  to  the  work  bench  are  two  cam 
levers,  formed  with  curved  ends,  which  are 
moved  apart  by  the  work  as  it  is  pressed  in 
between  them,  thus  causing  the  clamping 
ends  of  the  levers  to  tightly  grip  the  work. 

216.  Gripping  tongs  for  lifting  stones  and 
the  like.  The  upper  arms  are  connected  to 
a  shackle  by  a  pair  of  links  so  that  when  a 
pull  is  exerted  on  the  shackle,  the  arms  are 
drawn  together,  pressing  the  points  into  the 
stone ;  the  heavier  the  stone  lifted  the  more 
tightly  will  the  arms  be  drawn  together,  thus 
increasing  the  grip  on  the  stone. 

217.  A  series  of  cross  connected  levers  used 
for  multiplying  or  reducing  motion.  In  the 
illustration,  the  lowest  pair  of  levers  is  pivoted 
to  a  fixed  pin  A,  and  tne  arrangement  is  such 
that  if  one  pair  of  the  crossed  levers  be  folded 
together,  the  entire  series  will  fold,  giving  the 
rod  attached  to  the  upper  pair  of  levers  a 
greatly  multiplied  longitudinal  movement,  and 
conversely  ii  the  rod  be  moved,  a  greatly 
reduced  motion  will  be  given  to  the  lower 
pair  of  links.  The  extent  to  which  the  mo- 
tion is  multiplied  or  reduced  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  pairs  of  levers  in 
the  series.  This  device  is  called  a  *'lazy 
tongs. ' '  The  figure  also  shows  a  means  for 
multiplying  motion  imparted  from  one  recti- 
linear reciprocating  rod  to  another.  If  the 
fixed  pivot  of  the  lazy  tongs  be  at  B,  on  siving 
reciprocating  motion  to  the  lower  rod,  the 
reciprocating  motion  will  be  imparted  to  the 
upper  rod,  but  the  travel  of  the  upper  rod  will 
be  twice  that  of  the  lower  rod. 

DRAFTING   DEVICES. 

218.  A  pantograph,  or  an  instrument  for 
reproducing  a  drawing  on  a  larger  or  smaller 
scale.     It  comprises  two  levers  hinged  to- 

f aether  and  connected  by  a  pair  of  hinged 
inks.  One  of  the  levers  carries  a  slide,  Af 
in  which  a  pencil  is  secured.  The  other  lever 
carries  a  pivot  pin,  and  the  tracing  point  is 
located  at  C.  In  use  the  device  is  made  to 
turn  on  the  fixed  point  at  B,  then  on  moving 
the  tracing  point  C  over  a  drawing,  the  same 
will  be  reproduced  by  the  pencil  &t  A.  By 
varying  the  positions  of  the  pencil  and  the 
pivot  pin  on  their  respective  levers,  the  re- 
production may  be  made  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  original  as  desired. 

219.  This  figure  shows  the  '  'parallel  ruler, ' ' 
a  device  used  for  drawing  parallel  lines.  Two 
parallel  rulers  are  connected  by  a  pair  of  par- 
allel links  of  equal  length.  The  rulers  will  then 
always  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  whether 
swung  apart  or  moved  together. 

220.  A  device  for  drawing  a  conchoid  curve. 
A  conchoid  curve  may  be  described  as  a  curve 
of  such  form  that  when  measured  along  lines 
drawn  from  a  fixed  point  called  the  pole,  it 
will,  at  all  points,  be  equidistant  from  a 
straight  line,  called  the  asymptote.  The  de- 
vice shown  comprises  a  T-square  with  grooved 
head-piece  adapted  to  receive  a  slide  pivoted 
to  a  bar.  A  slot  in  the  lower  end  of  this  bar 
engages  a  pin  on  the  blade  of  the  T-square 
and  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar  carries  the 


scribing  pencil.  The  pin  represents  the  pole 
and  the  grooved  head  of  the  T-square  repre- 
sents the  asymptote.  The  curve  traced  by 
the  pencil  when  measured  along  the  bar  lies 
everywhere  equidistant  from  the  asvmptote. 

221.  An  ellipsojjaph  or  a  device  for  dra^ir- 
ing  ellipses.     This  is  similar  to  the  panto- 

graph  shown  in  Figure  218.  The  fixed  pivot, 
owever,  is  at  B,  the  tracine  point  at  A,  and 
the  pencil  at  C.  When  A  is  moved  in  a 
straight  line  toward  or  away  from  B^  the 
pencil  C  will  trace  an  elliptical  curve. 

222.  A  device  for  drawing  a  helical  curve. 
A  rod  provided  with  a  pivot  point  is  threaded 
to  receive  a  nut  with  a  milled  flange.  As  the 
rod  is  moved  about  ts  center,  the  nut  is  ro- 
tated by  a  frictional  contact  of  the  flange 
with  the  drawing  paper,  and  is  thus  slowly 
fed  toward  or  away  from  the  center.  A  pen- 
cil carried  by  a  sleeve  on  this  nut  will  then 
trace  a  helical  curve. 

^  223.  A  device  for  describing  parabolas.  A 
pin  is  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  aesired  parab- 
ola and  a  straight-edge  is  placed  on  the  line 
of  the  directrix.  A  slack  cord  is  secured  at 
one  end  to  the  pin,  and  at  the  other  to  the 
blade  of  a  square  whose  stock,  bears  against 
the  straight  edge.  The  slack  of  the  cord  is 
taken  up  by  the  pencil,  which  bears  against 
the  blade  of  the  square.  Sufficient  slack  is 
provided  to  make  the  distance  of  the  pencil 
irom  the  focus  equal  to  its  distance  from  the 
straight-edge  or  directrix.  The  curve  then 
described  by  the  pencil  while  keeping  the  cord 
taut  against  the  square,  as  the  square  is  moved 
along  the  straight-edge,  will  be  a  parabola. 

224.  A  device  for  describing  hvperbolas. 
The  two  pins  shown  represent  the  foci  of  two 
opposite  hyperbolas.  A  ruler  turns  on  one  of 
these  pins  as  a  center,  and  its  opposite  end  is 
connected  with  the  other  pin  by  a  slack  cord. 
The  slack  of  the  cord  is  taken  up  by  the 
pencil  which  bears  against  the  ruler.  The 
curve  described  will  then  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  a  hyperbolic  curve,  which  requires  that  the 
distance  from  any  point  in  the  curve  to  its 
focus,  minus  the  distance  from  that  point  to 
any  other  fixed  point  or  focus,  should  always 
be  a  constant  quantity. 

GOVERNORS. 

A  governor  of  a  steam  engine  is  a  device 
for  automaticallv  operating  the  throttle,  or 
for  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve 
when  the  engine  attains  a  dangerous  speed. 

225.  Watt's  Governor. — When  a  danger- 
ous sp>eed  is  acquired,  the  centrifugal  force 
acting  upon  a  pair  of  balls  tends  to  lift  a 
sleeve  which,  through  a  bell  crank,  operates 
the  throttle. 

226.  Porter's  Governor. — The  operation 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  Watt,  but  tne  balls 
are  required  to  lift  a  weight  which  may  be 
adjusted  as  desired. 

227.  Kley's  Cross  Arm  Governor. — The 
degree  of  sensitiveness  is  governed  by  the 
length  of  the  cross  arms,  and  also  by  an  ad- 
justable weight,  which  is  lifted  by  the  balls. 

228.  Brss^  Governor. — Two  pairs  of  balls 
are  used,  one  pair  acting  to  counterbalance 
the  other. 

229.  Tanqte's      Governor.— The      balls 
when  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action  de- 
press a  rod  in  the  hollow  central  shaft  and 
this  rod  acts  directly  on  the  block  in  the  link 
thus  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


439 


230  and  231.  Proell's  Governor. — In  230 
the  balls,  aside  from  lifting  a  weight,  act  to 
compress  a  spiral  spring.  In  231  the  outward 
movement  ot  the  balls  is  controlled  by  an  air 
dashpot. 

232.  Cosine  Governor. — A  cross  arm  gov- 
ernor which  acts  to  raise  a  weight. 

233.  Parabolic  Governor. — The  balls 
move  on  parabolic  guide  arms,  which  modify 
the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force,  and  produce 
equal  valve  movement,  which  is  exactly  pro- 
portional to  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

234.  Oscillating  Lever  Governor. — 
The  balls  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  a  lever, 
which  assimies  a  more  horizontal  position  as 
the  speed  of  the  engine  increases.  A  si)ring 
normally  holds  the  arm  in  the  tilted  position 
illustrated. 

235.  Sweet  's  Flywheel  Governor. — The 
centrifugal  action  of  the  ball  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center,  thus  reducing  the 
stroke  of  the  slide  valve.  A  leaf  spring  re- 
sists the  centrifugal  action  of  the  bsill. 

236.  Hartnell's  Expansion  Governor. — 
The  balls  are  thrown  out  by  centrifueal  force 
against  the  action  of  a  spring  raising  the  block 
in  the  link  and  thus  varjdng  the  stroke  of  the 
valve. 

237.  Hartnell  *s  Crank  Shaft  Governor. 
— The  weights  operate  against  the  spring  to 
move  a  toothed  sector,  which  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft,  thus 
varying  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 

238.  Turner's  Crank  Shaft  Governor. — 
The  weights  have  bearings  in  the  side  plates 
of  the  ffovemor.  They  also  carry  pins  by 
which  they  are  connected  to  the  eccentric. 
When  the  weights  are  thrown  out  by  cen- 
trifugal action,  they  move  the  eccentric 
toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft. 

239  and  240.  Vane  Governors. — The  shaft 
is  prevented  from  rotating  too  rapidly  by  the 
atmospheric  resistance  acting  on  a  pair  of 
vanes.  This  resistance  may  be  varied  by  ad- 
justing the  vanes  to  different  angles.  In 
some  types  of  vane  governors  the  inclined 
vanes  serve  to  lift  a  sleeve,  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  power. 


SPRINGS. 

241  and  242.  Laminated  or  Carriaoib 
Springs,  used  on  carriages  to  take  up  the 
jolts  of  the  wheels  in  passing  over  uneven 
roads.  241  shows  the  elliptical  form,  and 
242  the  semi-elliptical  form.  They  are  built 
up  of  flat  spring  metal  strips. 

243.  Watch  or  Clock  Spring,  used  to 
drive  a  watch  or  clock  train.  The  spring  is 
formed  of  a  flat  spring  metal  strip,  wound 
into  a  flat  coil. 

244.  Ribbon  Spring. — A  strip  of  flat  spring 
metal  mounted  to  exert  a  torsional  pressure. 

245.  Spiral  Spring. — A  length  of  round 
spring  wire  wound  into  spiral  form.  This 
spring  could  be  used  either  as  a  tension  or  as  a 
compression  spring,  though  usually  it  has  the 
form  shown  in  Figure  247  when  used  as  a 
tension  spring.  A  spiral  spring  should  never 
be  extended  or  compressed  more  than  one- 
third  of  its  length. 

246.  Sear  Spring. — This  spring  gets  its 
name  from  its  use  in  gun  locks  for  causing  the 
sear  to  catch  in  the  notch  of  the  tumbler. 
However,  the  spring  is  here  shown  as  holding 
apart  the  arms  of  a  compass. 

247.  Tension  Spiral  Spring. — A  spiral 
spring  which  tapers  toward  the  ends  so  that 
the  pull  will  come  centrally' on  the  spring, 
thus  giving  an  even  tension  and  avoiding  side 
strains. 

248.  Flat  or  Leap  Spring. — A  strip  of  flat 
spring  metal  used  chiefly  as  a  compression 
spring.  A  spring  of  this  type  is  apt  to  lose  its 
resiliency  after  continued  use. 

249.  Disk  Spring. — A  compression  spring 
made  up  of  a  series  of  dished  disks  or  plates. 

250.  Helical  Spring. — This  spring  differs 
from  the  spiral  spring.  Figure  245,  in  that  it 
is  formed  by  being  wrapped  around  a  cone, 
whereas  a  spiral  spring  is  formed  by  being 
wrapped  around  a  cylinder.  The  helical 
spring  may  safely  be  compressed  until  it  lies 
flat  like  a  clock  spring. 

251.  Volute  Spring. — ^A  compression  spring 
formed  by  coiling  a  flat  spring  ribbon  into  a 
helix. 

252.  Fdrniture  Spring. — A  compression 
spring  comprising  a  double  helical  spring  used 
in  furniture  to  support  the  cushioned  oacks 
or  seats  of  chairs.  This  spring  is  also  used  in 
bed  springs. 


TRANSMISSION     OF    POWER    BY     BELTING. 


The  Tenacity  of  Good  New  Belt  Leath- 
er varies  from  3,000  lb.  to  5,000  lb.  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

The  Coefficient  of  ^  Friction  between 
ordinary  belting  and  cast-iron  pulleys  is  about 
.423. 

The  Thickness  of  Belts  varies  from 
three-sixteenths  to  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
or  an  average  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 

Tenacity  of  Riveting  and  Lacing. — The 
ultimate  tenacity  of  good  single  leather  belt- 
ing may  be  taken  at  about  1,000  lb.  per  inch 
in  width;  the  corresponding  strergth  of  a 
riveted  joint  being  about  400  lb.,  a  butt  laced 
joint  about  250  lb.,  and  an  ordinary  overlap 
laced  joint  470  lb.  It  is  not  customary,  how- 
ever, to  allow  an  effective  strain  of  more  than 
one-fourth  these  amounts. 

Working  Stress  of  Belts. — The  follow- 
ing are  the  effective  working  stresses  allowed 


for   the  different    kinds   and   thicknesses  of 
belts  referred  to  in  the  table  of  powers. 

Ordinary  single  belts,    50  lb. 

Light  double  belts,        70  lb. 

Heavy  double  belts,      90  lb. 

Link  Delts,  |  in.  thick,  42  lb. 


t  in. 

*•     48  1b. 

1  in. 

•  •     57  lb. 

f  ^'*- 

••      661b. 

t  in. 

••     78  1b. 

1  in. 

"     901b. 

Speed  or  Belting. — On  ordinary  shop  line 
shafts  the  velocity  of  the  belts  varies  from 
1,000  ft.  to  1,500  ft.  per  minute.  Lathe  belts 
vary  from  1,500  ft.  to  3,000  ft.  per  minute. 

Stress  on  Shafting. — The  cross  stress  on 
shafting  arising  from  the  sum  of  the  tension 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  belt  may  be  taken  at 
90  lb.  per  inch  in  width. — Practical  Electrical 
Engineers'  Pocket  Book  and  Diary. 


440  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


-f^^^ 


-^fFlH^a-T^ 


tnti  11    @ 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


44J 


94, 


IS. 


/6. 


JZ 


BB* 


/8. 


—From  Haeder  &  Fowles'  Handbook  on  the  Steam  Engine. 


TYPES    OF     ENGINES. 


1.  Trunk  Engine. 

2  and  3    Vertical  Engines. 

4.  Steeple  Engine. 

5.  Inclined  Frame  Engine. 

6.  Oscillating  Elngines. 

7.  Corliss  Frame  or  Girder  Engine. 

8.  Horizontal  Engine. 

9.  Radial  EnioEine. 

10.  Beam  Engine. 

11.  Beam  Engine 

12.  Self  Contained  Horizontal  Engine. 

13.  Inclined  Cylinder  Engine. 

14.  Double  Cylinder  with  Cranks  opposite  or 

at  180*'. 


15.  Three  Cylinder   Engine  with  Cranks  at 

120°. 

16.  Compound    Woolf    Engine    with    Cranks 

together. 

17.  Compound    Woolf    Engine    with    Cranks 

opposite  or  at  180°. 

18.  Compound    Tandem    Engine    with    Re- 

ceiver. 

19.  Compound    Engine    with    Cylinders   side 

by  side  and  Cranks  at  90°. 

20.  Triple  Expansion  Engine,  Cylinders  side 

by  side  and  Cranks  at  120°. 

21.  Triple   Expansion   Engine,  semi-tandem: 

Two  Cranks  at  90°. 


PABT  in. 


CHAPTER    I. 


CHEMISTRT. 


TABLE  OF  ELEMENTS  * 


Elements. 


Discoverer. 


Antimony Valentine.  . . 

Bismuth Valentine.  .  . 

Zinc Paracelsus. . . 

Phosphorus Brandt 

Arsenic Schroder.  . . . 

Cobalt Brandt 

Nickel Crondstadt.  . 

Hydrogen Cavendish. . . 

Nitrogen Rutheiiord. . 

Manganese Gahn 

Oxygen Priestley. .  . . 

Tungsten. d'Elihujar. . . 

Molybdenum Hjelm 

Tellurium Reichenstein. 

Uranium Klaproth. . . . 

Titanium Klaproth. . . . 

Chromium Vauquelin. . . 

Tellurium Klaporth. . . . 

Columbium Hatchett. 


Year. 

..1450 
..1450 
..1520 
.  . 1669 
. . 1694 
. . 1733 
. . 1761 
.  .  1766 
. . 1772 
. . 1774 
.  1774 
.  . 1781 
..1782 
. . 1782 
.  . 1789 
. . 1795 
..1797 
.  . 1798 
. . 1801 


Tantalum Hatchett  &  Ekeburg.1802 

Palladium Wollaston 1803 

Osmium Tennant 1803 

Cerium.  ..Berzelius,  Hisinger  &  Klaproth .  1803 

Iridium Tennant 1804 

Rhodimn Wollaston 1804 

Potassium Davy.  ^ 1807 

Sodium Davy 1807 

Barium.  . .  Davy  and  Berzelius  &  Pontin .  1808 

Strontium Davy 1808 

Magnesium Davy 1808 

Calcium. .  .  Davy  and  Berzelius  &  Pontin .  1808 
Boron.  .Davy  and  Gay-Lussac  &  Th^nard.1808 

Chlorine Davy 1810 

Fluorine Amp^ .1810 

Iodine Courtois 1811 

Selenium Berzelius 1817 

Cadmium Hermann  &  Stromeyer.1817 

Lithium Arfvedson 1817 

Silicon Berzelius 1823 

Zirconimn Berzelius 1824 

Bromine Balard 1826 

Thorium Berzeliiis 1828 

Yttrium Wohler. 1828 

Glucinum Wohler 1828 

Aluminum Wohler 1828 

Vanadium Sefstroem 1830 


Elements. 


Discoverer.         Year. 


Lanthanum Mosander 

Didymium Mosander   

Erbium Mosander 

Terbium Mosander 

Niobium . .  (same  as  Columbium,  q.  y. 

Ruthenium Claus 

Rubidium Bunsen. 


). 


1841 
1841 
1843 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1860 

Csesium Bunsen  &.  Kirchhoff .  1860 

Thallium Crookes  and  Lamy.  .  1862 

Indium Reich  &  Richter 1863 

Gallium Boisbaudran 1875 

Ytterbium Marignac 1878 

Samarium Boisbaudran 1879 

1879 
1879 
1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1894 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 


Scandium Nilson. 

Thulium Cleve 

Neodymium Welsbach 

Praseodymium Welsbach 

Gadolinium Marignac 

Germanium Winkler 

Argon Rayleigh  &.  Ramsay . 

Krypton Ramsay  &  Travers .  . 

Neon Ramsay  <k  Travers . , 

Coronium Nasini 

Xenon Ramsay 

Victorium Crookes 

Etherion  (?) Brush. 


Polonium.  .     Curi^(Mrs.) 1898 

Radium .  Curias  (Mrs.  &  Mr. )  and  B^mont 


1898 

1899 

Phipson's 


Actinium Debieme 

(Must  not  be  confoundcKl  with 
actinium.) 

Asterium  hydrogen .  Lockyer 1899 

(New)  unknown. 

Thorium  a Brauner 1900 

Thorium  ^ Brauner 1900 

Krjrpton  II Ladenberg  &  Krugel.1900 

Austrium  II. ( ?).  . .  .Pribram 1900 

Carolinium Baskerville 1900 

Radio-active  lead  ( ?)Hoffmann  &  Strauss.  1900 

**!**  Europium.  .  .  .Demar^ay 1901 

Euxenium  earth  ( ?).Hoflfmann  «fc  Prandtl  1901 
L  &  II. 

1902 

1903 

1903 


Amarillium  (7) Courtis. .  .  . 

Tellurium  X Pellini 

Berzelium Baskerville. 


Revised  by  Professor  Charles  Baskerville,  Ph.D.,  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 


*  Gold,   silver, 
earliest  times. 


tin,  copper,  iron,  lead,  mercury,  and  carbon   have  been  known  from  the 

443 


444 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERNATIONAL     ATOMIC     WEIGHTS. 


Elements. 


Rym 
bul. 


Aluminum Al 

Antimony Sb 

Argon A 

Arsenic As 

Baiium Ba 

Bismuth |  Bi 

Boron I  B 

Bromine i  Br 

Cadmium j  Cd 

Caesium I  Cs 

Calcium '  Ca 

Carbon '  C 

Cerium Ce 

Chlorine CI 

Chromium Cr 

Cobalt Co 

Columbium Cb 

Copper '  Cu 

Erbium Er 


Fluorine 

Gadolinium.  . 

Gallium 

Germanium.  . 
Glucinum. . . . 

Gold 

Helium 

Hydrogen.  .  . 

Indium 

Iodine 

Iridium 

Iron 

►Krypton.  .  .  . 
Lanthanum.  . 

Lead 

Lithium 

Magnesijm.  . 
Manganese. .  . 

Mercury 

Molybdenum. 


F 

Gd 

Ga 

Ge 

Gl 

Au 

He 

H 

In 

I 

Ir 

Fe 

Kr 

La 

Pb 

Li 

Mg 

Mn 

Hg 

Mo 


0  =  1&.        H  =  l 


27.1 
120.2 

39.9 

75.0 
137.4 
208.5 

11 

79.96 
112.4 
132.9 

40  1 

12.00 
140.25 

35.45 


.1 
.0 


52 

59 

94 

63.6 
166 

19 
156 

70 

72 

9 

197 

4 

1 

114 

126.85 
193.0 

55.9 

81.8 
138.9 
206.9 
7.03 

24.36 

55.0 
200.0 

96.0 


5 
1 

2 

008 


26.9 

119.3 
39.6 
74.4 

136.4 

206.9 
10.9 
79.36 

111.6 

131.9 
39.8 
11.91 

139.2 
35.18 
51.7 
58.56 
93.3 
63.1 

164.8 
18.9 

155 
69.5 
71.9 
9.03 

195.7 
4 
1 

113 

125 

191 
55 
81.2 

137.9 

205.35 
6.98 
24.18 
54.6 

198 
95 


000 

1 

90 

5 

5 


5 
3 


Neodymium.  .  . 

Neon 

Nickel 

Nitrogen.    .  .  . 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

Palladium.  ... 
Phosphorus.  .  . 

Platinum 

Potassium .... 
Praseodjonium , 

Radium 

Rhodium 

Rubidium.  .  . . , 
Ruthenium.  . . 
Samarium.  ... 
Scandium.  .  .  .  . 

Selenium 

Silicon , 

Silver , 

Sodium 

Strontium.  .  . . , 

Sulphur , 

Tantalum.  .  .  .  . 
Tellurium.  .  .  .  , 

Terbium 

Thallium 

Thorium , 

Thulium 

Tin 

Titanium , 

Tun^ten , 

Uranium , 

Vanadium 

Xenon 

Ytterbium 

Yttrium 

Zinc 

Zirconium 


Sym- 
bol. 

Nd 

0-16. 

143.6 

Ne 

20 

Ni 

58.7 

N 

14.04 

Os 

191 

O 

16.00 

Pd 

106.5 

P 

31.0 

Pt 

194.8 

K 

39.15 

Pr 

140.5 

Ra 

225 

Rh 

103.0 

Rb 

85.4 

Ru 

101.7 

Sm 

150 

So 

44.1 

Se 

79.2 

Si 

28.4 

Ag 

107.93 

Na 

23.05 

Sr 

87.6 

S 

32.06 

Ta 

183 

Te 

127.6 

Tb 

160 

Tl 

204.1 

Th 

232.5 

Tm 

171 

Sn 

119.0 

Ti 

48.1 

W 

184 

U 

238.5 

V 

51.2 

Xe 

128 

Yb 

173.0 

Yt 

89.0 

Zn 

65.4 

Zr 

90.6 

H  =  l. 


142.5 

19.9 

58.3 

13.93 
189.6 

15.88 
105.7 

30.77 
193.3 

38.86 
139.4 
223.3 
102.2 

84.8 
100.9 
148.9 

43.8 

78.6 

28.2 
107.12 

22.88 

86.94 

31.83 
181.6 
126.6 
158.8  . 
202.6 
230.8 
169.7 
118.1 

47.7 
182.6 
236.7 

50.8 
127 
171.7 

88.3 

64.9 

89.9 


EEPORT    OF   THE    INTERNATIONAL    COMMITTEE    ON    ATOMIC 

WEIGHTS. 


The  International  Committee  on 
Atomic  Weights  has  the  honor  to  of- 
fer the  following  report : 

In  the  table  of  atomic  weights  for 
1J>04  only  two  changes  from  1903  are 
recommended.  The  atomic  weight  of 
caesium  has  been  slightly  modified  to 
accord  with  the  recent  determinations 
by  Richards  and  Archibald,  and  that 
of  cerium  in  conformity  with  the  meas- 
urements by  Brauner.  The  value  for 
lanthanum  is  still  in  controversy,  and 
any  change  here  would  therefore  be 
premature.  The  same  consideration 
may  also  be  urged  with  regard  to 
iodine.  Ladenburg  has  shown  that  the 
accepted  number  for  iodine  is  probably 
too  low,  but  other  investigations  upon 


the  subject  are  known  to  be  in  prog- 
ress, and  until  they  have  been  com- 
pleted it  would  be  unwise  to  propose 
any  alteration. 

Many  of  the  atomic  weights  given 
in  the  table  are  well  known  to  be  more 
or  less  uncertain.  This  is  especially 
true  with  respect  to  the  rarer  elements, 
such  as  gallium,  indium,  columbium, 
tantalum,  etc.  But  some  of  the  com- 
moner elements  also  stand  in  need  of 
revision,  and  we  venture  to  call  atten- 
tion to  a  few  of  these.  Among  the 
metals,  the  atomic  weights  of  mercury, 
tin,  bismuth  and  antimony  should  be 
redetermined,  for  the  reason  that  the 
existing  data  are  not  suflSciently  con- 
cordant.    Palladium  also,  on  acconnt 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


445 


of  discrepancies  between  different  ob- 
servers, and  possibly  vanadium,  for 
which  the  data  are  too  few,  deserve  at- 
tention. Among  the  non-metals,  phos- 
phorus has  been  peculiarly  neglected ; 
and  our  knowledge  of  the  atomic 
weight  of  silicon  rests  upon  a  single 
ratio.  In  the  latter  case,  confirmatory 
data  are  much  to  be  desired.  Upon 
any  of  these  elements  new  investiga- 
tions would  be  most  serviceable. 

There  is  one  other  point  to  which 
we  may  properly  call  attention.  Many 
of  the  ratios  from  which  atomic 
weights  have  been  calculated,  were 
measured  in  vessels  of  glass,  by  pro- 
cesses involving  the  use  of  strong  acids. 
In  such  cases  the  solubility  of  the  glass 
becomes  an  important  consideration, 
even    when    no    transfer    of   material 


from  one  vessel  to  another  has  oc- 
curred. A  slight  conversion  of  sili- 
cate into  chloride  would  cause  an  in- 
crease of  weight  during  the  operation, 
and  so  introduce  an  error  into  the  de- 
termination. Such  errors  are  doubt- 
less very  small,  and  still  they  ought 
not  to  be  neglected.  Now  that  vessels 
of  pure  silica,  the  so-called  quartz- 
glass,  are  available  for  use,  they  might 
well  replace  ordinary  glass  in  all  pro- 
cesses for  the  determination  of  atomic 
weights.  An  investigation  into  the 
relative  availability  of  the  two  kinds 
of  glass  is  most  desirable. 

(Signed)     F.  W.  Clarke, 
T.  E.  Thorpe, 
Karl  Seubert, 
Henri  Moissan, 

Committee. 


CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES  AND  THEIR  COMMON  NAMES. 


Common  Names.  Chemical  Names. 

Alum Sulphate   of    aluminum 

and  potassium 

Aqua  fortis Nitric  acid 

Aqua  regia Nitro-hydrochloric  acid 

Calomel Mercurous  chloride 

Carbolic  acid Phenol 

Caustic  potash Potassium  hydrate 

Caustic  soda Sodium  hydrate 

Chalk Calcium  carbonate 

Copperas Sulphate  of  iron 

Corrosive  sublimate. .  Mercuric  chloride 

Cream  of  tartar Bitartrate  of  potassium 

Epsom  salts .  .Maenesium  sulphate 

.Fire  damp Light     carbureted     hy- 
drogen, methane 

Glauber's  salt Sodium  sulphate 

Grape  sugar Glucose 

Goulard  water Basic  acetate  of  lead 

Iron  pyrites Sulphide  of  iron 

Jewelers'  putty Oxide  of  tin 

Laughing  gas Nitrous  oxide 

Lime Calcium  oxide 

Lunar  caustic Silver  nitrate 

Mosaic  gold Bisulphide  of  tin 

Muriatic  acid Hydrochloric  acid 

Plaster  of  Paris Calcium  sulphate 


Realgar Sulphide  of  arsenic 

Red  lead Oxide  of  lead 

Rochelle  salt Sodium   potassium   tar- 
trate 
Sal  ammoniac  ......  Ammonium  chloride 

Salt,  common Sodium  chloride 

Salt  of  tartar  ( potash  )Potassiuin  c  arbonate 

Saltpetre Potassium  nitrate 

Salts  of  lemon Oxalic  acid 

Slaked  lime Calcium  hydrate 

Soda,  washing Sodium  carbonate 

Soda,  baking Sodium  bicarbonate 

Soda Sodium  carbonate 

Spirits  of  hartshorn.  .Ammonia,  solution  of 

Spirits  of  salt Hydrochloric  acid 

Sugar  of  lead Lead  acetate 

Tartar  emetic Potassium  antimony 

tartrate 

Verdigris Basic  acetate  of  copper 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  mercury 

Vinegar Dilute  acetic  acid 

Vitriol,  blue Copper  sulphate 

' '       green Ferrous  sulphate 

"       oil  of Sulphuric  acid 

* '       white Zinc  sulphate 

Volatile  alkali Ammonia 

— Knowledge  Year  Book. 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


To  Convert  Degrees  Baum6  into 
Specific  Gravity. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Subtract  the  de- 
gree of  Baum6  from  145  and  divide 
into  145.  The  quotient  is  the  specific 
gravity. 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Add  the  degree  of  Baum6  to  130  and 
divide  it  into  140.  The  quotient  is  the 
specific  gravity. 

To  Convert  Specific  Gravity  into  De- 
grees Baum6. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Divide  the  speci- 
fic gravity  into  145  and  subtract  from 


145.     The  remainder  is  the  degree  of 
Baum6. 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Divide  the  specific  gravity  into  140 
and  subtract  130  from  the  quotient. 
The  remainder  will  be  the  degree  of 
Baume. 

COMPARISON      OF      DEGREES      TWADDELL 
AND   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

In  order  to  change  degrees  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity,  multiply  by 
5,  add  1,000  and  divide  by  1,000. 

Example:  Change  168  deg.  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity. 


446 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


168X5 

840 
1,000 


1,000)1,840 

1.84,  specific  gravity. 

To  change  specific  gravity  into  de- 
grees Twaddell,  multiply  by  1,000, 
subtract  1,000  and  divide  by  5. 

Example :  Change  1.84  specific 
gravity  to  degrees  Twaddell. 

1.84X1,000 

1,840 

1,000 


5)840 
leS^'Tw. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

Determination  of  Specific  Gravity : 
Solids:  (1)  Solids  heavier  than,  and 
insoluble  in  water : 

o.  By  weighing  in  air  and  water. — 

(weight  in  air) 


Sp.  gr.  = 


(loss  of  weight  in  water) 


flask  filled  to  the  mark  with  water, 
then  place  the  substance,  of  known 
weight,  in  the  flask,  fill  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  weigh   again. 


Sp.  gr.  = 


weight  of  substance  in  air 


wt.  in  air+wt.  of  flask  and  water— 

wt.  of  flask  filled  with  subetance  and 

water. 


(2)  Solids  lighter  than  and  insolu- 
ble in  water.  The  solid  is  weighed 
by  a  piece  of  lead  and  weighed  in  wa- 
ter. 


Sp.  gr.  = 


(weight  of  substance  in  air) 

(wt.  of  lead  in  water)  — (wt.  of  lead 
and  substance  in  water)  +  (wt.  of  sub- 
stance in  air) 


6.  By  Nicholson's  hydrometer.  Let 
w\  be  the  weight  required  to  sink  the 
instrument  to  the  mark  on  the  stem ;  to 
take  the  specific  gravity  of  any  solid 
substance,  place  a  portion  of  it  weigh- 
ing less  than  wi  in  the  upper  pan, 
with  such  additional  weight,  say  tea, 
as  will  cause  the  instrument  to  sink 
to  the  zero  mark.  The  weight  of  the 
substance  is  then  tci — mjs.  Next  trans- 
fer the  substance  to  the  lower  pan, 
and  again  adjust  with  weight  to*  to 
the  zero  mark. 


(3)  Solids  heavier  than  and  soluble 
in  water.  Proceed  as  in  1  a,  using 
instead  of  water  some  liquid  without 
action  on  the  solid. 

(weight  of  bulk  of  liquid  equal  to  sub- 
stance) =  (weight  of  substance  in 
air)     —     (weight     of     substance     in 

liquid). 

/    X     «i.  11     «       X        (^-  of  bulk  of  liquid 
(wt.  of  bulk  of  water       ^qual  to  substance) 

equal  to  substance)  =» — -, tt- — ^\ — 

(sp.  gr.  of  liquid) 

(weight  of  substance  in  air) 

(weight  of  bulk  of  water  equal  to 
substance) 

Liquids:   (1)  By  the  hydrometer. 

(2)  By  the  specific  gravity  bottle. 

Weigh  the  bottle  filled  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  again  when  filled  to 
the  mark  with  liquid. 


Sp.  gr.  = 


Sp.  gr.  = 


W\  —Ws 


W4  —  W3 

c.  By    the    specific    gravity     bottle 
(applicable  to  powders).     Weigh   the 


Sp.  gr.= 


(weight    of    liquid    and    bottle) - 
(weight  of  bottle) 

(weight     of    water    and     bottle) - 
(weight  of  bottle) 


Tables  of  Specific  Gravity  will  be 
found  under  Weights  and  Measures. 


THERMOMETER    SCALES. 


Much  annoyance  is  caused  by  the 
great  difference  of  thermometer  scales 
in  use  in  the  different  civilized  coun- 
tries. The  scale  of  Reaumur  prevails 
in  Germany.  As  is  well  known,  he  di- 
vides the  space  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  into  80  deg.  France 
uses  that  of  Celsius,  who  graduated 
his  scale  on  the  decimal  system.  The 
most  peculiar  scale  of  all,  however,  is 
that  of  Fahrenheit,  a  renowned  Ger- 
man physicist,  who  in  1714  or  1715, 
composed  his  scale,  having  ascertained 
that  water  can  be  cooled  under  the 
freezing  point,  without  congealing.  He 
therefore  did  not  take  the  congealing 
point  of  water,  but  composed  a  mix- 


ture of  equal  parts  of  snow  and  sal 
ammoniac,  about  — 14  deg.  R.  The 
conversion  of  any  one  of  these  scales  to 
another  is  very  simple,  and  easily 
made.  To  change  a  temperature  as 
given  by  Fahrenheit's  scale  into  the 
same  as  given  by  the  centigrade  scale 
subtract  32  deg.  from  Fahrenheit's  de- 
grees, and  multiply  the  remainder  by 
5-9.  The  product  will  be  the  tem- 
perature in  centigrade  degrees. 

To  change  from  Fahrenheit's  to 
Reaumur's  scale,  subtract  32  deg.  from 
Fahrenheit's  degrees,  and  multiply  the 
remainder  by  4-9.  The  product  will 
bo  the  temperature  in  Reaumur's  de- 
grees. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


447 


COMPARATIVE  SCALES    OF   THERMOMETER. 


c. 

R. 

F. 

C. 

R. 

F. 

C. 

R. 

F. 

-30 

-24.0 

-22.0      1 

14 

11.2 

57.2 

58 

46.4      1 

136.4 

-29 

-23.2 

-20.2      , 

15 

12.0 

59.0 

59 

47.2 

138.2 

-28 

-22.4 

-18.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

60 

48.0     ' 

140.0 

-27 

-21.6 

-16.6 

17 

13.6 

62.6 

61 

48.8     , 

141.8 

-26 

-20.8 

-14.8 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

62 

49.6     , 

143.6 

-25 

-20.0 

-13.0 

19 

15.2 

66.2 

63 

50.4     ' 

145.4 

-24 

-19.2 

-11.2 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

64 

51.2 

147.2 

-23 

-18.4 

-9.4 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

-22 

-17.6 

-7.6 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

-21 

-16.8 

-5.8 

33 

18.4 

73.4 

67 

53.6 

152.6 

-20 

-16.0 

-4.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

68 

54.4 

154.4 

-19 

-15.2 

-2.2 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

69 

55.2 

156.2 

-18 

-14.4 

-0.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

70 

56.0 

158.0 

-17 

-13.6 

1.4 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

71 

56.8 

159.8 

-16 

-12.8 

3.2 

38 

22.4 

82.4 

72 

57.6 

161.6 

-15 

-12.0 

5.0 

29 

23.2 

84.2     ' 

73 

58.4 

163.4 

-14 

-11.2 

6.8 

30 

24.0 

86.0     , 

74 

59.2 

165.2 

-13 

-10.4 

8.6 

31 

24.8 

87.8 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

-12 

-9.6 

10.4 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

-11 

-8.8 

12.2 

33 

26.4 

91.4 

77 

61.6 

170.6 

-10 

-8.0 

14.0 

34 

27.2 

93.2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

-9 

-7.2 

15.8 

35 

28.0 

95.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

-8 

-6.4 

17.6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

-7 

-5.6 

19.4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

81 

64.8 

177.8 

-6 

-4.8 

21.2 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

-5 

-4.0 

23.0 

39 

31.2 

102.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

-4 

-3.2 

24.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

-3 

-2.4 

26.6 

41 

32.8 

105.8 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

-2 

-1.6 

28.4 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

-1 

-0.8 

30.2 

43 

34.4 

109.4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

44 

35.2 

111.2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

1 

0.8 

33.8 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

89 

71.2 

192.2 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

46 

36.8 

114.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

3 

*     2.4 

37.4 

47 

37.6 

116.6 

91 

72.8 

195.8 

4 

3.2 

39.2      1 

48 

38.4 

118.4 

92 

73.6 

197.6 

5 

4.0 

41.0      , 

49 

39.2 

120.2 

93 

74.4 

199.4 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

94 

75.2 

201.2 

7 

5.6 

44.6      1 

51 

40.8 

123.8 

95 

76.0 

203.0 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

53 

42.4 

127.4     1 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

54 

43.2 

129.2 

98 

78.4 

208.4 

11 

8.8 

51.8 

55 

44.0 

131.5 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

13 

10.4 

55.4 

57 

45.6 

134.6 

To  change  the  temperature  as  given 
by  the  centigrade  scale  into  the  same 
as  given  by  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the 
centigrade  degrees  by  9-5  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

To  change  from  Reaumur's  to  Fahr- 


enheit's scale,  multiply  the  degrees  on 
Reaumur's  scale  by  9-4  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 
For  those  who  wish  to  save  them- 
selves the  trouble  we  have  calculated 
the  preceding  comparative  table. 


VALUE  OF  RARE  ELEMENTS. 


Elements. 


Quantity. 


Boron  nitrate  (New  Yorlt) 

Boron,  pure  crystals  (Gernoany) 

Boron,  amorphous,  pure  (Germany).  , 
Boron,  powder  (Moiaaan)  (Germany). 
Caesium  nitrate  crystals  (Germany) . . 
Ca»ium  oxide  hydrated  (Germany)  .  . 

Calcium  metal,  (Germany) 

Cerium  metal,  fused  (Germany) 


Value. 


lb. 

$1.50 

10  grams 

13.09 

kilo. 

119.00 

<i 

142 . 80 

100  grams 

11.90 

t< 

13.09 

1  gram 

4.28 

«t 

2.02 

448 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


VALUE   OF   RARE   ELEMENTS.— Continued. 


Elements. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Cerium  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Cerium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Didymium  metal,  fused  (Germany) 

Didymium  metal  powder  (Germany) 

Didymium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Erbium  metal  (Germany) 

Erbium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Germanium  metal,  fused  (Germany) 

Germanium  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Glucinum  metal,  crystals  (Germany) 

Gilucinum  metal,  fused  in  balls  (Germany) 

Glucinum  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Glucinum  nitrate  (New  York) 

Iridium  metal,  fused  (Germany) 

Iridium  metal,  powder  (Germany 

Lanthanum  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Lanthanum  metal,  m  balls  (Germany) . 

Lanthanum  nitrate  (New  York) 

Lithium  metal,  ffare  (Germany) 

Lithium  metal,  chem.  pure  (Germany) 

Lithium  carbonate  (New  York) 

Lithium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Magnalium  metal,  ingot  (Germany) 

Magnalium  metal,  sheet  (Germany) 

Magnesium  metal,  ingot  (Germany) 

Magnesium  metal,  ribbon,  wire,  sheet  (Germany)  .  . 

Magnesium  metaJ,  sticks  (Germany) 

Magnesium  metal,  cubes  (Germany) 

Magnesium  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Manganese  metal,  pure  fused  (Germany) 

Manganese  metal,  com'l  (94  @,  97^)  (Germany).  .  .  . 

Molj^denum  metal,  pure  (Germany) 

Molybdenum  metal,  com'l,  fused  (Germany) 

Molybdenum  metal,  pure,  fused  (Germany) 

Molybdenum  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Niobium  metal,  pure  (Germany) 

Osmium  metal  (Germany) 

Palladium  metal  (Germany) 

Platinum  (New  York) 

Polonium 

Potassium  metal  in  balls  (Germany) 

Radium* 

Rhodium  metal  (Germany) 

Rubidium  metal  pure  (Germany) 

Ruthenium  metal,  powder  (Germany) 

Ruthenium  metal,  sponge  (Germany) 

Selenium  metal  (Glermany) 

Silicium  metal,  com'l,  fused  (Germany) 

Sodium  metal  (New  York) 

Strontium  metal  (Germany) 

Strontium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Tantalum  metal,  pure  (Germany) 

Tellurium  metal,  chem.  pure  sticks  (Germany)  .  .  .  . 
Tellurium  metal,  chem.  pure  powder  (Germany).  .  . 

Thallium  metal  (Germany) 

Thorium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Titanium  metal,  pure  (Germany) 

Uranium  metal  (Germany) 

Uranium  nitrate  (New  York) 

Wolfram  metal,  powder  for  .»tef  1  makes  (CJermany) 

Yttrium  metal  (Germany) 

Zirconium  metal  (Germany) 

Zirconium  nitrate  (New  York) 


1  gram 
lb. 

$1.67 

10.00 

1  gram 

5.47 

4.71 

lb. 

35.00 

1  gram 

3.09 

40.00 

1  gram 

59.50 

57  12 

It 

9.04 

tt 

35.70 

t< 

5.95 

lb. 

20.00 

10  grams 

10.71 

•t 

9.52 

1  gram 

4.28 

ti 

9.04 

lb. 

30.00 

1  gram 

0.71 

t« 

2.38 

lb. 

1.50 

oz. 

.60 

kilo. 

3.57 

t> 

7.14 

it 

4.28 

it 

7.62 

ti 

5.47 

it 

5.00 

it 

3.81  (^  5.00 

it 

3.81 

it 

1.25 

it 

17.85 

ti 

6.66 

100  grams 

9.52 

kilo. 

4.05 

1  gram 

4.71 

10  grams 

17.14 

«* 

8.57 

oz. 

18.50 

kilo. 
See  Radi 
10  grams 
1  gram 


kilo. 

tt 

lb. 
1  gram 

lb. 

1  gram. 

kilo. 


lb 

kilo. 
It 

oz. 

kilo. 

1  gram 

kilo. 

lb. 


Speculative. 

16.60 

um,  p.  449t 

26.18 

4.76 

2.38 

4.28 

16.66 

9.52 

0.50 

6.19 

0.08 

3.57 

106.10 

107.10 

23.80 

4.50 

23.80 

190.40 

0.25 

1.70 

3.33 

95.20 

8.00 


♦The  value  of  polonium  is  purely  speculative.  Minute  quantities  have  been  sold  at  very 
high  prices.  It  is  worth  75  cents  a  gram  on  bismuth  and  platinum  plates.  The  quantity  of 
poloniiim  is  of  course  very  minute. 

t  The  supply  is  so  small  that  any  price  can  be  asked.  $3,500,000  is  the  current '  *  newspaper  " 
estimate  per  pound.     See  Radium,  page  449. 

[Table  furnished  by  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal.] 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


449 


RADIUM  AND  RADIO-ACTIVITY. 


The  marvels  of  radium  ipay  be  said 
to  have  been  more  or  less  foreshadowed 
by  the  discovery  of  the  Roentgen  rays. 
It  was  immediately  determined  that 
the  emanations  of  a  Crookes  tube 
were  not  ethereal  undulations  such  as 
ordinary  light,  but  that  they  consisted 
of  actual  material  particles  of  matter 
highly  charged  with  electricity.  Natu- 
rally the  attempt  was  made  to  discover 
whether  the  phenomena  of  phosphores- 
cent substances  were  not  akin  to  those 
of  the  Crookes  tube.  The  leading 
spirit  in  this  movement  was  Professor 
Henri  Becquerel,  who  selected  the 
metal  uranium  as  the  subject  of  his 
experiments.  He  accidentally  discov- 
ered that  the  so-called  phosphorescent 
attributes  of  uranium  were  not  due  to 
the  absorption  of  sunlight,  but  that  the 
substance  was  spontaneously  active, 
and  that  the  light  which  came  from 
radium  was  a  new  kind  of  emanation 
entirely  different  from  the  X-rays.  To 
these  new  radiations  the  name  "Bec- 
querel Rays"  was  given. 

Uranium  is  obtained  from  pitch- 
blende, an  jore  more  or  less  widely  dis- 
tributed about  the  world,  but  found 
chiefly  in  Bohemia  and  in  Cornwall. 
Madame  Curi6,  who,  at  the  time  Bec- 
qiierel  was  making  his  investigations, 
was  a  senior  student  at  the  Municipal 
School  of  Physics  and  Technical  Chem- 
istry in  Paris,  had  selected  "Radio- 
Activity" — a  name  which  she  coined — 
as  the  subject  of  her  Doctor's  thesis. 
Naturally  it  was  necessary  for  her  to 
study  uranium  and  similar  minerals 
with  some  care.  She  found  that,  after 
having  extracted  all  the  uranium  con- 
tained in  her  specimen  of  pitchblende, 
there  still  remained  in  the  residue  a 
substance  far  more  active  than  ura- 
nium. After  isolating  this  unknown 
radiant  substance  and  analyzing  it, 
she  found  that  it  contained  two  new 
elements.  The  one  she  christened  "po- 
lonium," after  Poland,  the  land  of  her 
birth ;  the  other  she  named  "radium." 

Several  tons  of  pitchblende  must  be 
treated  and  concentrated  before  a  few 
grains  of  radium  are  obtained.  But 
those  few  grains  are  worth  more  than 
any  precious  gem  or  metal  in  the 
world.  Indeed  they  have  almost  any 
value  which  their  fortunate  possessor 
may  choose  to  give  them.  There  are 
probably  not  two  pounds  of  pure  ra- 
dium in  existence ;  but  at  the  present 
market  price  they  would  be  worth  each 
about  three  and  one-half  million  dol- 
lars.   There  is  more  gold  in  sea  water 


than  radium  in  pitchblende ;  and  that 
is  why  its  price  is  so  high. 

The  properties  of  radium  will  prob- 
ably necessitate  a  decided  revision  in 
some  time-honored  chemical  theories ; 
for  radium  refuses  to  conform  to  our 
long-established  atomic  theories,  and 
behaves  in  a  most  inexplicable  fash- 
ion. In  the  first  place  the  radio-activ- 
ity of  the  element  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  three  distinct  sets  of  ema- 
nations, which  have  been  respectively 
christened  the  Alpha,  the  Beta,  and 
the  Gamma  rays,  for  want  of  better 
names. 

The  Alpha  rays  are  not,  like  ordi- 
nary light,  ethereal  pulsations,  but  ac- 
tual material  particles  hurled  off  at  a 
speed  of  about  20,(XK)  mi  lies  per  sec- 
ond from  the  parent  mass.  They  are 
highly  charged  with  positive  electric- 
ity. Their  speed  is  about  40,000  times 
greater  than  that  of  a  rifle  bullet. 

The  Beta  rays,  which  consist  of  par- 
ticles of  matter,  corpuscles  of  elec- 
tricity or  "electrons"  as  the  modern 
physicist  calls  them,  move  still  more 
swiftly.  Each  of  the  Beta  particles 
(very  much  smaller  in  size  than  the 
Alpha  particles)  travels  at  the  rate  of 
about  100,000  miles  a  second.  They 
are  the  fastest  moving  objects  known 
in  the  universe ;  for  their  speed  is 
three  hundred  times  faster  than  that 
of  the  swiftest  star.  Such  is  their  ve- 
locity that  it  takes  a  foot  of  solid  iron 
to  stop  them. 

The  Gamma  rays  are  probably 
Roentgen  rays,  if  one  may  judge  by 
the  similarity  of  the  properties  of  the 
two.  Like  the  Beta  rays,  the  Gamma 
emanations  have  remarkable  penetrat- 
ing properties.  But  of  the  three  kinds 
of  rays  discharged  by  radium,  the 
Gamma  rays  are  the  most  difficult  to 
detect  and  the  least  perfectly  under- 
stood. 

Professor  Curi6,  Madame  Curi6*s 
husband,  has  discovered  that  radium 
constantly  maintains  a  temperature  of 
about  five  or  six  degrees  above  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  For  some 
time  this  startling  phenomenon  bafiled 
physicists.  Here  was  a  substance  con- 
stantly giving  off  heat  without  being 
apparently  consumed,  and  without 
anything  to  make  it  hot.  It  is  now 
thought  that  thii^  strange  property  can 
be  explained  by  assuming  that  the  par- 
ticles collide  with  one  another,  and 
that  the  heat  generated  by  the  impact 
(a  heat  that  must  be  very  marked 
when   it   is   considered  how  enormous 


450 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REPEM3NCE    BOOK. 


is  the  energy  of  a  particle  moving  at 
the  rate  of  many  thousand  miles  a  sec- 
ond) is  sufficient  to  explain  the  heat 
generated  by  radium. 

The  fact  that  radium  is  a  spontane- 
ous source  of  thermal  energy  is  in  it- 
self a  fact  sufficiently  startling.  Sir 
William  Ramsay,  however,  has  dis- 
covered still  other  startling  properties 
of  this  startling  substance.  He  col- 
lected the  material  particles  which  are 
shot  from  the  substance,  analyzed  them, 
and  found  that  after  a  few  days  they 
changed  into  helium,  a  gas  which  was 
first  discovered  burning  in  the  sun. 
This  seems  dangerously  like  the  trans- 
mutation of  one  element  into  an- 
other, the  problem  on  the  solution  of 
which  the  medieval  alchemist  had 
worked  for  centuries.  After  ages 
of  labor  seventy-odd  bits  of  pri- 
mordial matter  had  been  wrung 
from  the  earth,  so  simple  and  so  un- 
changeable in  their  nature  that  they 
were  deemed  elements.  And  now  one 
of  them  proves  to  be  nothing  but  the 
product  of  another.  Can  we  ever  be 
certain  again  that  the  rest  are  not  also 
likely  to  change?  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  our  chemistry  needs  revision? 

The  atomic  weight  of  radium  has 
been  ascertained  by  Madame  Curi6  to 
be  225 ;  that  of  helium  is  2.2.  In  other 
words,  every  atom  of  radium  breaks 
np  into  about  100  parts  of  helium. 
What  becomes  of  the  old  teaching  that 
atoms  are  indivisible  particles  of  mat- 


ter? Some  of  the  more  advanced 
thinkers  have  abandoned  the  atom  and 
adopted  the  •"electron"  as  the  ultimate 
unit.  The  atom  is  certainly  quite  in- 
adequate to  account  for  the  properties 
of  radium.  Atoms  may  be  said  to  be 
composed  of  electrons  moving,  like 
miniature  solar  systems,  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity  in  well-defined  orbits. 
Sometimes  a  little  planet  of  that  sys- 
tem becomes  unstable,  darts  off  with 
terrific  speed  like  a  comet,  and  thus 
gives  rise  to  the  phenomena  of  radium, 
of  uranium,  and  of  every  other  radio- 
active substance. 

Has  radium  any  practical  value?  it 
may  be  asked.  So  far  it  is  more  of  a 
scientific  curiosity  than  anything  else. 
Still,  it  is  not  without  some  use.  It  is 
an  excellent  detector  of  false  dia- 
monds ;  for  it  causes  the  real  gem  to 
glow  with  wonderful  brilliancy,  while 
the  paste  imitation  is  left  compara- 
tively lusterless.  Then,  again,  radium 
kills  bacteria  and  even  very  small  ani- 
mals. The  modern  physician  has  used 
the  substance  with  some  success  in 
treating  certain  diseases^  among  them 
cancer  and  lupus.  Living  tissues  of 
the  body  are  strangely  affected  by 
short  exposures  to  the  substance. 
Sores  are  produced,  like  burns,  which 
heal  only  after  weeks  have  elapsed. 
An  electroscope  has  also  been  invented, 
the  underlying  principle  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  the  properties  of  ra- 
dium. 


PRICES   OF   FRENCH    RADIUM,   JULY,   1904. 


Form. 

Activity. 

Price  per 
Gramme. 

Price  per 
Ounce. 

Price  per 
Milligram. 

Dollars 

Dollars 

Dollars 

/ 

50 

4 

125 

.004 

100 

8 

250 

.008 

500 

30 

010 

.040 

1,000 

60 

1,820 

.080 

Radium  chloride  or  bromide j 

5,000 

240 

7,280 

.40 

10,000 

500 

15,050 

.80 

20,000 

1,000 

30,100 

1.60 

• 

50,000 

2,000 

60,200 

4.00 

100,000 

4,000 

120,400 

8.00 

\ 

500,000 

20,000 

602,000 

40.00 

Radium.  Dure          

1,800,000 

80,000 

2,408,000 

144.00 

— Table  furnished  by  Dr.  George  F.  Kuns. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


451 


MELTING   POINTS   OF   CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 

The  melting  points  of  chemical  elements  are,  in  many  cases,  somewhat  uncertain,  owing  to  the 
different  results  obtained  by  different  observers.     This  table  gives  the  probable  average  value. 


Substance. 


Aluminum  .  .  .  . 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Bromine 

Cadmiimi 

Caesium 

Chlorine,  liquid. 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Gallium 

Germanium.  .  .. 

Gold 

Indium 

Iodine 

Iridium 

Iron,  pure 

'  *      white  pig. 

'*  gray  pig.  . 
Steel 

' '      cast 

Lead 

Lithium 


Substance. 


Magnesium. 
Manganese. 
Mercury.  .  . 
Nickel.  .  .  . 
Osmium.  .  . 
Nitrogen.  .  . 
Palladium. 
Phosphorus. 
Platinum.  . 
Potassium . 
Rhodium.  . 
Rubidium.  . 
Ruthenium. 
Selenium.  . 

Silver 

Sodium.  .  .  . 
Sulphur.  .  . 
Tellurium.  . 
Thallium.  . 

Tin 

Zinc 


Melting 

Point 

Degrees  C. 


775 
1900 
-39.04 
1500 
2500 
-208 
1600 

44.25 
1900 
60 
2000 

38.5 
1800 
217 
950 
97.6 
115.1 
470 
289 
230 
415 


BOILING    POINTS   OF   CHEMICAL    ELEMENTS. 


Substance. 


Antimony. 
Arsenic. .  .  . 
Bismuth. . . 
Bromine. .  . 
Cadmium.  . 
Chlorine.  .  . 
Iodine.  .  .  . 

Lead 

Magnesium 
Mercury.  .  . 
Nitrogen.  . 


Boiling 

Point, 

Degrees  C. 


1535 

449 

1413 

62.08 

779 

-33.6 
over  200 
about  1,525 
1100 
357 
-194.4 


Substance. 


Oxygen.  .  . 

Ozone 

Phosphorus, 
Potassium . 
Selenium.  . 
Sodium.  .  .  . 
Sulphur.  .  . 
Thallium.  . 

Tin 

Zinc 


Boiling 

Point 

Degrees  C. 


-183 
-106 

288 

695 

675 

825 

448.1 
1700 
about  1,550 

958 


HEAT   OF  COMBUSTION. 

Heat  of  combustion  of  some  common  organic  compounds. 

Products  of  combustion,  CO2  or  SO2  and  water,  which  is  assumed  to  be  in  a  state  of  vapor. 


Substance. 


Acetylene 

Alcohols: 

Amyl 

Ethyl 

Methyl 

Benzene 

Coals: 

Bituminous 

Anthracite 

Lignite 

Coke 

Carbon  disulphide.  .  .  . 
Dynamite,  75  per  cent 
Gas: 

Coal  gas 

Illuminating 


Therms  per 

Gramme  of 

Substance. 

Substance. 

11,923 

Gas: 

Methane 

8,958 

Naphthalene 

7,183 

Gunpowder. 

5,307 

Oils: 

9,977 

Lard 

Olive 

7,400-8,600 

Petroleum,  AJoierican  crude.  . 

7,800 

refined. 

6,900 

* '           Russian 

7,000 

Woods : 

3,244 

Beech  with  12.9  per  cent.  H2O 

1,290 

Birch     *•     11.83'*      " 

Oak     •  ••     13.3   • 

5,800-11,000 

Pine       ••     12.17  •'      *•       " 

5,200-5,500 

Therms  per 
Gramme  of 
Substance. 


13,063 

9,618-9,793 

720-750 

9,200-9,400 

9,328-9,442 

11,094 

11,045 

10,800 

4,168 
4,207 
3,990 
4,422 


452 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SIZES     OF    DRY    PLATES. 


3iX4i  inches 

4  X5 
4iX5* 
4iX6i 
4|X6^ 

5  X7 
5  X8 
6iX8i 


8X10  inches 
10X12 
11X14 
14X17 
16X20 
17X20 
18X22 
20X24 


SIZES    IN    FRANCE    AND    GERMANY. 


12 
13 
12 
15 
15 
18 
21 
24 
27 
27 
30 
40 
50 


6iX  9 
9  X12 
X15 
X18 
X20 
X21 
X22 
X24 
X29 
X30 
X33 
X35 
X40 
X50 
X60 


cm 2.5X  3.6  inches 

3.6X  4.7 

4.7X  5.9 

5. IX  7.0 

4.7X  7.8 

5  9X  8.2 

9X  8.6 

OX  9.4 


5 

7 

8 

9 

10 

10 

11 

15 

19 


,2X10.0 
4X11.8 
6X12. 
6X13. 
8X15. 
7X19. 
6X23. 


,9 
.7 
7 
,0 
.0 


9X12 
12X16 
12X18 
13X18 
12X20 
18X24 
21X29 
24X30 
27X33 
30  X  P6 
40  X  oO 
50  X  GO 


SIZES     IN     ITALY 

cm 3.6X 

4.7X 


4.7X 

5. IX 

4.7X 

7. OX 

8.2X10 

9.4X11 
10.6X12 
11.8X14 
15.7X19 
19.6X23 


4.7  inches 
6.3 
7.0 
7.0 
7.8 
9.4 
6 


8 
9 
1 
6 
6 


Air. — The  following  data  are  useful  in  cal- 
culations relating  to  air: 

1.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to  1  volume  of  oxygen, 
multiply  by  3.770992. 

2.  To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to  1  volume  of  nitrogen, 
multiply  by  0.265182. 

3.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of 
oxygen,  multiply  by  3.313022. 

4.  To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.301839. 

5.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of  oxy- 
gen, multiply  by  2.6365411. 

G.  To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by  vol- 
ume corresf>onding  to  1  part  by  weight  of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.2730071. 

7.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  volume  of 
oxygen,  multiply  by  3.6629154. 

8.  To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  volume  of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.3792848. 

To  Test  Air  for  Sewer  Gas.  —  Saturate 
unglazed  paper  with  a  solution  of  1  oz.  of  pure 
lead  acetate  in  half  a  pint  of  rain  water ;  let  it 
partially  dry,  then  expose  in  the  room  sus- 
pected of  containing  sewer  gas.  The  presence 
of  the  latter  in  any  considerable  quantity  soon 
darkens  or  blackens  the  test  paper. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ASTRONOMY. 


The  Telescope. — Telescopes  are  of  two 
kinds,  namely,  refracting  and  reflecting  tele- 
scopes. The  refracting  telescope  consists  of 
an  object-fldass  which  forms  an  imaee  of  the 
object,  and  an  eye-glass  by  which  the  image 
is  viewed.  The  reflecting  telescope  consists 
of  a  concave  mirror  which  receives  light  from 
the  distant  object,  and  reflects  it  so  that  the 
rays  converge  to  a  focus  and  form  an  image, 
the  image  being  viewed  by  an  eye-glaf^s. 
The  terrestrial  telescope  consists  of  two  tele- 
scopes like  the  preceding — which  are  called 
astronomical  telescopes,  and  give  an  inverted 
image — the  second  inverting  the  inverted 
image  of  the  first,  and  so  giving  an  upright 
image.  Eye-pieces  generally  have  two 
lenses,  and  have  names  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  focus.  Ramsden's  eye-piece  has 
two  lenses,  the  focus  being  just  beyond  the 
field  lens.  It  is  called  a  poaiiive  eye-piece, 
and  it  can  be  used  as  a  magnifying  glass. 
Huyghens*  eye-piece  also  has  two  lenses,  the 
focus  being  between  the  two.  It  is  called  a 
negative  eye-piece,  and  cannot  be  used  as  a 
magnifying  glass.  These  compound  eye- 
pieces enable  us  to  get  rid  of  spherical  and 
chromatic  aberration.  The  achromatic  ob- 
ject-glass is  made  by  joining  together  two 
lenses,  one  of  flint  glass  and  the  other  of 
crown  glass.  The  dispersion  is  made  equal 
and  opposite,  but  the  bending  powers  are 
unequal.  A  lens  is  equivalent  to  a  number 
of  prisms  placed  base  to  base,  the  outer 
prisms  having  a  greater  angle  to  cause  the 
rays  to  bend  more,  so  that  all  the  rays  may 
come  to  one  point,  called  the  focus.  The 
magnifying  power  of  a  telescope  is  found  by 
dividing  the  focal  length  of  the  object-glass 
by  the  focal  length  of  the  eye-piece. 

The  Equatorial  Telescope. — The  egtia- 
torial  is  an  ordinary  telescope,  mounted  in 
such  a  way  that  it  can  easily  be  directed  to 
any  part  of  the  heavens.  The  polar  axis  is 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis,  that  is  to  say,  it 
is  inclined  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude 
of  the  place,  at  Washington  about  39°,  at 
London  about  51^**.  The  telescope  can  be 
moved  round  the  polar  axis  in  a  plane  which 
is  parallel  to  the  earth's  equator,  and  this 
motion  is  said  to  be  motion  in  right  aacen- 
»ion.  The  telescope  can  also  be  moved  up 
and  down  in  a  plane  at  right  anirles  to  the 
earth's  equator,  and  this  motion  is  called 
motion  in  declination.  Whatever  part  of 
the  skies  an  object  is  in,  the  equatorial  can 
be  directed  to  it,  and  the  object  can  be  kept 
constantly  in  view,  because  there  is  a  kind  of 
clock  which  drives  the  instrument  round  at 
the  same  speed  at  which  the  earth  is  turning 
round. 


The  Transit  Instrument. — The  transit 
instrument  is  a  telescope  mounted  on  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  moving  in 
the  meridian  only.  It  is  used  to  determine 
the  exact  moment  at  which  celestial  bodies 
cross  the  meridian,  that  is,  when  they  are  in 
a  true  north  or  south  position.  It  is  also 
used  for  determining  the  declination  of 
celestial  objects,  that  is,  how  far  in  angular 
measures  these  bodies  are  from  the  celestial 
equator. 

The  Sidereal  Clock. — Tha  sidereal 
block  is  similar  to  an  ordinary  clock,  but  it 
is  regulated  to  keep  accurate  time  with  the 
apparent  diurnal  movements  of  the  stars, 
instead  of  with  the  mean  sun.  It  shows  the' 
same  time  as  clocks  and  watches  only  once  in 
a  year,  namely,  at  the  Vernal  Equinox,  about 
the  21st  of  March.  It  gains  about  four  min- 
utes each  day  on  the  ordinary  clock,  and  in  a 
year  it  gains  a  whole  day,  so  that  there  are 
3G6  sidereal  days  and  only  365  solar  days  in 
one  year.  The  sidereal  noon  occurs  when 
the  first  point  of  Aries  passes  the  meridian, 
and  the  hours  are  reckoned  from  0  to  24. 
The  time  by  the  sidereal  clock  at  which  a 
celestial  body  crosses  the  meridian  is  equal 
to  the  right  ascension  of  that  particular  ob- 
ject. Conversely,  if  the  exact  right  ascen- 
sion of  a  star  be  known,  the  error  of  the 
clock  can  be  determined  by  observing  a 
transit  of  the  star. 

The  Chronograph. — The  chronograph 
consists  of  a  cylinder  covei'ed  with  paper, 
and  made  to  rotate  uniformly  by  clockwork. 
It  is  connected  electrically  with  the  sidereal 
clock,  which,  as  it  ticks,  makes  dots  on  the 
paper  at  equal  distances  by  means  of  a  re- 
cording pen,  and  these  dots  represent  sec- 
onds. Fractions  of  a  second  are  recorded 
by  the  observer  touching  a  key,  which  causes 
a  second  pen  to  make  a  dot  on  the  cylinder 
as  it  turns  round.  This  dot  would  come  be- 
tween two  second  dots,  and  the  distance  is 
measured  from  these.  In  this  manner  the 
■xhxs  or  Tjftfjs  of  a  second  can  be  estimated.  The 
small  tractions  of  a  second  obtained  by  the 
chronograph  are  necessary  in  fixing  the 
right  ascension  and  declination  by  the  tran- 
sit instrument. 

The  Micrometer. — The  micrometer  is 
used  for  measuring  small  area.  It  consists 
of  two  wires,  which  can  be  brought  together 
or  separated  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a 
screw.  An  equatorial  star  appears  to  move 
through  about  15°  in  one  hour,  \°  in  four 
minutes,  15'  in  one  minute,  or  15"  of  arc  in 
one  second  of  time.  The  distance  that  the 
wire  moves  for  one  turn  of  the  screw  is  found 
by  allowing  a  star  to  pass  from  one  wire  to 


453 


454 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  other,  and  then  allowing  15"  of  arc  for 
every  second  of  time  taken  in  so  doing.  The 
diameter  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  or  a  planet 
can  be  estimated  in  angular  measure  by  the 
micrometer,  and  then,  knowing  the  distance 
of  these  objects,  their  sise  can  be  calculated 
from  a  knowledge  of  the  relation  that  exists 
between  the  radius  of  a  circle  and  its  cir> 
cumference. 

The  Theodolitb. — The  theodolite  is 
used  for  measiuinf  horizontal  and  vertical 
angles,  that  is,  altitude  and  azimuth.  It 
consists  of  a  small  telescope,  which  can  be 
moved  up  and  down,  and  the  inclination  is 
shown  by  a  graduated  circle,  called  the  alti- 
tude circle.  The  telescope  can  also  be 
twisted  around  a  vertical  axis,  and  the  an^- 
lar  distances  of  objects  from  the  north  pomt 
of  the  horizon  measured,  that  is,  azimuth. 

The  Sextant. — The  sextant  is  chiefly 
emploved  on  board  ship  for  observing  the 
altituae  of  the  sun,  lunar  distances,  etc.,  in 
the  determination  of  latitude  and  longitude. 
It  consists  of  a  telescope,  through  which  the 
observer  looks.  Opposite  to  the  telescope  is 
a  mirror,  half  silvered  and  half  plain,  so  that 
he  can  see  directly  through  the  plain  part  to 
an  object,  and  he  can  bring  a  second  object 
to  coincide  with  the  first  bv  means  of  a  sec- 
ond mirror  attached  to  the  movable  arm, 
which  reflects  its  light  on  to  the  silvered  part 
of  the  first  mirror,  and  from  thence  through 
the  telescope.  The  reading  on  the  sextant 
then  gives  the  angular  distance  between  the 
two  objects. 

Verniers. — Verniers  are  divided  scales, 
with  their  divisions  a  little  smaller  than  those 
on  the  main  scale  to  which  they  are  attached. 
If  a  length  equal  to  nine  divisions  of  the  main 
scale  be  divided  into  ten  parts,  then  each  of 
these  latter  will  be  ^  less  than  the  former. 
In  general,  n  divisions  of  the  vernier  are 
equal  to  n  -  1  divisions  of  the  scale,  which 
enables  us  to  read  to  the  nth  part  of  a  divi- 
sion, whatever  that  may  be.  If  the  divi- 
sions on  the  main  scale  were  tenths  of  an 
inch  we  could  get  hundredths  by  dividing  a 
length  equal  to  nine  of  them  into  ten  parts, 
then  the  difference  between  the  lengths  of 
these  would  be  ^  of  ^  of  an  inch,  that  is,  yin. 

Angular  Measurement. — The  measure- 
ment of  the  distances  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets  depends  upon  our  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  triangles.  Our  knowledge  of 
the  size  of  the  earth  and  other  bodies  in 
space  depends  upon  angular  measurement. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  mass,  volume,  and 
density  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and 
even  the  masses  and  distances  of  some  of  the 
stars,  depends  upon  our  ability  to  measure 
angles. 

Measurement  of  Time. — An  ancient 
method  of  measuring  time  was  by  the  gno- 
mon, an  upright  stick  in  the  ground  which 
cast  a  shadow  of  the  sun,  the  length  and 
position  of  which  varied  according  to  the 
time  of  day,  hence  the  sun-dial.  Other 
methods  consisted  in  chanting  psalms,  burn- 
ing candles,  and  dropping  water  or  sand 
from  one  vessel  to  another,  hence  clepsydra 
and  hour-glass,  etc.  Clocks  came  into  use  in 
England  in  the  fourteenth  century;  but  in- 
stead of  a  pendulum  a  vibrating  horizontal 
bar  was  employed — DeWyck's  clock.  Gali- 
leo discovered  the  pendulum,  which  sug- 
gested itself  to  him  by  observing  a  swinging 


lamp  in  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa.  Huyghens 
found  that  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum 
were  not  equal  for  any  length  of  swing; 
hence  the  introduction  of  the  cycUndal  pen- 
dulum. Hookers  anchor  escapement  was  the 
next  advance,  which  allowed  of  a  smaller 
arc  of  swing  and  eliminated  a  certain  amount 
of  friction,  but  it  is  not  used  in  the  best 
clocks  because  of  the  recoiL  Graham  over- 
came the  recoil  just  mentioned  by  using  pal- 
lets whose  surfaces  were  arcs  of  circles,  hence 
dead-beat  escapement.  The  chronometer  es- 
capement has  a  balance-wheel  in  place  of  a 
pendulum,  which  thus  admits  of  a  more 
compact  arrangement  than  is  possible  in  a 
clock  with  a  pendulum;  moreover,  it  will 
work  in  any  position. 

ALTiTunE  and  Azimuth. — The  altitude 
of  a  celestial  object,  as  a  star,  is  its  angular 
height  above  the  horizon,  and  its  comple- 
ment— or  that  which  is  required  to  make  it 
equal  to  a  right  angle — is  called  the  zenith 
distance.  The  azimuth  of  a  celestial  object 
is  its  angular  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon.  It  is  found  by  drawing  an 
imaginary  arc  from  the  zenith  point  through 
the  object  till  it  cuts  the  horizon,  and  then 
measuring  the  angular  distance  between 
this  point  and  the  north  point. 

The  Sphere  op  Observation. — The  ap- 
pearance of  the  starry  sphere  presents  dif- 
ferent aspects,  depending  upon  the  localitv 
of  the  observer.  At  Washington  the  north 
pole  is  elevated  about  39°  above  the  horizon, 
at  London  about  5 H° above  the  horizon;  this 
elevation  of  the  pole  always  being  equal  to 
the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation. 
The  celestial  equator  being  90°  distant  from 
the  pole,  will  cut  the  horizon  of  London  at 
an  angle  of  38^°,  and  that  of  Washington  at 
about  51°,  the  northern  side  in  each  case 
being  depressed  below,  and  the  southern 
side  elevated  above,  the  horizon. 

Parallax. — The  moon's  place,  when 
looked  at  through  a  telescope  from  London 
and  some  distant  place,  as  Cape  Town,  seems 
to  change — that  is,  the  telescopes  contain  an 
angle.  This  contained  angle  is  less  when 
the  sun  is  viewed  in  the  same  way,  but  when 
stars  are  looked  at  similarly  the  angle  disap- 
pears altogether — that  is,  stars  have  no  par- 
allax, while  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  have 
parallax,  or  angular  displacement  caused  by 
change  of  position. 

Rotundity  op  the  Earth. — The  concave 
heavens ;  the  disappearance  of  a  ship  at  sea : 
the  extension  of  the  horizon  as  we  ascena 
high  elevations ;  the  frequent  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  globe;  the  earth's  shadow  cast  oy 
the  sun  upon  the  moon  during  an  eclipse: 
the  spherical  form  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets — all  confirm  our  belief  that  the  earth 
IS  globular  in  form. 

Magnitude  of  the  Earth. — The  size  of 
the  earth  is  found  by  observing  a  star  in  the 
exact  zenith  of  any  place,  tnen  traveling 
along  a  direct  north  line,  till  the  star  has 
declined  1°  from  the  zenith,  and  measuring 
the  distance  traversed.  This  distance 
would  be  the  length  of  1°  in  miles,  and  360 
times  that  length  would  give  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  earth. 

Demonstration  of  Earth's  Rotation. — 
A  heavy  body  set  in  motion  tends  to  retain 
its  original  plane  of  motion.  Foucault's 
pendulum  consists  of  a  heavy  ball  at  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE   BOOK. 


455 


end  of  a  long  wire,  supported  by  a  steel  pivot 
on  an  agate  plane.  The  ball,  when  set 
swinging,  seems  to  change  its  direction  of 
swing  across  a  graduated  circle  on  a  table 
beneath  it,  but,  as  we  know  that  the  pendu- 
lum tends  to  keep  to  the  same  plane  of  mo- 
tion, and  that  there  is  so  little  to  prevent  it 
from  doing  so,  we  conclude  it  is  the  earth 
which  is  turning  on  its  axis  and  carrying  the 
table  with  it.  The  gyroscope  is  essentially 
the  same  as  the  pencfulum,  a  heav^  rotating 
disk  taking  the  place  of  the  swinging  bob  of 
the  pendulum.  The  rotating  disk  is  sup- 
ported inside  a  horizontal  ring,  this  ring 
being  in  its  turn  supported  by  knife  edges 
resting  on  steel  plates  in  the  circumference 
of  a  vertical  ring,  and  this  vertical  ring  is 
supported  by  a  torsionless  thread,  so  that  all 
th^  parts  are  nicely  counterpoised  and  are 
free  to  move.  A  pointer  attached  to  the 
vertical  ring  is  found  to  move  over  a  gradu- 
ated scale  at  the  same  rate  as  the  pendulum 
changed  its  plane  of  motion ;  hence,  we  con- 
clude that  it  is  the  earth  which  moves,  be- 
cause we  know  that  the  rotating  disc  holds  to 
its  initial  plane  of  motion.  The  rotation  of 
the  earth  on  its  axis  furnishes  us  with  an  in- 
valuable unit  of  time. 

Revolution  of  the  Earth  in  its  Orbit. 
— The  stars  which  are  seen  nearest  to  the 
Sim  after  sunset  at  different  times  of  the  year 
are  not  the  same,  but  belong  to  different 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  This  change  of  position 
of  the  sun  with  respect  to  the  stars  takes 
place  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  a  day,  so  that 
the  whole  heavens  appear  to  revolve  once  in 
a  year  independent  of  their  diurnal  revolu- 
tion. This  is  due  to  the  real  revolution  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit.  The  stars  appear  to 
describe  little  ellipses  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  light  com- 
ing from  the  stars  that  is  displaced  by  the 
motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  the  form  of 
this  orbit  being  elliptical,  so  that  the  star's 
position  is  changed  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro- 
ject an  ellipse  similar  to  that  which  the 
earth  traces  out.  This  phenomenon  is 
known  as  the  aberration  of  light,  and  was  dis- 
covered by  Bradley. 

Velocitt  op  Light. — Fizeau  determined 
the  velocity  of  light  by  reflecting  a  spot  of 
light  from  a  mirror  at  one  station  to  a  second 
mirror  at  a  distant  station.  The  light  was 
brought  to  a  focus  at  the  required  points  by 
means  of  lenses.  A  toothed  wheel  whose 
revolutions  could  be  registered  was  so  placed 
that  its  teeth  revolved  in  the  focus,  and  the 
spot  of  light  could  be  seen  between  two 
teeth.  It  was  possible  to  turn  the  wheel  so 
quickly  that  the  spot  of  light  was  stopped  by 
a  tooth  coming  up  before  it  could  pass 
through.  The  distance  between  the  sta- 
tions oeing  known,  and  the  rate  at  which 
the  wheel  turned,  the  velocity  of  light  could 
be  found.  Foucault's  method  consisted  of 
a  rapidly  rotating  mirror,  on  which  a  beam  of 
light  was  admitted  through  a  slit.  It  was 
then  reflected  on  to  a  lens,  after  which  it  was 
brought  to  a  focus  on  a  concave  mirror  at 
some  distance.  It  was  found  possible  to 
turn  the  mirror  so  quickly  that  it  moved 
through  a  small  angle  before  the  spot  of 
light  returned.  The  distance  between  the 
mirrors,  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  mirror, 
and  the  amount  of  displacement  being 
known,  the  velocity  of  light  could  be  esti- 


mated. The  velocity  of  light  and  the  aberra- 
tion angle  being  known  the  sun's  distance 
can  be  found. 

(1)  The  ratio  of  the  velocity  of  light  and 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  as  determined  by  ob- 
servation is  as  10,089  : 1. 

(2)  The  earth  completes  its  orbit  in  365i 
days. 

(3)  Light  would  do  the  same  journey  in 
365i    , 

10,089  ^*^^' 

(4)  Knowing  the  time  it  would  take  to 
complete  the  revolution  we  can  find  how 
long  it  would  take  to  cross  the  diameter,  and 
therefore  the  radius. 

(5)  We  multiply  the  number  of  seconds 
taken  by  light  to  cross  the  radius  of  the 
earth's  orbit  by  the  velocity  of  light,  and  it 
gives  us  92,628,000  miles  as  the  sun's  dis- 
tance. 

The  Sun  not  always  at  the  Same  Dis- 
tance FROM  the  Earth. —  In  the  Nautical 
Almanac  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  is 
given  for  every  day  in  the  year.  The  ap- 
parent diameter  was  32'35.2''  on  Januai^  3rd, 
1904,  and  on  July  4th  of  the  same  year  it  was 
only  31'30.7".  This  proves  the  sun  is  farther 
away  from  us  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

Perihelion  and  Aphelion. — When  the 
earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Perihelion,  and  when  farthest  from  the  sun 
it  is  said  to  be  in  Aphelion. 

The  Earth  Moves  with  varying  Ve- 
locity in  its  Orbit. — This  is  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  sun's  longitude  for  two 
successive  days  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
by  which  means  it  is  found  in  December  to 
move  over  61 '10.0"  within  a  period  of 
twenty-four  hours,  while  in  June  it  only 
moves  over  57'10.8"  in  the  same  time. 

Kepler's  Law  of  Equal  Areas. — Kepler 
found  that  the  line  joining  the  center  of  the 
sun  with  the  center  of  the  earth  moved  over 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  that  is,  the  greater 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  in  June 
compensated  for  the  smaller  arc  of  motion 
in  longitude,  so  that  lines  drawn  from  the 
sun  to  the  extremities  of  the  arcs  moved 
over  make  equal  triangles. 

How  THE  Inclination  of  the  Ecliptic 
TO  THE  Plane  of  the  Earth's  Equator  is 
Determined. — The  elevation  of  the  sim  above 
the  horizon  is  measured  by  the  shadow  cast 
by  the  gnomon,  or  the  north  polar  distance  is 
ascertained  by  the  transit  instrument  for  each 
day  in  the  year.  In  either  case  the  sun  will 
be  found  to  oscillate  backwards  and  forwards 
over  an  arc  of  about  47°,  half  of  which  arc  is 
the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator. 

Nodes. — The  two  points  where  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic  crosses  the  plane  of  the  celestial 
equator  or  equinoctial  are  called  nodes,  that 
point  at  which  the  sun  appears  to  come  up 
from  below  the  equator  bein^  called  the  aa- 
cending  node,  and  that  at  which  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  descend  from  above  the  same  plane 
being  called  the  descending  node. 

The  First  Point  of  Aries. — The  ascend- 
ing node  above  referred  to  is  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  It  is  universally  used  by  astronomers 
for  fixing  the  longitudinal  and  right  ascen- 
sion of  celestial  bodies. 

The  Sidereal,  Solar,  and  Mean  Solar 
Day. — The  sidereal  day  is  the  interval  which 
elapses  between  two  successive  appearances 
of  the  same  star  on  the  meridian.     The  solar 


456 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


day  is  the  interval  which  elapses  between  two 
successive  appearances  of  the  sun  on  the  meri- 
dian, but  these  are  not  of  the  same  len^h. 
The  mean  solar  day  is  the  interval  of  time 
obtained  by  adding  all  the  solar  days  in  a 
vear  together,  and  then  dividing  by  the  num« 
ber  of  da.ys  in  a  year. 

Equation  or  Time. — The  inequality  of  the 
solar  days  arises  from  two  causes,  namely,  the 
obliquUy  of  the  eelipiie  to  the  equator,  and  the 
unequal  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  The 
equation  of  time  is  the  alffebraie  sum  of  these 
two  variables — that  is  to  say,  sometimes  they 
both  cause  the  sun  to  come  too  soon  to  the 
meridian;  at  other  times  one  causes  the  sun 
to  come  up  too  soon  and  the  other  too  late. 
In  the  former  case  the  sum  of  the  two  correc- 
tions, and  in  the  latter  case  the  difference  of 
the  two  corrections,  is  the  equation  of  time, 
and  so  on. 

The  Seasons. — ^The  seasons  are  the  result 
of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  and 
the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator. 
The  sun  on  this  account  attains  different 
heights  above  the  horizon,  giving  different 
len'gths  of  day  and  night.  By  reason  of  its 
p^ivmg  to  the  earth  more  heat  in  the  day  than 
it  loses  by  radiation  in  the  night,  and  vice 
versa,  we  nave  summer  or  winter  as  the  case 
may  be. 

The  Year. — The  ordinary  or  tropical  year 
is  the  period  which  elapses  between  two  suc- 
cessive appearances  of  the  sun  at  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  anomalistic  year  is  the  period 
which  elapses  between  two  successive  returns 
of  the  sun  to  his  perigean  point.  The  sidereal 
year  is  the  time  which  elapses  between  two 
successive  appearances  of  the  same  star  on 
the  meridian  at  the  same  time  of  day. 

Precession  and  Nutation. — The  sun  and 
moon  attract  the  protuberant  portion  of  the 
earth's  equator  more  on  that  side  nearest  to 
them  than  on  that  side  farthest  away,  and  in 
this  way  the  differential  attraction  tends  to 
tilt  the  axis  a  little,  so  that  it  describes  a  cir- 
cle in  about  25,800  years.  The  moon's  differ- 
ential attraction  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
sun.  On  account  of  the  moon  continually 
changing  its  relation  to  the  earth's  equator, 
it  causes  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  describe  a 
circle  with  a  wavy  circumference,  to  which 
effect  the  term  nutation,  or  nodding  of  the 
earth's  axis,  is  applied. 

Astronomical  Symbols  and  Abbreviations. 
O      The  Sun.       °     Degrees. 
C       The  Moon.    '     Minutes  of  Arc. 
5       Mercury.       "    Seconds  of  Arc. 
9       Venus.  N.  North.      S.    South. 

0or  6  The  Earth.    E.  East.        W.  West. 
cf       Mars.  ° 

'U      Jupiter.  0.  T  Aries 0 

}}       Saturn.  I.  y  Taurus 30 

ifi      Uranus.  II.  II  Gemini 60 

tj;      Neptune.  III.  o  Cancer 90 

c5      Conjunction.     IV.  Q  Leo 120 

D      Quadrature.        V.  irv  Virgo 150 

Opposition.       VI.  O:  Libra 180 

Ascending       VII.  V([  Scorpio 210 

Node.         VIII.  /Sagittarius   .240 
U      Descending       IX.  l^  Capricornu8.270 
Node.  X.  Ts;  Aquarius.  .  .  300 

h  Hours.  XI.  K  Pisces 330 

m  Minutes  of  Time. 

8    Seconds  of  Time. 

Latitude,  LoNorrrDE,  Right  Ascension, 

AND    Declination. — Terrestrial    latitude    is 


measured  from  the  equator  to  the  p|oles,  north 
and  south.  Terrestrial  longitude  is,  in  Eng- 
land, measured  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, but  other  countries  use  their  own  meri- 
dians. Ric^ht  ascension  is  measured  from 
the  first  pomt  of  Aries.  Declination  is  meas- 
ured from  the  celestial  equator.  Celestial 
longitude  is  measured  from  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  Celestial  latitude  is  measured  from 
the  ecliptic. 

Variation  in  the  Length  of  Degrees  of 

Latitude. 


Length 

Country. 

Latitude. 

of  De- 
gree in 

Observer. 

Feet. 

o      /       // 

Sweden.  .  . 
Denmark. . 
England  . 
India  .... 
Peru. 

N.  66  20  10 
N.54   813.7 
N.  52  35  45* 
N.  12  32  20.8 
S.     131   0.4 

365,744 
365,087 
364,971 
362,956 
362.790 

Maupertuis 

Schumacher 

Roy 

Lambton 

Lacondamine 

v>ape  oi 

GoodHope  S.  3318  30 

364,713 

Lacaille 

Measurement  of  the  Size  of  the  Sun 
AND  Planets. — The  ratio  between  the  radius 
of  a  circle  and  its  circumference  is  always  the 
same,  no  matter  how  large  or  small  the  circle 
may  be.  Thus,  an  arc  of  57.2958**  on  any  cir- 
cle is  equal  in  length  to  the  radius  of  that 
circle;  and  if  this  oe  reduiKd  to  seconds  of 
arc,  we  get  206,265''  as  the  number  of  seconds 
in  a  length  of  arc  equal  to  radius.  The  mean 
angular  diameter  of  the  sun,  as  measured  by 
the  micrometer,  is  a  little  over  32'  of  arc. 
We  may  consider  the  sun  to  form  part  of  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  with  its  distance 
from  the  earth  as  radius.     There  are  1920"  in 

32',  and  '  =108  nearly;  hence  the  dis- 
tance of  the  earth  from  the  stm  is  108  times 
the  diameter  of  the  sun,  whatever  that  may 
be.  But  we  know  the  distance  of  the  sun  to 
be  92,885,000  miles;   so  that  the  diameter  of 

the  sun  must  be    "~' jqo — =860,000  miles. 

The  same  method  applies  to  the  planets  and 
their  satellites  as  well  as  to  the  sun.  The 
angular  diameter  of  the  body  being  measured 
in  seconds  of  arc,  it  bears  the  same  ratio  to 
206,265  (the  number  of  seconds  in  a  length  of 
arc  equal  to  radius)  that  the  diameter  in 
miles  bears  to  the  distance  in  miles ;  or,  calling 
the  actual  diameter  d,  and  the  real  distance  D, 
,  J     DX  angular  diameter      -, 

we  have  d 206:265 '     ^^'^  ®^- 

ample — the  moon,  in  round  numbers,  is  240,- 
000  miles  distant,  and  its  angular  diameter  is 
a  little  over  31';  hence,  by  the  formula,  its 
diameter  is — 

,     240,000X1860     „,„.      ., 
^^ ^2067265- =2164  miles. 

Density  of  the  Earth. 


Experiment. 

Mean 
Density. 

Observer. 

Schehallien 

5.01 
5.48 
5.66 
6.56 
5.53 

Maskelvne 
Cavendish 
Baily 
Airy 

Attraction  of  leaden  ball 

Ditto,  repeated 

Harton  coal-pit 

Probable  value 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


457 


To  Find  the  Period  of  a  Planet. — The 
Bjmodic  period  may  be  readily  observed,  and 
from  it  the  actual  time  occupied  bv  a  planet 
in  completing  its  revolution  round  tne  sun  can 
be  calculated.  For  example,  the  synodic 
period  of  Mercury  is  115.9  days;  this  means 
that  the  earth  and  the  planet  being  in  a  line 
with  the  sun  at  any  time,  the  latter  has  pro- 
gressed in  its  orbit  so  quickly  as  to  complete 
an  entire  revolution  and  again  overtake  the 
earth  during  the  period  of  115.9  days.     Now 

360° 
the  earth  moves  ^oe  nr  =  0.9856°  in  a  day,  and 
ooo.Jo 

in   the  entire   period    115.9X0.9856°  =  114.2°. 

But    the   planet    has    moved    360°+ 114.2°  = 

474.2°  in  the  same  time,  hence  the  period  of 

the  planet  is  to  that  of  the  earth  as  114.2°  : 

474.2°,  that  is.  Hi^^i^^iHS^gg  ^jays  nearly. 

Shooting  Stars. — The  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal meteor  swarms  and  the  dates  of  their 
appearance  are  as  follows : — 


Name. 

Date. 

Comet  having 
same  Orbit. 

Andromedes  . 

Lyrids 

Leonids 

Perseids 

23  November 

20  April 

15  November 
11  August.  . . 

Biela's 

Comet  L  1861 
Tempers,  1866 
Comet  III.  1863 

The  number  of  stars  in  the  northern  hemv- 
sphere  in  Ai^lander's  catalogue  is  324,000. 
The  number  of  known  variables  is  111,  and 
the  suspected  variables  381.  Roughly,  then, 
there  is  one  variable  in  every  660  of  the 
known  stars.  According  to  Duner,  about 
1  in  7  of  the  third  t3i)e  stars  is  variable. 

To  Find  the  Time  of  Sunrise  and  Sun- 
set BY  MEANS  OF  THE  TERRESTRIAL  GlOBE. 

The  time  of  sunrise  or  simset  may  be  found 
for  any  day  by  elevating  the  north  or  south 
pole  equal  to  the  sun's  declination  north  or 
south  for  any  given  day.  The  place  being 
under  the  brass  meridian,  the  hour  circle 
should  be  set  at  XII.,  and  then  the  place 
should  be  rotated  first  to  the  eastern  horizon 
and  then  to  the  western  and  the  times  on  the 
hour  circle  noted,  the  former  being  the  time 
of  rising,  and  the  latter  that  of  setting  of  the 
sun.  Twice  the  time  of  setting  of  the  sim 
gives  the  length  of  the  day,  and  twice  the 
time  of  rising  gives  the  length  of  the  night. 

Example:  20th  January,  1890,  sun  rose, 
8.15;  set,  3.45. 

2X3.45-  7*=lengthof  day. 
2  X  8. 15  =  16i  =  length  of  night. 

The  months  and  days  of  the  months  are  all 
marked  on  the  ecliptic,  so  that  the  sun's  place 
for  any  day  is  determined  by  finding  the  day 
on  the  ecliptic  and  noting  the  part  of  the 
sign  of  the  zodiac  corresponding  to  that  day, 
and  if  the  globe  be  turned  till  this  part  of  the 
ecliptic  comes  to  the  meridian,  the  latter  will 
indicate  the  declination  of  the  sun. 

Note. — The  Analemma  is  a  convenient  pro- 

J'ection  of  the  ecliptic  on  which  the  sun's  dec- 
ination  may  be  readily  found,  as  it  is  noted 
for  every  day  in  the  year. 

Numerical  Facts  relating  to  the  Sun. 
— Solar  Parallax  (equatorial  horizontal), 
8.80"  ±  0.02".  Mean  distance  of  the  sun  from 
the  earth,  92,885,000  miles;  149,480,000  kil- 
ometers. Variation  of  the  distance  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth  between  January  and 
June,   3.100,000  miles;    4.950,000  kilometers. 


Linear  value  of  1"  on  the  sun's  surface,  450.3 
miles;  724.7  kilometers.  Mean  angular  semi- 
diameter  of  the  sun,  16'  02.0".  Sun's  linear 
diameter,  866,400  miles;  1,394,300  kilometers. 
(This  may,  perhaps,  be  variable  to  the  extent 
of  several  hundred  miles. )  Ratio  of  the  sun's 
diameter  to  the  earth's,  109.3.  Surface  of  the 
sun  compared  with  the  earth,  11,940.  Vol- 
ume, or  cubic  contents,  of  the  sun  compared 
with  the  earth,  1,305,000.  Mass,  or  quantity 
of  matter,  of  the  sun  compared  with  the  earth, 
330,000  :b  3000.  Mean  density  of  the  sun  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  0.253.  Mean  density  of 
the  sun  compared  with  water,  1.406.  Force 
of  gravity  on  the  sun's  surface  compared  with 
that  on  the  earth,  27.6.  Distance  a  body 
would  fall  in  one  second,  444.4  feet;  135.5 
meters.  Inclination  of  the  sun's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic,  7°  15'.  Longitude  of  its  ascending 
node,  74°.  Date  when  the  sun  is  at  the  node, 
June  4,  5.  Mean  time  of  the  sun's  rotation 
(Carrington),  25.38  days.  Time  of  rotation  of 
the  sun's  equator,  25  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  20°,  25.75  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  30°,  26.5  days.  Time  of  rotation  at 
latitude  45°.  27.5  days.  (These  last  four 
nimibers  are  somewhat  doubtful,  the  formulse 
of  various  authorities  giving  results  differing 
by  several  hours  in  some  cases.)  Linear 
velocity  of  the  sun's  rotation  at  his  equator, 
1.261  miles  per  second;  2.028  kilometers  per 
second.  Total  quantity  of  sunlight,  1,575,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  candles.  In- 
tensity of  the  sunlight  at  the  surface  of  the 
sun,  190,000  that  of  a  candle  flame;  5300  times 
that  of  metal  in  a  Bessemer  convertor;  146 
times  that  of  a  calcium  light;  3.4  times  that 
of  an  electric  arc.  Brightness  of  a  point  on 
the  sun's  limb  compared  with  that  ox  a  point 
near  the  center  of  tne  disk,  25  per  cent.  Heat 
received  per  minute  from  the  sun  upon  a 
square  meter,  perpendicularly  expc^ed  to  the 
solar  radiation,  at  the  upper  surface  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere  (the  solar  conaiant),  25 
calories.  Heat  radiation  at  the  surface  of 
the  sun,  per  square  meter  per  minute,  1,117.- 
000  calories.  Thickness  of  a  shell  of  ice 
which  would  be  melted  from  the  surface  of 
the  sun  per  minute,  48^  feet,  or  14|-  meters. 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  the  solar  radiation 
at  the  sun's  surface,  continuously  acting, 
109,000  horse  power  per  square  meter;  or, 
10,000  (nearly)  per  square  foot.  Effective 
temperature  of  the  solar  surface  (according 
to  Rossetti),  about  10,000°  C,  or  18,000  F. 

Nebular  Hypothesis. — According  to  this 
theory,  all  the  members  of  our  solar  system 
once  existed  in  a  state  of  hi^hl^  heated  gas- 
eous or  nebulous  matter,  which  extended  far 
beyond  the  orbit  of  our  most  remote  planet, 
Neptime.  This  matter  was  supposed  to  have 
received  a  motion  of  rotation,  and,  as  it  cooled, 
became  more  and  more  condensed,  the  central 
portion  leaving  a  ring  of  protuberant  matter 
m  the  equatorial  region,  which,  after  becoming 
detached,  would  continue  to  revolve  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  parent  mass,  something 
after  the  fashion  of  Saturn's  ring.  This  de- 
tached ring,  it  was  presumed,  would  break  up, 
and  collecting  into  a  globular  mass  retain  its 
motion  of  rotation,  and  take  up  an  additional 
motion  of  revolution  aroima  its  primary. 
The  detached  planets  formed  in  this  wa^ 
would,  by  a  similar  process,  throw  off  their 
satellites,  which,  after  long  ages  of  cooling, 
have  assumed  their  present  state. 


458 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SOME   ELEMENTS    OF   THE   PLANETARY    SYSTEM. 


Name. 

Mean  Dis- 
tance from 
Earth  in 
MUlions  of 
Miles. 

Sidereal 

Period  of 

Revolution 

Round  Sun 

Time  of 

Axial 
Rotation. 

Real 
Diameter 
in  Miles. 

Volume 

©-1. 

1 

Density 

©=1. 

The  Sun 0 

92.9 
66.9 
25.7 

D. 

H.      H. 

607  48 
♦24   6* 
♦23  2li 

23  56 

24  374 
9  55 

10  14} 
9  30(?) 

866,400 

3.030 

7,700 

7,918 

4,230 

86.500 

73,000 

31,900 

34,800 

1,300,000 

0.25 

Mercury 6 

Venus 9 

Earth ® 

88 

225 

365 

687 

4.333 

10,759 

30,687 

60,181 

0.056      !        6.85  (?) 
0.920              0.89 
1.000               1.00 

Mars cf 

Jupiter % 

Saturn I7 

Uranus ifl 

Neptune tj; 

48.6 

390.4 

793.2 

1.689.0 

2.698.8 

0.152 
1.309 
760 
59 

85 

0.71 
0.24 
0.13 
0.22 
0.20 

THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


Mean  distance  from  sun 
in  miles. 


Sun 

Mercury 
Venus  . . 
Earth  .  . 
Mars  .  . . 
Jupiter  . 
Satiu-n.  . 
Uranus  . 
Neptune 


35,750,000 

66.750,000 

92,333,333 

141,000,000 

480,000,000 

881,000,000 

1,771,000,000 

2,775,000,000 


Mean  diuneter 

Satel- 

in miles. 

lites. 

860,000 

2,992 

6 

7,660 

0 

7,918 

1 

4,211 

2 

86,000 

5 

70,600 

8 

31,700 

4 

34,600 

1 

GREEK   ALPHABET. 

The  different  stars  of  the  several  constellations  are  usually  indicated  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.     For  convenience  of  reference,  the  alphabet  is  here  given. 

A   a 

B  ^ 

u 

E   e 
Z   ^ 

NAMES   OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  STARS. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  Stars  of  the  First  Three  Magnitudes  to 
which  Astronomers  have  given  names,  at  least 

Andromedse — Andromeda..  Alpheratz.  ' 

"  Mirach  Mizar.        I 


Alpha. 

H  Ti    Eta. 

N  1/    Nu. 

T  T    Tau. 

Beta. 

e  0    Theta. 

H  f    Xi. 

Y  V    Unsil<»x. 
«  4t    Phi. 

Gamma. 

I    I    Iota. 

0  0    Oimcron. 

Delta. 

K  K    Kappa. 
A  A    Lambda 

n»    Pi. 

X  X    Chi. 

Epsilon. 

P  p    Rho. 

♦  1^    Psi. 

Zeta. 

M  M    Mu. 

2  «    Sigma. 

0  M    Omega. 

a 

.8 
r 

a 

d 
a 

r 

a 

r 

a 
a 

€ 

a 


"  Almach.  ^ 

Aquarii — Water  Bearer.  .  .Sadalmelik. 

* '      Sadalsund. 

••      Skat. 

Aquilse — Eagle Altair. 

"      ..  ^ Alshain. 

"  ^   Tarazed. 

Arietis — Ram Hamal. 

'  *      Sheratan. 

'*      ^ Mesartim. 

Aurigse — Charioteer Capella. 

"      Menkalinan. 

Bootis — Herdsman Arcturus. 

"     Nekkar. 

"      Izar,  Mizar,  Mirach. 

"     Muphrid. 

Canis  Majoris — Great  Dog.Sirius. 

"      Mirzam. 

"      Adara. 


all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use  - 

a  Canis  Minoris — Little  Dog. Procyon. 

0 
a 


Gomeisa. 
Canum        Venaticorum  — 

Hunting  Dogs Cor  Caroli. 

a^  Capricomi — Sea  Goat Secunda  Giedi. 


9 
a 

P 
a 

r 

a 

.8 

C 
o 
a 
a 
a 
d 
a 
a 


Cassioi>eise — Cassiopeia. 


Deneb  Algiedi. 

Schedar. 

Chaph. 

Cephei — Cepheus Alderamin. 

^'      Alphirk.      . 

•  *     Errai. 

Ceti — Whale Menkar. 

" Diphda. 

*  * Baten  Kaito9 

" Mira. 

Columbse — Dove Phact. 

Coronse  Borealis — Crown .  .  Alphecca. 

Corvi — Crow Alchiba. 

* '     Algores. 

Crateris — Cup Alkes. 

Cygni — Swan Arided.  Deneb  Adige. 


*  The  periods  of  rotation  of  Mercury  and  Venus  are  possibly  equal  to  their  periods  of  revo- 
lution. 

N.B. — The  numbers  in  the  third  column  refer  to  the  mean  distances  at  inferior  conjunction 
for  the  inferior  planets  at  opposition  for  the  superior  planets. 

"—Knowledge  Diary  and  Scientific  Handbook. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


459 


NAMES    OF  THE   PRINCIPAL   STARS.--Continued. 


j9  Cygni — Swpn Albireo. 

Draconis — Dragon Thuban. 

Alwaid. 

Etanin. 

Eridani — River  Eridanus.  .Cursa. 

" Zaurac. 

Geminorum — Twins.  .  . 


a 

r 
r 

a 

r 
d 

t 

a 

P 
a 
a 

r 

d 

a 
a 

r 

a 

P 

r 

a 

0 
a 

r 


Herculia 


. . .  Castor. 

Pollux. 

Alhena. 

Wesat. 

Mebsuta. 

Hercules Ras  Algethi. 

Komeforos. 

Hydrae — Sea  Serpent .  .  Al  Fard,  Cor  Hydrae. 

Leonis — Lion Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 

"     Deneb  Aleet,  Denedola,  Deneb. 

*  *      Algeiba. 

* '      Zosma. 

Leporis — Wolf Ameb. 

Librae — Scales Zuben  el  Genubi. 

"     Zuben  el  Chamali. 

"     Zuben  Hakrabi. 

Lyrse — Lyre Vega. 

••    Sheliak. 

"... Sulaphat. 

Ophiuchi — Seri>ent  Bearer. Ras  Alhague. 

•"        Cebalrai. 

Orionis — Orion. . ' Betelgeux. 

"      ...Rigel. 

••      Bellatrix. 


d  Orionis — Orion M intaka. 

c         * '      Alnilam. 

a  Pegasi — Pegasiis Markab. 

$       "     Scheat. 

r      "     Algenib. 

e        ••     Enif. 

C       "     Homan. 

a  Persei — Perseus Mirfak. 

p         "       Algol. 

a  Piscis  Australis — Southern 

Fish Fomalhaut. 

«   Sagittarii — Archer Kaus  Australis. 

a  Scorpionis — Scorpion AntareSj      Cor 

Scorpionis. 

a  Serpentis — Serpent UnukaJhai. 

a  Tauri — Bull Aldebaran. 

B      '*    Nath. 

1}       "    Alcyone  (Pleiad). 

o  Ursae  Majoris — Great  Bear.Dubhe. 

r 

e 

c 

t 
a 

0 
a 

0 

e 


t  < 


Merak. 

Phecda. 

Alioth. 

Mizar. 

Alkaid,  Benetnasch. 

Talitha. 

Ursae  Minoris — Little  Bear.  Polaris. 

*•      Kochab. 

Virginis — ^Virgin.  .  ..Spica  Azimech.Spica. 

"       Zavijavji. 

Vindemratrix 


( < 
t « 
t « 
1 1 
<  i 

4  « 


it 


MAGNITUDES  AND  DISTANCES  OF  SOME   OF  THE   STARS. 


POLARIS  (alpha  TTRSiE  MINORTS),  THE  NORTH 

STAR. 

The  parallax  is  (y.075  +  (y.015,  according 
to  Pritchard  (1888).  This  parallax  repre- 
sents 2,318,000  times  the  distance  of  the 
Earth  from  the  Sun,  or,  in  other  words, 
Polaris  is  distant  210,000,000,000,000  of 
miles.  Estimating  the  velocity  of  light  as 
187,500  miles  per  second,  the  light  from 
Polaris  would  take  thirty-six  years  to  reach 
the  Earth.  An  express  train  traveling  a 
mile  a  minute  would  have  to  run  without  stop- 
ping for  479,000,000  years  in  order  to  tra- 
verse this  distance. 

ARCTURUS. 

The  parallax,  as  determined  by  Elkin  in 
1888,  is  0^018  ±0*.022,  and  by  Peters,  in 
1842-43,  as  0*.  127  +  0^.073.  The  average 
0*.094  would  make  the  distance  of  Arctunis 
from  us  to  be  2,194,100  times  the  distance 
from  the  Earth  to  the  Sun,  or  200,000,000,000,- 
000  of  miles;  and  taking  the  velocity  of  light 
as  187,500  miles,  it  would  require  thirty-four 
years  and  six  months  for  the  light  to  reach  us. 

VEGA. 

This  was  the  polar  star  of  our  Earth  14,000 
years  ago,  and  will  again  be  the  polar  star  in 


about  12,000  years.  The  parallax  of  Vega, 
which  is  0*.15,  represents  1,375,000  times  the 
di.stance  of  the  Earth  from  the  Sun,  or  12,000,- 
000,000.000  of  miles.  It  takes  twenty  years 
and  eight  months  for  the  light  from  Vega  to 
reach  us.  estimating  the  velocity  of  light  as 
187,500  miles  a  second. 

ALTAIR. 

The  parallax,  according  to  Elkin  (1887),  is 
(T .  1 99  ±  0*'.047.  Taking  the  average  between 
the  parallax  of  Stnive,  0*'.18li;0*.094,  and 
that  of  Elkin  as  0*.  19,  the  distance  would  he 
1,086,000  times  the  distance  of  the  Earth 
from  the  Sun,  or  100.000,000,000,000  miles. 
It  would  require  a  little  over  seventeen  years 
for  the  light  of  this  star  to  rcau;h  us. 

SIRIUS,    THE    DOG   STAR. 

The  parallax  is  0^.266  ±0*.047,  according 
to  Elkin  (1888).  Taking  the  average  parallax 
of  several  observers  as  0''.33,  it  would  repre- 
sent 625,000  times  the  distance  of  the  Earth 
from  the  Sun,  or  68,000,000,000,000  of  miles. 
The  light  of  this  star  would  require  nine  years 
and  ten  months  to  reach  us.  It  is  supposed 
the  diameter  of  Sirius  is  about  twenty  times 
that  of  the  Sun,  and  the  volume  of  Sirius  is 
possibly  7,000  times  greater  than  our  Sun. 


DIRECTIONS    FOR    USING    THE    STAR    MAP. 


Traced  in  dot  and  dash  lines  on  the  accom- 
panying star  map  are  a  series  of  ellipses. 
From  the  points  where  these  ellipses  come 
nearest  to  tne  edge  of  the  map,  arrows  project 
radially  to  the  names  of  the  months  which  are 
printea  around  the  map.  Each  ellip.se  marks 
the  extent  of  the  heavens  visible  at  nine  o'clock 


p.m.  of  the  first  day  of  that  month  toward 
which  its  arrow  points.  To  avoid  confusion, 
the  best  plan  is>  to  cut  in  a  piece  of  stiff  paper 
an  oval  opening  of  the  exact  size  of  one  of  the 
ellipses,  and  to  place  this  over  the  map,  so  as 
to  expose  to  view  only  that  portion  of  the  map 
which  represents  the  visible  heavens  at  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


liiDfl  of  the  obMrv&tJ 


LP  lAould  be  I    Ihat  inclnilHl  witl) 


South,  then  eontnn'  to  ciislom  Ln  nocranh- 
ieal  msTw  ihe  E>9t  wUI  lie  nn  ib«  left-haad 
'     '      "'     '      n  the  right-hand  [fide. 


DHemfacr.     Then  when  the  map  a 

»ld  overbeiid  with  the  arrow  pointing  foulh 
will  be  poaeible  to  pick  out  the  Htars  Tudble 


,1  the  first  I 
ourviioint  atara,  and  fifth 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


461 


fall  about  one  defjjec  to  the  east  of  the  posi- 
tion on  the  first  of  December  at  nine  o'clock, 
so  that  at  the  end  of  thirty  days  it  would 
move  into  coincidence  with  the  ellipse  traced 
for  January   1st. 

The  following  descriptions  of  the  heavens 
apply  to  the  stars  visible  at  nine  o'clock  on 
the  nrst  days  of  the  months,  but  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  same  description  would  apply 
for  the  stars  visible  at  eight  o'clock  on  the 
fifteenth  of  that  same  month,  or  for  ten 
o'clock  on  the  15th  and  11  o'clock  on  the  first 
of  the  preceding  month. 

January. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
is  now  rising  well  above  the  horizon,  in  the 
northeast,  the  Pointers  about  midway  be- 
tween north  and  northeast.  The  Dragon, 
Draco,  lies  due  north,  curving  round  under 
the  Little  Bear,  its  head  close  to  the  horizon. 
Low  down  in  tne  northwest  is  a  part  of  the 
Swan,  CygnuB.  Higher  up  we  see  King 
Cepheu8,  his  wife,  Casaiopeia,  and  their 
dau|;hter,  Andromeiia,  the  Seated  Lady  and 
Chamed  Lady  respectively,  with  the  Rescuer, 
Perseus,  nearly  overhead.  The  Winged 
Horse  is  setting,  his  head  close  Iw  the  western 
horizon,  and  near  the  Jar  of  the  Water  Bearer, 
Aquaritia.  In  the  southwest  is  the  Whale, 
and  close  by  the  constellation  Pisces,  or  the 
Fishes;  above  them  the  Ram,  Aries,  between 
which  and  Andromeda  the  Triangle  can  be 
seen.  In  the  south  the  River,  Eridanus, 
makes  now  its  best  show.  Its  leading  bril- 
liant, Achemar,  \s,  however,  never  seen  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  southwest  the  Great 
Dog  with  the  splendid  Sirius  ("which  bright- 
liest  shines  when  laved  of  ocean's  wave") 
shows  resplendently.  Above  is  Orion,  now 
standing  upright,  treading  on  the  Hare, 
Lepus,  and  racing  the  Bull,  Tauriis,  now  at  its 
highest.  The  Dove,  Columba,  below  the 
Hare  is  a  modem  and  not  very  interesting  con- 
stellation. The  Little  Dog,  Canis  Minor,  is 
on  the  east  of  Orion.  In  the  east  the  Sea 
Serpent,  Hydra,  is  rising,  and  due  east  a  little 
higher  we  nnd  Cancer,  the  Crab ;  above  are  the 
Twins,  Oemini,  and  above  them  the  Charioteer, 
Auriga,  with  the  bright  Capella,  nearly  over- 
head. The  Lion  is  rising  in  the  northeast,  his 
heart  star,  Regulus,  bemg  low  down  a  little 
north  of  east. 

February. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
with  its  Dipper  and  Pointers,  occupies  the 
northeasterly  midheaven.  The  Dragon,  Draco, 
curves  round  the  Little  Bear  toward  the 
Pointers.  In  the  northwest,  fairly  high  up, 
we  find  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady,  and  on 
her  right,  lower  down,  the  inconspicuous  con- 
stellation Cepheus.  Andromeda,  the  Chained 
Lady,  is^  on  Cassiopeia's  left.  Above  An- 
dromeda is  Perseus,  tne  Rescuing  Knight  and 
above  him  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  nearly 
overhead.  On  the  left  of  Andronieda  is 
Aries,  the  Ram,  the  small  constellation  the 
Triangle  lying  between  them.  Toward  the 
southwest,  the  Whale,  Cetv^s,  is  beginning  to 
set.  The  River,  Eridanus,  occupies  the  lower 
part  of  the  southwesterly  sky,  and  extends 
also  to  the  midheavens  in  that  direction.  The 
Dove,  Columba,  lies  toward  the  south,  and  is  at 
its  best,  which  is  not  saying  much.  Above  is 
the  Hare,  Lepus,  on  which  Orion  treads.  The 
giant  now  presents  his  noblest  aspect — prince 
of  all  the  constellations,  as  he  is.  He  faces 
the  Bull,  Taurus,  known  by  the  Pleiades  and 
the   bright   Aldebaran.     Close   by   the   poor 


Hare,  on  the  left,  leaps  Canis  Major,  the 
Greater  Dog,  with  the  bright  Sirius,  which 
"bickers  into  green  and  emerald."  The 
stern  of  the  Star- Ship,  Argo,  is  nearing  the 
south.  Very  high  in  the  southeast  we  find 
the  Twins,  Gemini,  with  the  twin  stars.  Castor 
and  Pollux,  and  below  them  the  Little  Do^, 
Canis  Minor.  The  Sea  Serpent,  Hydra,  is 
rearing  its  tall  neck  above  the  eastern  horizon 
(by  south),  B»  if  aiming  either  for  the  Little 
Dog  or  for  the  Crab,  Cancer,  now  high  up  in 
the  east,  with  its  pretty  Beehive  cluster 
showing  well  in  clear  weather.  The  Lion, 
/veo,  is  due  east,  the  Sickle  being  easily  recog- 
nized. 

March. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
with  its  Dipper  and  Pointers,  is  now  high  up 
in  the  northeastern  sky.  The  Dragon,  Draco, 
extends  from  between  the  Bears  to  the  hori- 
zon, east  of  north,  where  its  head  with  its  two 
bright  eyes  can  be  seen.  Cepheus  is  low 
down,  somewhat  to  the  west  of  north;  his 
Queen,  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady,  beside 
him.  Andromeda,  the  (Chained  Lady,  is  in 
the  northwest,  low  down — in  fact,  partly  set ; 
the  Triangle,  and  next  the  Ram,  Aries,  beside 
her,  toward  the  west.  Above  them  is  Perseus, 
the  Rescuing  Knight;  and  above  him,  some- 
what to  the  west,  the  Charioteer,  Auriga. 
The  Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades  and  the 
bright  Aldebaran,  is  in  the  midheaven,  due 
west;  Gemini,  the  Twins,  higher,  and  toward 
the  sputhwest.  Orion,  below  them,  is  already 
slanting  toward  his  grave,  low  down  in  the 
west ;  beneath  him  the  Hare,  and  in  the  south- 
west a  part  of  the  River,  Eridanus.  Due 
south  is  a  part  of  the  Star  Ship,  Argo.  beside 
which,  low  down,  is  the  foolish  Dove,  Columba, 
while  above  leaps  the  Great  Dog,  Canis 
Major,  with  the  splendid  Sirius,  chief  of  all 
the  stars  in  the  sky,  marking  his  moytb. 
High  up,  a  little  west  of  north,  is  the  Little 
Dog,  Canis  Minor,  and  higher,  a  little  east  of 
north,  the  Crab,  Cancer,  the  dark  constella- 
tion, as  it  was  called  of  old,  with  the  pretty 
cluster,  PrcBsepe,  or  the  Beehive.  The  Sea 
Serpent.  Hydra,  is  rearing  his  long  neck  high 
above  the  horizon,  bearing,  absurdly  enoui^, 
on  his  back  Noah's  (Xip,  Crater,  and  Noah's 
Raven,  or  (^Jrow,  Corvus.  Nearly  due  east, 
the  Virgin,  Virgo,  has  risen.  The  Lion,  Leo, 
occupies  the  midspace  above.  East  of  the 
Great  Bear  lies  Hevelius's  |oolish  constella- 
tion, the  Hunting  Dogs,  Canes  Venatici. 
Lastly,  in  the  northeast,  the  Herdsman, 
Bootes,  with  the  orange-yellow  brilliant 
Arcturus,  is  rising,  though  at  present,  para^ 
doxical  as  it  may  seem,  he  lies  on  his  back. 

April. — The  Great  Bear.  Ursa  Major,  is 
now  nearing  the  point  overhead,  the  Pointers, 
aiming  almost  directly  downward  toward  the 
Pole  Star.  Cepheus  lies  north,  low  down; 
Cassiopeia  on  his  left.  Perseus  is  nearing  the 
horizon,  the  Charioteer,  Auriqa,  on  his  left, 
but  higher.  Setting  toward  tne  west  we  see 
the  Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades  and  the 
ruddy  Aldebaran.  Orion  is  almost  prone  in 
his  descent  toward  his  western  grave.  The 
Twins,  Gemini,  are  due  west,  in  the  mid- 
heavens;  the  Little  Dog,  Canis  Minor,  beside 
them  on  their  left;  the  Crab,  Cancer,  above; 
the  Greater  Dog,  Canis  Major  below,  chasing 
the  Hare,  Lepus,  below  the  horizon.  Just 
behind  the  Dog  the  poop  of  the  Great  Ship, 
Argo,  is  also  setting.  The  Sea  Serpent, 
Hydra,   now  shows  his  full  length,   rearing 


462 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


his  head  high  in  the  south.  Observe  the 
darkness  of  the  region  around  his  heart. 
Alfard,  the  Solitary  One.  The  Cup,  Crater ^ 
and  Crow,  Corvus,  stand  on  his  back.  The 
Sickle  in  the  Lion,  Leo,  now  stands  with 
handle  upright,  due  south.  Below  the  tail 
stars  of  the  Lion  we  see  the  Virgin,  Virgo. 
The  Herdsman,  Bootes,  still  on  his  back  pur- 
sues in  that  striking  and  effective  position 
the  Great  Bear.  Below  the  shoulder  stars  of 
the  Herdsman  we  see  the  Crown,  Corona 
BorealUy  near  which,  on  the  right,  low  down 
and  due  ea»t,  the  head  of  the  Serpent,  Ser- 
pens, is  rising. 

May. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is  now 
at  its  highest  and  nearly  overhead,  the  Point- 
ers aiming  downward  from  high  up,  slightly 
west  of  due  north.  Below  the  Little  Bear  we 
find  Cepheus  low  down  to  the  east  of  north, 
and  Cassiopeia  low  down  to  the  west  of  north. 
Perseus,  the  Rescuer,  is  setting  in  the  north- 
west. The  Charioteer,  Auriga,  with  the 
bright  Capella,  is  nearing  the  northwestern 
horizon,  followed  by  the  Twins,  Gemini,  in  the 
west.  Further  west  and  higher  we  find  the 
Crab,  Cancer,  below  which  is  the  Little  Dog, 
Canis  Minor.  The  southwestern  sky  is  very 
barren  of  bright  stars,  Alfard,  the  heart  of  the 
Sea  Serpent,  Hydra,  shining  alone  in  a  great 
blank  space.  Above  the  Sea  Serpent's  head 
we  see  the  Sickle  in  the  Lion,  Leo,  himself 
stretching  his  tail  to  due  south,  very  high  up. 
In  the  south,  lower  down,  we  find  the  Crow, 
Corvus,  and  the  Cup,  Crater,  on  the  Serpent's 
bGu;k;  the  Virgin,  Virgo,  extending  in  the  mid- 
heavens  from  southeast  to  south,  between  the 
Lion's  tail  and  the  Crow.  In  the  same  direc- 
tion, but  low  down,  we  find  the  head  and  body 
of  the  Centaur,  Centaurus,  supposed  to  have 
typified  the  patriarchal  Noah.  In  the 
southeast  the  Scorpion  is  just  beginning  to 
appear,  and  between  the  head  of  Scorpio  and 
the  Virgin's  robes  we  see  the  stars  of  the 
Scales,  Libra.  Due  east,  low  down,  is  the 
Serpent  Bearer,  Ophiuchus,  on  his  back — 'tis 
the  customary  attitude  of  heavenly  bodies 
when  rising.  The  Serpent,  Serpens,  held  by 
him  is  seen  curving  upward  toward  the  Crown, 
Corona  Borealis.  The  Serpent's  head  is  due 
west,  and  above  it  we  see  the  bright  Arcturus, 
chief  brilliant  of  the  Herdsman,  Bootes.  In 
the  northeast  is  Hercules,  his  head  close  to  the 
head  of  the  Serpent  Bearer.  Beneath  his 
feet  is  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  brilliant  Vega; 
and  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  has  already  half  risen 
above  the  northeastern  horizon.  Lastly,  the 
Dragon,  Draco,  curves  from  between  the 
Pointers. and  the  Pole,  round  the  Guardians, 
toward  Cepheus,  and  then  retorts  its  head- 
wit  h  gleaming  eyes,  0  and  r.  toward  the  heel 
of  Hercules. 

June. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  occu- 
pies all  the  upper  sky  from  west  to  north, 
except  a  small  space  occupied  by  the  Hunting 
Dogs,  Canes  Venatici.  Due  south,  low  down, 
lies  Cassiopeia,  while  above,  somewhat 
toward  the  east,  we  find  the  inconspicuous 
constellation  Cepheus.  Low  down  in  the 
northwest  lie  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  and  the 
head  stars  of  the  Twins,  Gemini,  farther  west. 
The  Crab,  Cancer,  is  nearly  due  west,  the  Sea 
Serpent,  Hydra,  holding  his  head  almost 
exactly  to  the  west  point.  Above  is  the 
Sickle  in  the  Lion,  its  blade  curved  down- 
ward, and  the  tail  of  the  Lion,  Leo,  lies  above, 
toward  the  south  of  west.     On  the  Serpent's 


back  we  find  the  Cup,  Crater,  and  the  Crow, 
Corvus,  in  the  southwest  and  to  the  south  of 
southwest  respectively.  Above  these  con- 
stellations the  Virgin,  Vir^o,  occupies  the 
midheavens.  Above  the  Virgin  we  see  the 
Herdsman,  Bootes,  his  head  and  shoulders 
nearly  overhead.  Low  down  in  the  south  is 
the  Centaur,  Ceniaurus,  bearing  on  his  spear 
the  Wolf,  Lupus,  as  an  ofiFerin^  for  the  Altar, 
Ara,  which,  however,  is  invisible  in  these 
latitudes.  Above  the  Wolf  we  see  the  Scales, 
Libra,  while  the  Scorpion,  Scorpio,  one  of  the 
few  constellations  which  can  at  once  be  recog- 
nized by  its  shape,  is  rising  balefully  in  the 
southeast.  Te  Serpent  Bearer,  Ophiuchus, 
beaxs  the  Serpent,  Serpens,  in  the  midheavens 
toward  the  southeast,  the  Crown,  Corona 
Borealis,  being  high  up  in  the  east,  close  by  the 
Serpent's  head.  Low  down  in  the  east  is  the 
Eagle,  Aquila,  with  the  fine  steel  blue  star 
Altair,  the  Swan  on  the  left  about  northeast, 
and  above  it  the  Ljrre,  Lyra,  with  the  still 
more  brilliant  steel  blue  star  Vega.  Hercules 
occupies  the  space  between  the  Lyre  on  the 
one  side  and  the  Crown  and  the  Seipent's 
head  on  the  other.     He  is  high  up,  due  east. 

July. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is  in 
the  midheavens   toward   the  northwest,  the 
Pointens  not  far  from  the  horizontal  position. 
The  Dragon,  Draco,  curls  over  the  Little  Bear, 
curving  upward   on    the   east,   to  where  its 
head,  high  up  in  the  northeast,  is  marked  by 
the  gleaming  eyes,  ^  and  r-.    Low  down  in  the 
West  the  Lion,  iJeo,  is  setting.     The  point  of 
the     "Sickle  in  the  Lion"    is  turned  to  the 
horizon;    the   handle    is    nearly   horizonatal. 
The  Crow,  Corvus,  is  low  down  in  the  south- 
west, the  Cup,  Crater,  beside  it,  partly  set,  on 
the  right.     Above  is   Virgo,  the  Virgin.     Still 
higher  in  the  southwest — in  fact,  with  head 
close  to  the  point  overhead — is  the  Herdsman, 
Bootes,    the    Crown,    Corona     Borealis,    near 
his    southern    shoulder    marking    what     was 
once    the    Herdsman's     uplifted    arm.     Loiv 
down  between  the  south   and  southwest  w^e 
find  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  Centaur, 
Centaurus,  who  holds   the  Wolf,  Lupus,  due 
south.     In  the  midsky,  toward  the  southeast, 
we    find    the    Serpent     Holder,    Ophiuchus. 
Below  the  Serpent  Holder  we  find  the  Scorpion, 
Scorpio,  now  fully  risen,   and  showing  truly 
scorpionic  form.     Beside  the  Scorpion  is  the 
Archer,  Sagittarius,  low  down  in  the  southeast. 
Above,  near  the  point  overhead,  is  the  kneeling 
Hercules.     Due    east,     we    see    part    of    the 
Winged  Horse,  Pegasus:  above  that,  the  little 
Dolphin,  Delphinus:    and  higher,  the  Swan, 
Cygnus,  and  the  Lyre,   Lyra,  with  the  beau- 
tiful   bluish-white    star    Vega.     Lastly,    loyir 
down,  between  north  and  northeast,  we  find 
the    Seated    Lady,     Cassiopeia:    and    above, 
somewhat  eastwardly,  the  inconspicuous  con- 
stellation Cepheus,  Cassiopeia's  royal  husband. 

August. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is 
now  in  the  northwest,  his  paws  near  the  hori- 
zon. The  Draj^on,  Draco,  curves  round  from 
between  the  Pointers  and  the  Pole,  above  the 
Little  Bear  toward  the  east,  then  upward  to 
near  the  point  overhead,  its  head,  with  the 
bright  stars  0  and  r.  being  highest.  The 
Herdsman,  Bootes,  occupies  the  midheavens  in 
the  west,  the  Crown,  Cforona  Borealis,  higher 
up,  and  due  west  Hercules,  between  the 
Crown  and  the  point  overhead.  Low  down, 
extending  from  the  west  to  near  the  south- 
west, we  find  the  Virgin,   Virgo,  the  bri^pht 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE   BOOK. 


463 


Spica  near  its  setting  place.  In  the  southeast 
are  the  Scales,  Libra,  and,  farther  to  the  left, 
extending  from  the  Scales  to  low  down  near 
the  south,  we  find  the  Scor()ion,  Scorpio,  one 
of  the  finest  of  the  constellations,  Antares,  the 
rival  of  Mars  (as  the  name  means),  marking 
its  heart.  Above  the  Scorpion  and  the  Scales 
are  the  Serpent  Holder,  Serpentariua  or 
Ophiuchua^  and  the  Serpent,  Serpens,  extend- 
ing right  across  him  to  near  the  Crown,  after 
which  the  Serpent  seems  reaching.  A  little 
east  of  due  south,  low  down,  we  find  the 
Archer,  SagiUariua:  in  the  southeast,  low 
down,  the  ^a  Goat,  Capricomua:  and  farther 
east,  and  lower  down,  the  Water  Bearer, 
AquariuB.  Above  the  Sea  Goat  is  the  Eagle, 
Aqw^,  with  the  bright  bluish-white  star 
Altair;  on  its  left,  the  pretty  little  Dolphin, 
Ddphinuat  and  above  the  Dolphin,  nearly 
overhead,  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  bluish- 
white  star  Vega  (even  brighter  than  Altair) 
nearly  overheiui.  Below  the  Lyre  we  see  the 
Swan,  Cygnus,  due  east;  and  below  the  Swan 
the  Winged  Horse,  Pegciatu,  upside  down,  as 
usual.  In  the  northeast,  Andromeda,  the 
Chained  Lady,  is  rising.  Between  the  north 
and  northeast  is  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady, 
and  above  her,  her  husband.  King  Cilepheus. 

September. — ^The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
is  low  down,  between  northwest  and  north, 
the  Pointers  directed  slantingly  upward 
toward  the  Pole.  Between  the  (jreat  Bear 
and  the  Little  Bear  run  the  stars  of  the 
Dragon,  Draco,  round  the  Little  Bear  toward 
the  north,  thence  toward  the  northwest, 
where  we  see  the  head  of  the  Dragon  high 
up,  his  two  bright  eyes,  directed  toward 
Hercules,  which  occupies  the  western  mid- 
heaven.  Above  Hercules  is  the  Lyre, 
Lpra,  with  the  bright  steel-blue  star  Vega 
high  up  toward  the  point  overhead.  Right 
overhead  is  the  Swan,  Cygnus.  Near  the 
west  stands  the  Herdsman,  rather  slanting 
forward,  however,  with  the  Crown,  Corona 
Borealis,  on  his  left,  almost  due  west.  The 
long  winding  Serpent,  Serpens,  runs  from 
near  the  Crown,  where  we  see  its  head,  due 
west  to  farther  south  than  southwest,  high  up, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Serpent  Holder, 
SerperUarius  or  Ophiuchu^,  now  standing 
upright  in  the  southwest.  Low  down  creeps 
the  Scorpion,  Scorpio,  its  heart  Antares,  rival 
of  Mars,  in  the  southwest,  the  erd  of  its  tail 
between  south  and  southwest.  Above,  and 
south  of  the  Scorpion's  tail,  we  see  the  Archer, 
Sa,ffiUarius.  Due  south  and  high  up  is  the 
Eagle,  Aquila,  the  bright  steel-blue  Altair 
marking  its  body.  On  the  left,  or  east,  of  the 
Eagle  lies  the  neat  little  Dolphin,  Delvhinus. 
Midway  between  the  Dolphin  and  the  horizon 
is  the  tip  of  the  tail  of  the  Sea  Goat,  Capri 
comus,  whose  head  lies  nearly  due  south.  On 
the  southern  horizon  is  the  head  of  the  Indian, 
Indu^  and  low  down  in  the  southeast 
lies  Fomalhaut,  the  chief  brilliant  of  the 
Southern  Fish,  Piscis  Australis.  Above  lies 
the  Water  Bearer,  Aquarius,  in  the  south- 
western midheaven.  Due  east,  fairly  high,  is 
the  "Square  of  Pegasus,"  the  head  of  the 
Winged  Horse,  Pega^u^,  lying  close  by  the 
Water  Pitcher  of  Aquarius.  The  Fishes, 
Pisces,  are  low  down  in  the  east.  On  the  left 
of  Pisces  we  see  the  Ram,  Aries,  low  down; 
above  it,  the  Triangle;  and  above  that,  the 
Chained  Lady,  Andromeda.  Low  down  in 
the  northeast  is  the  Rescuing  Knight,  Perseus; 


above  whom  is  Cassiopeia;  and  on  her  left, 
higher  up,  the  mconspicuous  constellation 
Cepheus. 

October. — Low  down  between  north  and 
northwest  we  find  the  seven  stars  of  the 
Dipper,  the  Pointers  on  the  right  nearly  due 
north.  They  direct  us  to  the  Pole  Star.  Be- 
tween the  Pointers  and  the  Pole  Star  we  find 
the  tip  of  the  Dragon's  tail,  and  sweep  round 
the  Little  Bear  with  the  Dragon's  long  train  of 
third  magnitude  stars,  till  we  come,  after  a 
bend,  to  the  Dragon's,  head,  with  the"  two 
bright  eyes,  0  and  r.  These  two  stars  are 
almost  exactly  midway  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead,  and  nearly  north- 
west. King  Cepheus — not  a  very  conspic- 
uous constellation — lies  between  the  point 
overhead  and  the  Little  Bear.  Low  down  in 
the  northwe.st  we  find  the  head  of  the  Herds- 
man, Bootes.  The  Crown,  Corona  Borealis, 
which  no  one  can  mistake,  lies  on  his  left,  and 
close  by  is  the  setting  head  of  the  Serpent. 
Above  these  three  groups  we  see  Hercules — 
the  Kneeler.  Above  the  head  of  Hercules 
we  find  the  Ljrre,  with  the  bright  star  Vega; 
and  above  that  the  Swan.  Passing  south- 
ward, we  see  the  Serpent  Holder,  Serpentarius 
or  Ophiuchus,  beyond  whom  lies  the  Serpent's 
tail,  a  most  inconvenient  arrangement,  as  the 
Serpent  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Almost 
exactly  southeast,  and  low  down,  are  the  stars 
of  the  Archer,  Sagittarius'  while  above,  in  the 
mid-sky.  we  see  the  Eagle,  Aquila,  with  the 
bright  Altair.  Note  the  neat  little  constella- 
tion, the  Dolphin,  Delphinus,  close  by.  Due 
south  is  the  Cr&ne,Gru8;  above  it,  the  Southern 
Fish,  with  the  bright  star  Fomalhaut;  above 
that,  the  Sea  Goat,  Capricomus,  and  on  the 
left  of  this  the  Water  Bearer,  Aquarius;. 
Toward  the  east,  high  up,  is  the  Winged 
Horse,  Pegasus;  he  is  upside  down  just  now. 
Below  lies  the  Whale,  Cetus,  or,  rather,  the 
Sea  Monster.  The  Fishes,  Pisces,  may  be 
seen  between  the  Whale  and  Pegasus.  Few 
constellations  have  suffered  more  than  Pisces 
by  the  breaking  up  of  star  groups.  The 
fishes  themselves  are  now  lost  in  Andromeda 
and  Pegasus.  Note  how,  on  the  left  of  Pisces 
the  Ram.  Aries,  "hearw  aloft"  Andromeda, 
the  Chained  Lady,  as  Milton  set  Aries  doing 
long  since.  The  Triangle  serves  only  as  a 
saddle.  Between  Andromeda  and  her  father, 
Cepheus,  we  find  her  mother,  Cassiopeia,  or, 
rather,  Cassiopeia's  Chair.  Perseus,  the 
Rescuer,  lies  below. 

November. — The  Dipper  lies  low,  the 
Pointers  a  little  east  of  north.  Between  the 
Pointers  and  Pole  Star  lies  the  tip  of  the 
Dragon's  tail.  Low  down  in  the  northwest, 
Hercules  is  setting.  Above  is  the  Lyre,  with 
the  bright  steel-blue  Vega;  and  above  that  the 
stars  of  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  which  has  (some- 
times been  called  the  Northern  Cross.  Nearly 
due  west  we  find  the  Eagle,  Aquila.  Above 
the  Eagle  is  the  pretty  little  constellation  the 
Dolphin,  Delphinus.  In  the  southwest, 
rather  low,  is  the  Sea  Goat,  Capricomus; 
above,  and  to  the  south  of  hira,  the  Water 
Bearer,  Aquarius.  The  head  of  the  Winged 
Horse,  Pegasus,  now  upside  down  (in  fact, 
he  is  seldom  otherwise),  is  just  above  this 
group.  Much  attention  need  not  be  directed 
to  the  lowly  Phoenix,  low  in  the  southern 
horizon.  The  River,  Eridanus,  is  coming 
well  into  view;  and  the  great  Sea  Monster, 
Cefus,  now  shows  finely.     The  Fishes,  Pisces, 


464 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


are  above:  the  Ram,  Aries^  above  them,  and 
eastward,  b^ing  toward  the  southeast ;  then  the 
Triangle,  Triangula  (or  the  Triangles,  accord- 
ing to  modern  maps),  and  the  Chained  Lady, 
Andromeda,  too  nearly  overhead  to  be  very 
pleasantly  observed.  The  grand  giant, 
Orion,  is  rising  in  the  east;  above  him,  the 
Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades.  Low  down 
in  the  northeast  the  Twins,  Gemini,  are  rising; 
above  is  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  and  above 
him  the  Rescuing  Knight,  Peraeua,  "of  fair- 
haired  Dana£  born." 

December. — The  Great  Bear,  Uraa  Mafor, 
is  beginning  to  rise  above  the  northeast  by 
north  horizon.  The  end  of  the  Dipper's 
handle  is  hidden.  The  stars  of  the  Dragon 
wind  round  below  the  Little  Bear  toward  the 
west,  the  head  of  the  Dragon  with  the  gleam- 
ing eyes  ("obliaue  retorted  that  askant  cast 
gleaming  fire")  being  low  down,  a  little  north 
of  northwest.  Above  is  King  Cepheub,  and 
above  him  his  queen,  the  Seated  Lady, 
Cassiopeia,  their  daughter,  the  Chained  Lady, 
Andromeda,  being  nearly  overhead.  Low 
down  in  the  northwest  we  see  the  Lyre,  Lyra, 


with  the  bright  Vega,  and  close  by  toward  the 
west  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  or  Northern  Cross. 
The  E^le  is  setting  in  the  west,  and  the  little 
Dolphin  nears  the  western  horizon.  Toward 
the  southwest  by  west  we  see  the  Water 
Bearer,  Aquarius,  with  his  Pitcher,  close  by 
which  is  the  head  of  the  Winged  Horse, 
Pegasus.  In  the  south,  low  down,  is  the 
absurd  Phoenix;  above,  the  Sea  Monster,  or 
Whale,  Cetus;  above  him,  the  Fishes,  Pisces; 
above  them,  the  Ram,  Aries;  while  nearly 
overhead  lies  the  Triangle.  The  River 
Eridanus.  occupies  the  southeasterly  sky, 
the  Dove  and  Great  Dog,  Columba  and 
Cants  Major,  rising  in  the  southeast.  The 
glorious  Orion  has  now  come  well  into 
position,  though  not  yet  so  upright  as  we 
could  wish  a  knightly  hunter  to  be.  He 
treads  on  the  Hare,  Lejms,  and  faces  the 
Bull,  Taurus,  above.  Due  east  we  find  the 
Crab,  Cancer,  and  Little  Dog,  Canis  Minor, 
low  down;  the  Twins,  Gemini,  higher;  above 
them  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  with  the  bright 
Capellti,  and  Perseus,  the  Rescuer,  neanng 
the  point  overhead. — B.  A.  Procter's  Star 
Maps.     Copjrright,  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


THE    LARGE   REFRACTORS   OF   THE  WORLD. 


Institution. 


Yerkes  Observatory,  Wisconsin,  U.  8.  A 

Lick  Observatory,  California,  U.  S.  A , 

Lick  Observatory,  California,  U.  S.  A , 

National  Observatory,  Meudon 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam , 

Bischoffsheim  Observatory,  Nice 

Imperial  Observatory,  Poulkova 

National  Observatory,  Paris , 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich 

Imperial  Observatory,  Vienna , 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich 

Naval  Observatory,  Washington 

I^ander  McCormick  Observatory,  Virginia,  U. 

Cambridge  University  Observatory 

National  University,  Meudon 

Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope , 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico 

National  Observatory,  Paris 

Halstead  Observatory,  Princeton,  U.  S.  A. .  .  , 
Etna 


S.  A. 


Buckingham  Observatory 

M.  Porro,  Private  Observatory,-  Italy 

Chamberlin  Observatory,  Colorado,  U.  S.  A.  . 

Manila  Observatory,  Philippines 

Astrophvsical  Observatory,  Potsdam 

Imperial  Observatory •  Strassburg 

Milan  Observatory,  Italy 

North-Westem  Observatory,  Illinois,  U.  S.  A. 

Dearborn  Observatory 

National  Observatory,  La  Plata 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico 

Flower  Observatory,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.  .  . 

Vander  Zee  Observatory 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 


Aperture 
in  Inches. 


0 
5 
1 
3 


40.0 

36.0 

33. 

32. 

31. 

30. 

30.0 

28.9 

28.0 

27.0 

26.0 

26.0 

26.0 

25.0 

24.4 

24.0 

24.0 

24.0 

23.6 

23.0 

21.8 

21.2 

20.5 

20.0 


20. 
19, 
19. 
19, 
18, 
18, 
18, 


18.0 
18.0 
18.0 
18.0 


Focal 

Length  in 

Feet. 


62.0 
57.8 
49.2 
53.0 
39.4 
52.6 
42.0 


28.0 
34.0 
26.0 
32.5 
32.5 


52.2 
11.3 
22.6 
31.0 
59.0 
32.0 


22.6 


Date  of 
Erection. 


1897 
1888 


1891 


1889 
1882 


1894 
1894 
1897 
1871 
1874 
1868 
1891 
1894 
1897 
1895 
1889 
1881 


28.0 

1891 
1892 

41.2 

23.0 
23.0 
27.0 

1880 

"    "1863  *  ■  * 

29.5 
26.3 

1890" 

1894 

1896 

.......... 

1897 


— Knowledge  Diary  and  Scientific  Handbook. 


PART  IT. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURFiS. 


LINEAR  MEA8UBE. 


1. 


3  barleycorns,  or. 

12  lines,  or i  ^  •  „i   /•    x 

72  points,  or j- 1  inch  (in.) 

1,000  mils  (mi.) J 

3  inches 1  p^m 

4  inches 1  hand 

9  inches 1  span 

12  inches 1  foot  (ft.) 

18  inches 1  cubit 

3  feet 1  yard  (yd.) 

2^  feet 1  military  pace 

5  feet I  geometrical  pace 

2  yards 1  fathom 

5k  yards 1  rod,  pole,  or  perch 

^  [^  °'' }  1  Gunter'schain 

22opi°";;::;:::(if-i<''«(f-) 

8  furlongs,  or i 

1,760  yards,  or )  1 

5,280  feet ) 

3  miles 1  league 

The  hand  is  used  to  measure  horses  *  height. 
The  military  pace  is  the  length  of  the  ordinary 
step  of  a  man.  One  thousand  geometrical 
paces  were  reckoned  to  a  mUe. 

LAND  MEASUBE  ( LINEAR). 

7.92  inches 1  link 

100  links,  or 1 

66  feet,  or i  ,  ^^-^  /„k  n 

22  yards,  or M  *"*"*"*  ^°^'^ 

4  poles j 

10  chains 1  furlong  (fur.) 

80  chains,  or. •  •  '  i  ^:i^ 

8  furlongs \^  ™^*® 


mile 


144 

9 

30i 

16 

40 

1,210 

4 

10 

160 

4,840 

43,560 

640 

3,097,600 

30 

100 

40 


1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.) 
1  square  yard  (sq.  yrl.) 
1  sq.  pole,  rod,  or  j>erch 
1  square  chain  (sq.  ch.) 


LAND  MEASURE  ( SQUARE). 

sq.  inches.  . . 
square  feet. . 
sq.  yards .  .  . 
sq.  poles.  .  . . 
sq.  poles,  or 
sq.  yards. . 
roods,  or  .  . 
sq.  chs.,  or . 
sq.  poles,  or 
sq.  yds.,  or. 

sq.  ft 

acres,  or .  . . 
sq.  yds .... 

acres 1 

acres 1 

hides 1 


square 
1  sq.  rood 

1  acre* 


sq.  mile 

yard  of  land 
hide  of  land 
barony 


CUBIC  MEASURE. 


1,728  cubic  inches 1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet. 1  cubic  or  solid  yard 

*  The  side  of  a  square  having  an  area  of  an 
acre  is  equal  to  69.57  linear  yards. 


u 


nautical  mjle' 
or  knot 


OEOGBAPHICAL  AND  NAUTICAL  MEASURE. 

6086.44      feet,  or 

1000  fathoms,  or.  . 

10  cables,  or.  .  . 

1.1528  statute  miles. 

60  nautical  miles,  or  I      ,    .  

67.168    statute  miles.  ..("**  ^^^^ 
360  degrees =1  circumfer- 

ence of  the  earth  at  the  equator 

1  league =3  nautic'l  miles 

1  cable's  length  .  . .  =120  fathoms 


DRY  MEASURE,    U.  8. 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

2  gallons,  or '  i  oeck 

8  quarts (  ^  P®*^^ 


Oi.  In. 
>-  67.20 
=   268.80 

■=  537.60 


4  pecks 1  struck  bushel  =  2150.42 


LIQUID  MEASURE,   U.  8. 

4giUs 1  pint(0.) 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

63  gallons 1  hogshead  (hhd.) 

2  hogsheads  ...  1  pipe  or  butt 
2  pipes 1  tun 


Cu.  In. 
■  28.876 

57.76 
231. 


apothecaries'   liquid  MEASURE. 

Apothecaries'  or  Wine  Measure  is  used  by 
pharmacists  of  this  country.  Its  denomina- 
tions are  gallon,  pint,  fluid  oimce,  fluid 
drachm,  and  minim,  as  follows: 

Cong.         O.  F.  Oz.      F.  Dr.       Minims. 

1      =      8      =     128    =    1,024    =  61,440 

1      =      16    =       128    =     7.680 

1    •=  8    =        480 

1    -  60 

1 

The  Imi>erial  Standard  Measure  is  used  by 
British  pharmacists.  Its  denominations  and 
their  relative  value  are: 

Gal.  Quarts.  Pints.  F.  Oz. 

1    =    4    =    8    =   160   = 

1    =    2=     40   = 

1    =     20   = 

1    = 


F.  Dr.     Minims. 
1,280  =  76,800 
320  =  19,200 
160  =     9,600 
8  =        480 
1  =  60 


The  relative  value  of  United  States  Apothe- 
caries'  and  British  Imperial  Measures  is  as 
follows : 


U.S. 
Apothe- 
caries ' 
Measure. 
1  Gallon 
Pint 


— Imperial  Measure. — 

n 
N      In  S 

O   Q       'S 


00 
♦a 

.s 


.83311  Gallon,  or  6 
1  Pint  =  .83311  Pint,  or 
1  Fl.  Oz.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Oz.,  or 
1  Fl.  Dr.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Dr.,  or 
1  Minim  =1.04139  Minim,  or 


13 

16 

1 


[X4 

2 
5 
0 
1 


22.85 

17.86 

19.86 

2.48 

1.04 


465 


466 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


oLd  wine  and  bpirit  measure. 

Imperial 
Gals. 
4  gills  or  quarterns. .  1  pint 

2  pints 1  quart 

4  quarts  (231  cu.  in.)l  gallon        -       .8333 

10  gallons 1  anchor       =•     8.333 

18  gallons 1  bunlet        »    15 

31i  gallons 1  barrel         =•   26.25 

42  gallons 1  tierce         =  35 

ft  C"£^"  "••;  ^' """'"""" -™ 

126  ffaUons.  or ) 

2  hogsheads  or.  .     Vl  pipe  or       "«105. 
Ijt  puncheons )  butt 

Apothecaries'  Weight  is  the  officinal 
standard  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia. 
In  buying  and  selling  medicines  not  ordered 
by  prescriptions  avoirdupois  weight  is  used. 

Lb.           Os.           Dr.            Scr.  Gr. 

1      =      12     -     96     =      288  =  5760 

1               8     =        24  =  480 

1      =          3  =  60 

1  =  20 

Avoirdupois  Weight. — Used  for  weighing 
all  goods  except  those  for  which  troy  and 
apothecaries'  weight  are  employed. 
Gross 
or  Long 

Ton.  Cwt.      Qr.         Lb.  Oz.  Dr. 

1  •=   20   =  80  •=  2,240  =  35,840  =  573,440 
1=4=      112  =     1,792  =     28,672 
1   =        28  =        448  =       7,168 
1   =  16  =         256 

1   =  16 

Short 
or  Net 

Ton.  Cwt.     Qr.         Lb.  Oa.  Dr. 

1    =   20   =  80  =  2,000  =  32,000  =  512,000 
1=4=      100  =     1,600   =     25,600 
1   =        25  =        400   =       6,400 
1   =  16  =  256 

1   =-  16 

The  "short"  ton  of  2,000  lbs.  is  used  com- 
monly in  the  United  States.  The  British  or 
"long"  ton,  used  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  contains  2,240  lbs.,  corresponding  to  a 
owt.  of  112  and  a  quarter  of  28  lbs. 

Troy  Weight. — Used  by  jewelers  and  at  the 
mints,  in  the  exchange  of  the  precious  metals. 
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

1        =        12       =        240        =       5760 
1        =         20       =         480 
1        =  24 

7000    troy  grains   =     1  lb.  avoirdupois. 
175    troy  pounds  « 144  lb.  avoirdupois. 
175    troy  ounces  =  192  oz.  avoirdupois. 
437i^  troy  grains   =     1  oz.  avoirdupois. 
1    troy  poimd  =.8228+  lb.  avoirdupois. 

The  common  standard  of  weight  by  which 
the  relative  values  of  these  systems  are  com- 
pared is  the  grain,  which  for  this  purpose  may 
be  regarded  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  pound 
troy  and  that  of  apothecaries'  weight  have 
each  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty 
grains;  the  pound  avoirdupois  has  seven 
thousand  grains. 

The  relative  proportions  and  values  of  these 
several  systems  are  as  follows : 


Troy.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.     Dr. 

1  pound  equals 13     2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1     1.55 

1  dwt.  equals 0     0.877 

Troy.  Apothecaries'. 

Lb.  Oz.   Dr.  Scr.  Gr. 

1  pound  equals 1       0       0       0       0 

1  ounce  equals 0       1       0       0       0 

1  dwt.  equals 0       0       0       1       4 

1  grain  equals 0       0       0       0       1 

Apothecaries'.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.     Dr.  . 

1  pound  equals 13       2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1       1.55 

1  drachm  equals 0       2.19 

1  scruple  equals 0      0.73 

Apothecaries'.  Troy. 

Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

1  pound  equals 1       0       0       0 

1  ounce  equals 0       1       0     '0 

1  drachm  equals 0       0       2     12 

1  scruple  equals 0       0       0     20 

Avoirdupois.  Troy. 

Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.Gr, 

1  long  ton  equals 2722     2     13      8 

1  cwt.  equals 136     1       6     16 

1  quarter  equals 34     0      6     16 

1  pound  equals 1     2     11     16 

1  ounce  equals 0     18      5H 

1  drachm  equals 0       1      Z^yi2 

Avoirdupois.  Troy. 

Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

1  short  ton  equals 2430     6     13      8 

1  cwt.  equals 121     6       6     16 

1  quarter  equals 30     4     11     16 

Avoirdupois.  Apothecaries'. 

Lb.  Oz.   Dr.  Scr.    Gr. 

1  pound  equals 1       2       4       2       0 

1  oimce  equals 0       0       7       0     17^ 

1  drachm  equals 0       0       0       1       T^Hz 

Diamond  Measure. 

16  parts  =1  grain  =  0.8  troy  grains. 
4  grains  =  1  carat  =  3.2  troy  grains. 

Household  Measures. — Nothing  is  more 
vague  and  inaccurate  than  such  expressions 
as:  "A  cupful,  a  wineglass."  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  reduce  these  measures  to  some 
scale.  In  these  liquid  measures,  the  glass  is 
supposed  to  be  filled  i  inch  from  the  top.  A 
"wineglass"  is  very  apt  to  be  a  claret  glass. 
If  the  diameter  is  2i  inches  and  the  depth  2^ 
inches  from  rim  to  bottom,  the  glass  will  hola 
3*^  fl.  oz.  =  105  cubic  centimeters.  A  sherry 
glass  is  also  a  common  wine  glass  and  is  flar- 
ing. If  its  top  is  2i  inches  in  diameter  it 
should  hold  1^  fl.  oz.,  or  45  cubic  centimeters, 
A  liquor  glass,  usually  called  a  whiskey  glass, 
varies  greatly,  but  if  3  inches  high  and  2i 
inches  in  diameter  and  slightly  flaring  it 
holds  4  fl.  oz.,  or  120  cubic  centimeters.  A 
cocktail  glass  is  peculiar ;  the  diameter  of  the 
*  *  Union  League "  model  is  21  inches,  depth 
li  inch,  round  flare,  holds  2  fl.  oz.  "60  cubic 
centimeters.  A  "liqueur"  glass  having  a 
diameter  of  li  inches,  2i  inches  deep,  flaring 
sides,  holds  ^  of  a  fluid  ounce,  or  20  cubic  cen- 
timeters. A  straight-sided  soda  glass,  64 
inches  high  by  2f  inches  in  diameter,  holds  10 
fl.  oz.,  or  300  cubic  centimeters.  A  -^  liter 
stein,  2f  inches  in  diameter  and  3i  inches  deep, 
holds  10  fl.  oz.,  or  300  cubic  centimeters  as 
ordinarily  filled* 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


467 


120  drops  water =  1  teaspoon 

60      •*      thick  fluid =  1 

60 =1  oz. 

2  teaspoons =1  dessert-spoon 

3  *'         =1  tablespoon 

16  tablespoons =1  cup 

1  cup =1  pint 

1    '•    water -^Ib. 

4  tablespoons  flour =  1  oz. 

2  tablespoons  butter —  1   *  * 

3  teaspoons  soda.^ =  |  *  * 

4  *         baking  powder =i  *  * 

2    cups  granulated  sugar =  1  lb. 

.2^^     *  *     confectioners'  sugar =1  * ' 

2J     ••     wheat  flour =1   " 

3^     ••    whole-wheat  flour =1  " 


2^  cups  buckwheat  flour 

5i   ••     coffee 

6i   * '     tea 

2     ••     rice 

2     ••     lard 

2     '  *     butter 

2     "     graham  flour.  .  .  . 

2     * '     rye  flour 

2     ' '     com  meal 

2     '  *     rolled  oats 

2     * '     powdered  sugar.  . 
2     '*     brown  *'     .. 

2     '  *     raisins 

2     * '     currants 

2     ' '     bread  crumbs.  . . . 
9  eggs 


lb. 


FOREIGN   WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES. 

The  following  table  embraces  only  such  weights  and  measures  as  are  given  from  time  to 
time  in  Consular  Reports  and  in  Commercial.  Relations: 

Foreign  weighta  and  measures ^  with  American  equivalents. 


Denominations. 


Almude 

Ardeb 

Are 

Arobe 

Arratel  or  Ubra.  . 
Arroba  (dry).  .  .  . 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Arroba  (liquid).  . 

Arshine 

Arshine  (square). 

Artel 

Baril 

Barrel 

Do 

Batman  or  tabriz. 

Berkovets 

Bongkal 

Bouw 

Bu 

Butt  (wine) 

Caffiso 

Candy 

Do 

Cantar 

Do 

Do 

Cantaro  (cantar). 

Carga 

Catty 

Do.» 

Do 

Do 

Centaro 

Centner 

Do 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Where  Used. 


Portugal 

Egypt 

Metric 

Paraguay 

Portugal. 

Argentine  Republic 

Brazil 

Cuba 

Portugal 

Spain 

Venezuela 

Cuba,  Spain,  and  Venezuela.  . 

Russia 

Do 

Morocco 

Argentine  Republic  and  Mexico 

Malta  (customs) 

Spain  (raisins) 

Persia 

Russia 

India 

Sumatra 

Japan 

Spain 

Malta 

India  (Bombay) 

India  (Madras) 

Morocco 

Syria  (Damascus) 

Turkey 

Malta 

Mexico  and  Salvador 

China 

Japan 

Java,  Siam,  and  Malacca 

Sumatra 

Ontral  America 

Bremen  and  Brunswick 

Darmstadt 

Denmark  and  Norway 

Nuremberg 

Prussia 

Sweden , 

Vienna 

ZoUverein 


American  Equivalents. 


4.422  gallons. 
7.6907  bushels. 
0.02471  acre. 
25  pounds. 

1.011  pounds. 
25.3175  pounds. 
32.38  pounds. 
25.3664  pounds 
32.38  pounds. 
25.36  pounds. 
25.4024  pounds. 
4.263  gallons. 
28  inches. 

5.44  square  feet. 

1.12  pounds. 
20.0787  gallons. 
11.4  gallons. 
100  pounds. 
6.49  pounds. 
361.12  pounds. 
832  grains. 

7,096.5  square  meters. 
0.1  inch. 
140  gallons. 
5.4  gallons. 
529  pounds. 
500  pounds. 
113  pounds. 
575  pounds. 
124.7036  pounds. 
175  pounds. 
300  pounds. 
1.333i  di)  poimds. 
1.31  pounds. 
1.35  pounds. 
2.12  pounds. 
4.2631  gallons. 
117.5  pounds. 
110.24  pounds. 
110.11  pounds. 

112.43  pounds. 

113.44  pounds. 
93.7  pounds. 
123.5  pounds. 

1 10.24  pounds. 


1  More  frequently  called 
pounds  avoirdupois. 


*kin."     Among  merchants  in  the  treaty  ports  it  equals  1.33i 


468 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN  WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES— Co7i/intt«/. 


Denominations 

Centner 

Chetvert 

Chih 

Coy an 

Cuadra 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Cubic  meter 

Cwt.  (hundredweight) 
Dessiatine 

Do 

Drachme 

Fanega  (dry) 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Fanega  (liquid).  .  .    . 

Feddan 

Frail  (raisins) 

Frasco 

Do 

Frasila 

Fuder 

Funt 

Gamice 

Gram 

Hectare 

Hectoliter. 

Dry 

Liquid 

Joch 

Ken 

Kilogram  (kilo) 

Kilometer 

Klafter 

Koku 

Korree 

Kwan.  .     

Last 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

League  (land) 

Li 

Libra  (pound) 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Liter 

Livre  (pound) 

Do 

Load 

Manzana.  .    

Do 


Where  Used. 


Double  or  metric 

Russia 

China 

Sarawak 

Siam  (Koyan) 

Argentine  Republic.    .  . 

Paraguay 

Paraguay  (square) 

Uruguay 

Metric 

British 

Russia 

Spain 

Greece 

Central  America 

Chile 

Cuba 

Mexico 

Morocco 

Uruguay  (double) 

Uruguay  (single) 

Venezuela 

Spain 

Egypt 

Spain 

Argentine  Republic.  .  .  . 

Mexico 

Zanzibar 

Luxemburg 

Russia 

Russian  Poland 

Metric 

Do 

Do 

Do., 

Austria-Hungary 

Japan 

Metric 

Do .  ..r 

Russia 

Japan 

Russia 

Japan 

Belgium  and  Holland. . . 
England  (dry  malt).  .  . . 

Germany 

Prussia 

Russian  Poland 

Spain  (salt) 

Paraguay 

China 

Argentine  Republic.  .  .  . 

C!entral  America 

Chile 

Cuba 

Mexico.     

Peru 

Portugal 

Spain 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Metric 

Greece 

Guiana 

England  (timber) 

Costa  Rica 

Nicaragua  and  Salvador, 


American  Equivalents. 


220.46  pounds. 
5.7748  bushels. 
14  inches. 
3,098  pounds 
2,667  pounds. 

4.2  acres. 
78.9  yards. 
8.077  square  feet. 
Nearly  2  acres. 
35.3  cubic  feet. 

1 12  pounds. 

2.6997  acres. 

1.599  bushels. 

Half  ounce. 

1.5745  bushels. 

2.575  bushels. 

1.599  bushels. 

1.54728  bushels. 

Strike  fanega,  70  pounds;  full 

fanega,  1 18  poimds. 
7.776  bushels. 
3.888  bushels. 
1.599  bushels. 
16  gallons. 

1.03  acres. 
50  pounds. 
2.5096  quarts. 
2.5  quarts. 

35  pounds. 
264.17  gallons. 
0.9028  pound. 
0.88  gallon. 
15.432  grains. 
2.471  acres. 

2.838  bushels. 

26.417  gallons. 

1.422  acres. 

6  feet. 

2.2046*  pounds. 

0.621376  mile. 

216  cubic  feet. 

4.9629  bushels. 

3.5  bushels 

8.28  pounds. 

85.134  bushels. 

82.52  bushels. 

2  metric  tons  (4,480  pounds). 

112.29  bushels. 

llf  bushels. 

4,760  pounds. 

4,633  acres. 

2,115  feet. 

1.0127  pounds. 

1.043  pounds. 

1.014  pounds. 

1.0161  pounds. 

1.01465  pounds. 

1.0143  pounds. 
1.011  pounds. 

1.0144  pounds. 
1.0143  pounds. 
1.0161  pounds. 
1.0567  quarts. 
1.1  pounds. 
1.0791  pounds. 

Square,  50  cubic  feet;  vm- 
hewn,  40  cubic  feet;  inch 
planks,  600  superficial  feet. 

1|  acres. 

1.727  acres. 


m^m 


^^mi^^ 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


469 


FOREIGN   WEIGHTS  AND   MEASVRES— Continued. 


Denominations. 


Marc 

Maund 

Meter 

Mil 

Do 

Miila 

Morgen 

Oke 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Pic 

Picul 

Do 

Do 

Do., 

Pie 

Do 

Pik 

Pood 

Pund  (pound) 

Quarter 

Do 

Quintal 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Rottle 

Do 

Sagene 

Salm 

Se 

Seer 

Shaku 

Sho 

Standard  (St.  Petersburg) 

Stone 

Suerte 

Sun 

Tael 

Tan 

To 

Ton 

Tonde  (cereals) 

Tondeland 

Tsubo 

Tsun.  ...    

Tunna 

Tunnland 

Vara 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Vedro 

Vergees 

Verst 

Vl«^cka 


Where  Used. 


Bolivia 

India 

Metric 

Denmark 

Denmark  (geographical) 

Nicaragua  and  Honduras 

Prussia , 

Egypt 

Greece , 

Hungary , 

Turkey , 

Hungary  and  Wallachia 

Egypt 

Borneo  and  Celebes 

China,  Japan,  and  Sumatra.  .  .  . . 

Java , 

Philippine  Islands 

Argentine  Republic 

Spain 

Turkey 

Russia 

Denmark  and  Sweden 

Great  Britain 

London  (coal) .  .  ; 

Argentine  Republic 

Brazil 

Castile,^  Chile,  Mexico,  and  Peru 

Greece , 

Newfoundland  (fish) 

Paraguay 

Syria 

Metric 

Palestine 

Syria •. 

Russia 

Malta 

Japan 

India 

Japan 

Do 

Lumber  measure 

British 

Uruguay 

Japan 

Cochin  China 

Japan 

Do 

Space  measure 

Denmark 

Do 

Japan 

China 

Sweden , 

Sweden 

Argentine  Republic 

Central  America 

Chile  and  Peru , 

Cuba , 

Curacao , 

Mexico , 

Paraguay 

Spain.    

Venezuela. 

Riissia 

Isle  of  Jersey , 

Russia. 

Russian  Poland 


American  Equivalents. 


0.507  pound. 
82^  pounds. 
39.37  inches. 
4.68  miles. 
4.61  miles. 
1.1493  miles. 
0.63  acre. 
2.7225  pounds. 
2.84  pounds. 
3.0817  pounds. 
2.82838  pounds. 

2.5  pints. 
21i  inches. 
135.64  pounds. 
133i  pounds. 

135.1  pounds. 
137.9  pounds. 
0.9478  foot. 
0.91407  foot. 
27.9  inches. 
36.112  pounds. 
1.102  piounds. 
8.252  bushels. 
36  bushels. 
101.42  pounds. 
130.06  pounds. 
101.41  pounds. 

123.2  pounds. 
112  pounds. 
100  pounds. 
125  pounds. 
220.46  pounds 

6  pounds. 
5i  pounds. 

7  feet. 

490  pounds. 
0.02451  acre. 

1  pound  13  ounces. 
11.9305  inches. 

1.6  quarts. 
165  cubic  feet. 
14  pounds. 

2,700  cuadras  (see  ciiadra). 
1.193  inches. 
590.75  grains  (troy). 
0.25  acre. 

2  pecks. 

40  cubic  feet. 
3.94783  bushels. 
1.36  acres. 
6  feet  square. 
1.41  inches. 
4.5  bushels. 
1.22  acres. 
34.1208  inches. 
32.87  inches. 
33.367  inches. 
33.384  inches. 
33.375  inches. 

33  inches. 

34  inches. 
0.914117  yard. 
33.384  inches. 
2.707  gallons. 
71.1  square  rods. 
0.663  mile. 
41.98  acres. 


1  Although  the  metric  weights  are  used  ofSciall^  in  Spain,  the  Castile  quintal  is  employed 
in  commerce  in  the  Peninsula  and  colonies,  save  in  Catalonia;  the  Catalan  quintal  equals 
91.71  pounds. 


470 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DECIMAL  SYSTEM— WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


A  meter  is  one  ten-millionth  of  the  distance 
from  the  equator  to  the  North  Pole. 


SOUTH  p»ic 


The  metric  sjrstem,  formed  on  the  meter  as 
the  unit  of  length,  has  four  other  leading  units, 
all  connected  with  and  dependent  upon  this. 
The  are,  the  unit  of  surface,  is  the  square  of 
ten  meters.  The  liter,  the  unit  of  capacity, 
is  the  cube  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  meter.  The 
atere,  the  unit  of  solidity,  has  the  capacity  of 
a  cubic  meter.  The  gram,  the  unit  of 
weight,  is  the  weight  of  that  quantity  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  its  maximum  density  which 
fills  the  cube  of  a  hundredth  part  of  the  meter. 
Each  unit  has  its  decimal  multiple  and  sub- 
multiple,  that  is,  weights  and  measures  ten 
times  larger  or  ten  times  smaller  than  the 
principal  unit.  The  prefixes  denoting  the 
multiples  are  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
aredeca,  ten;  hecto,  hundred;  kilo,  thousand; 
and  myria,  ten  thousand.  Those  denoting 
sub-multiples  are  taken  from  the  Latin,  and 
are  deci,  ten ;  eenti,  hundred ;  milli,  thousand. 


P4>!lative  Value. 

Length. 

Surface. 

Capacity. 

Solidity. 

Weight. 

10,000 

Myriameter 

Kilometer 

Hectometer 

Decameter 

Meter 

Decimeter 

Centimeter 

Millimeter 

1,000 

Kiloliter 

Hectolitei- 

Decaliter 

Liter 

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 

Kiloflram 

100 

Hectare 

Hectoirram 

10 

Dekastere 

Stere 

Decistere 

Decagram 
Gram 

Unit 

Are 

Declare 

Centiare 

0.1 

Decigram 

Centigram 

Milligram 

0.01 

0.001 

APPROXIMATE  EQUIVALENTS  OF  THE  FRENCH  (METRIC)  AND 

ENGLISH  MEASURES. 


yard 

1  meters 

To  convert  meters  into  yards 

meter  =  1.1  yd. ;  3.3  ft ■[ 

meter,  by  the  Standards  Commission 

meter,  by  the  Act  of  1878 

foot 

inch 

mile 

kilometer 

chain  ("22  yards) 

furlongs  (1,100  yards) 

square  yard 

square  meter. < 

square  inch 

square  mile  (640  acres) 

acre  (4840  square  yards) 

cubic  yard 

cubic  meter 

cubic  meter 

cubic  meter  of  water 

kilogram 

,000  kilograms ) 

metric  ton I 

lonp  hundredweight 

Umted  States  hundredweight 


ii  meter. 
12  yards. 
Add  Mh. 

3  ft.  3|  inches  (^th  less). 
40  inches  (1.6  per  cent  less). 
=  39.38203  inches. 
=  39.37079  inches. 
3  decimeters  (more  exactly  3.048). 
25  millimeters  (more  exactly  25.4). 
1.6  or  li  kilometers  (more  exactly  1.60931) 
i  of  a  mile. 

20  meters  (more  exactly  20.1165). 
1  kilometer  (more  exactly  1.0058). 
f  square  meter  (more  exactly  .8361). 
lOf  square  feet, 
li  square  yards. 

64^  square  centimeters  (more  exactly  6.45). 
2n0  hectares  (0.4  per  cent  less). 
4000  square  meters  (1.2  per  cent  more). 
i  cubic  meter  (2  per  cent  more). 
H  cubic  yards  (If  per  cent  less). 
35^^  cubic  feet  (.05  per  cent  less). 
1  long  ton  nearly. 
2.2  pounds  fully. 

1  long  ton  nearly. 

51  kilograms  nearly. 
45^  kilograms  nearly  . 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


471 


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472  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 

FRENCH   AND   ENGLISH   COMPOUND   EQUIVALENTS. 

1  kilogram  per  linear  meter i    o^I?/**'*'**^^*'*  linear  foot. 

,  .,  }    2.016  pounds  per  yard. 

'  ,000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  meter 300  long  ton  per  foot ;  i  short  ton  per  foot. 

kilogram  per  kilometer 3.548  pounds  per  mile. 

.000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  kilometer i    1.584  long  tons  per  mile;   1.774  short  tons  per 

mile. 

kilogram  per  square  millimeter. 1422.32  pounds  per  square  inch ;   .635  long  ton 

i        per  square   inch;  .711  short  ton  per  sq.  in. 

kilogram  per  square  centimeter 14.2232  pounds  per  square  inch. 

kilogram  per  square  decimeter 20.481  pounds  per  square  foot. 

kilogram  per  square  meter 1.843  pounds  per  square  yard. 

.000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  square  meter 8229  long  ton,  .922  short  ton,  per  square  yard. 

kilogram  per  ton" i  ^'^^  pounds  per  long  ton ;  2  pouncls  per  short 

"j  ton. 

kilogram  per  ton  per  kilometer 3.6042  pounds  per  long  ton  per  mile. 

liter  of  water  at  4^  C.  per  ton  per  kilometer .  .4325  U.  S.  gal.  at  G2°  F.  per  long  ton  per  mile, 

gram  per  square  millimeter 1.422  pounds  per  square  mch. 

Earn  per  square  centimeter 01422  pound  per  square  inch, 

logram  per  cubic  meter J  .1686  pound  per  cubic  yard. 

1  .0624  pound  per  cubic  foot. 

.000  ldlop«n«  (1  ton)  per  cubic  meter |    ;9||  l°S'p?,''eSwc''yaJd.™'''- 

cubic  meter  per  kilogram 16.019  cubic  feet  per  pound. 

cubic  meter  per  ton \    I'^Eo'^'^^b  ^f  "!^  per  long  ton. 

*^  \    35.882  cubic  feet  per  lobg  ton. 

cubic  meter  per  kilometer 2.105  cubic  yards  per  mue. 

cubic  meter  per  linear  meter 1.196  cubic  yards  per  linear  yard. 

cubic  meter  per  square  meter 3.281  cubic  feet  per  square  foot. 

cubic  meter  per  hecta« {.^I'^l  ^'p^'"a."^- 

kilogrammeter 7.233  foot-pounds. 

kilogrammeter ]     ^^h^rt^)    ^*^*-*°''    (long)  =  .00362    foot-ton 

ton-meter 3  foot-tons  (long) ;  3.36  (short). 

cheval  vapeur.or  cheval  ( 75k  X  m  per  second  ).  .9863  horse-power. 

kilogram  per  cheval 2.235  pounds  per  horse-power. 

square  meter  per  cheval 10.913  square  feet  per  horse-power. 

cubic  meter  per  cheval 35.806  cubic  feet  per  horse-poww. 

calorie,  or  French  unit  of  heat 3.968  British  heat-units. 

Fren^  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  (423.55k  ^    30^3  5  foot-pounds. 

calorie  per  89uare  meter 369  heat-unit  per  square  foot. 

calorie  per  kilogram 1.800  heat-units  per  pound. 

ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH. 

pound  per  linear  foot 1.488  kilograms  per  linear  meter. 

pound  per  yard 496  kilogram  per  meter. 

long  ton  per  foot 33.32  kilograms  (3i  tons  approx.)  per  meter. 

long  ton  per  yard 1111  kilograms  (1^  tons  approx.) per  meter. 

{)Ound  per  mile. 2818  kilogram  per  kilometer, 
ong  ton  per  mile 6313  ton  per  kilometer. 

pound  per  long  ton 4464  kilogram  per  ton. 

pound  per  long  ton  per  mile 2774  kilogram  per  ton  per  kilometer. 


pound  per  square  inch. 


atmosphere  (14.7  pounds  per  square  inch). 


.0703077  kilogram  per  square  centimeter. 
.7031  gram  per  square  millimeter. 
5.170  centimeters  of  mercury  at  0°  C. 
1.0335  kilograms  per  square  centimeter. 


,000  pounds  per  square  inch 703077  kilogram  per  square  millimeter. 

,000  pounds  per  square  inch 1.406154  kilograms  per  square  millimeter. 

long  ton  per  square  inch 1.575  kilograms  per  square  millimeter. 

pound  per  square  foot 4.883  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

,000  pK)unds  per  square  foot 4882.517  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

ton  per  square  foot 10.936  tons  per  square  meter. 

,000  pounds  per  square  yard 542.500  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

ton  per  square  yard 1.215  tons  per  square  meter. 

pound  per  cubic  yard 5933  kilogram  per  cubic  meter. 

pound  per  cubic  foot 16.020  kilograms  per  cubic  meter. 

ton  per  cubic  yard 1.329  tons  per  cubic  meter. 

cubic  yard  per  pound 1.6855  cubic  meters  per  kilogram. 

cubic  yard  per  ton 7525  cubic  meter  per  ton. 

cubic  yard  per  mile 4750  cubic  meter  per  kilometer. 

cubic  yard  per  linear  yard 836  cubic  meter  per  linear  meter. 

cubic  foot  per  square  foot 3048  cubic  meter  per  square  meter. 

cubic  meter  per  acre 2.471  cubic  meters  per  hectare. 

cubic  yard  per  acre 1.889  cubic  meters  per  hectare. 

foot-pound 1382  kilogrammeter. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


473 


FRENCH   AND   ENGLISH   COMPOUND   EQUIVALENTS— C<m<tnt««d. 

1  foot-ton  (long) 3097  ton-meter. 

1  horse-power L0139  cheval. 

1  pound  per  horse-power 447  kilogram  per  cheval. 

1  square  foot  per  horse-power 0916  square  meter  per  cheval. 

1  cubic  foot  per  horse-power 0279  cubic  meter  per  cheval. 

1  British  imit  of  heat,  or  heat-unit 252  calorie. 

British  mechanical  equivalent  of  one    heat- )    ^q^j  kilogrammeters. 

unit  (772  foot-pounds) j  " 

1  British  heat-unit  per  square  foot 2.713  calories  per  square  meter. 

1  British  heat-unit  per  pound f  calorie  per  kilogram. 

— D.  K.  Clark,  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


To  Reduce  Parts  by  Volume,  or  Meas- 
ure TO  Parts  by  Weight. — Multiply  the 
parts  by  volume,  or  measure,  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  different  substances:  the  re- 
sult will  be  parts  by  weight. 


MENSURATION. 
surfaces. 

Parallelogram. — Area  equals  base  mul- 
tiplied by  height. 

Triangle. — Base  and  height  given.  Mul- 
tiply base  by  height  and  divide  bv  two. 

When  three  sides  are  given.  From  the  half 
sum  of  the  three  sides  subtract  each  side  sep- 
arately; multiply  the  half  sum  and  the  three 
remainders  together.  The  area  is  the  square 
root  of  the  product  thus  obtained. 

Trapezium  (a  figure  with  two  sides  parallel 
and  two  sides  not  parallel). — To  find  the  area 
multiply  the  sum  of  the  two  parallel  sides  by 
the  distance  between  them  and  divide  by  two. 

Square  or  Rhombus  (an  oblique  paral- 
lelogram with  four  equal  sides).— Area  equals 
halfthe  product  of  the  diagonals. 

Irregular  Polygon. — The  area  may  be 
found  by  dividing  it  into  a  series  of  triangles 
and  trapeziums,  and  finding  the  sum  of  the 
areas  thus  obtained. 

Regular  Polygon. — Area  equals  number 
of  sides  multiplied  by  lengrth  of  one  side  and 
by  the  radius  of  the  inscribed  circle  divided 
by  two. 

Circle. — Circumference  equals  diameter 
multiplied  by  3.1416,  or  approximately  by  3f. 
Area  equals  diameter  squared  multiplied  by 
.7854. 

Sector  of  Circle. — Multiply  the  length  of 
the  arc  by  the  radius  and  divide  by  two. 

Segment  of  Circle. — Find  the  area  of  the 
sector  having  the  same  arc.  Also  find  area  of 
triangle  formed  by  the  radial  sides  and  the 
choral.  The  area  equals  the  sum  or  differ- 
ence of  these  according  as  the  segment  is 
greater  or  less  than  a  semicircle. 

Annulus. — Multiply  the  sum  of  the  diame- 
ters by  their  difference  and  by  .7854. 

Square  Eq^'al  to  a  Circle. — Side  of 
square  equals  diameter  multiplied  by  .8862. 

Inscribed  Sq^tare. — Side  of  square  equals 
diameter  multiplied  by  .7071. 

Ellipse. — Area  equals  the  product  of  the 
two  axes  by  .7854. 

solids. 

Cube. — Surface  equals  length  of  one  edge 
squared  and  multiplied  by  six.  Contents 
equals  length  of  one  edge  cubed. 

Cylinders  and  Prisms. — Surface  equals 
perimeter  of  one  end  multiplied  by  height  plus 
twice  the  area  of  one  end.  Contents  equals 
area  of  base  multiplied  by  height.  This  last 
also  applies  to  oblique  cylinders  and  prisms. 


Cone  or  Pyramid. — Surface  equals  cir- 
cumference of  base  multiplied  by  slant  height 
divided  by  two,  plus  the  area  of  the  bsLBe. 
Contents  equals  area  of  base  multiplied  by 
one-third  perpendicular  height.  This  last 
applies  whether  the  cones  and  psrramids  be 
rignt  or  oblique. 

Frustum  of  Cone  or  Pyramid. — Con- 
tents: To  the  sum  of  the  area  of  the  two  ends 
add  the  square  root  of  their  product  and 
multiply  the  quantity  thus  obtained  by  one- 
third  the  perpendicular  height. 

Sphere. — Area  equals  square  of  diameter 
multiplied  by  3.1416  or  3f ;  i.e.,  it  is  equal  to 
four  times  the  area  of  one  of  its  great  circles, 
or  to  the  convex  surface  of  its  circumscribing 
cylinder.  Surfaces  of  spheres  vary  as  the 
squares  of  their  diametcn-s.  Contents  equal 
the  cube  of  the  diameter  multiplied  by  .5236, 
i.e.,  equals  area  of  surface  multiplied  by  diam- 
eter and  divided  by  six.  Contents  of  spheres 
vary  as  the  cubes  of  the  diameter. 

Segment  or  Sphere. — Contents:  From 
three  times  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  8ub~ 
tract  twice  the  height  of  the  segment,  multi- 
ply the  difference  by  the  square  of  the  height 
and  by  .5236;  or,  another  rule:  Add  -the 
square  of  the  height  to  three  times  the  square 
of  the  radius  of  the  base  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  the  height  and  by  .5236. 

Zone  of  Sphere. — To  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  radii  of  the  two  ends  add  one- 
third  the  square  of  the  height,  multiply  the 
sum  by  the  height  and  by  1.6708. 

Cone,  Sphere,  and  (Cylinder. — The  con- 
tents of  a  cone,  sphere,  and  cylinder  of  same 
diameter  and  hei^t  are  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  2 
to  3. — Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket 
Book  and  Diary. 

CIRCULAR  MEASURE. 

Diameter  of  a  Circle  X  3.1416givesCJircum- 
ference. 

Diameter  Squared  X  .7854  gives  Area  of 
Circle. 

Diameter  Squared  X  3. 1416  gives  Surface  of 
Sphere. 

Diameter  Cubed  X  .5236  gives  Solidity  of 
Sphere. 

One  Degree  of  Circumference  X  57.3  gives 
Radius. 

Diameter  of  Cylinder  X  3.1416,  and  product 
by  its  length,  gives  the  Surface. 

Diameter  Squared  X  .7854,  and  product  by 
the  length,  gives  Solid  Contents. 

A  Circular  Acre  is  235.504  feet,  a  Circular 
Rood  117.752  feet,  in  diameter.  The  Circum- 
ference of  the  globe  is  about  24,855  miles,  and 
the  Diameter  about  7,900  m\\esi.—Whittak(r*9 
Almanac, 


474 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK, 


ANGULAR  MEASURE. 

There  is  perfect  unanimity  as  to  the  Btand- 
ard  angle  (i.e.,  the  right  angle)  and  practi- 
cal unanimity  as  to  its  subdivision,  tor  the 
subdivision  into  grades,  etc.,  once  favored  by 
the  French,  is  now  abandoned. 
1  minute  of  angle  or  arc  =-  60  seconds. 

1  degree    **      '^eOminutes. 

90  degrees  *  *      *  *      *•••=!   right  angle  or 

i    of    circum- 
ference. 
Radian       **      **      *'    *'  ==arc  same  length  as 

radius. 

* =  57.295779513082*. 

Length  of  arc  of  1"  -  0.017453292520. 

Length  of  arc  of  r  =  0.000290888209. 

1"  =  0.015707963268. 

TIME. 

The  unit  of  time  measurement  is  the  same 
among  all  nations.  Practically  it  is  ^noAm  of 
the  mean  solar  day,  but  really  it  is  a  perfectly 
arbitrary  unit,  as  the  length  of  the  mean  solar 
day  is  not  constant  for  any  two  periods  of 
time.  There  is  no  constant  natural  unit  of 
time. 

-=60  seconds. 
==60   minutes,    3600  sec- 
onds. 
=  24  hours,  1440  minutes, 

86,400  seconds. 
=  86164.1  seconds. 
=  27.321661    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
=  29.530589    mean    solar 
days  (average). 
1  anomalistic  month  — 27.544600    mean    solar 

days  (average). 


1  minute 
1  hour 

1  day 

1  sidereal  day 
1  sidereal  month 

1  lunar  month 


1  tropical  month        =27.321582    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  nodical  month         =27.212222    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
Mean  solar  year         =365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  46.045 

s.  with  annual  varia- 
tion of  0.00539. 
The  change  in  the  length  of  the  mean  side- 
real day,  i.e..  of  the  time  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion upon  its  axis,  amounts  to  0.01252  s.  in 
2400  mean  solar  years. 

— Physical  Tablet. 

TABLE    OF    DECIMAL    EQUIVALENTS 
OF  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


i: 


-015625 
•03125 
•046875 
•0625 
•078125 
•09375 
=  •100375 
=  -125 
=  •140625 
=  -15685 
=  •171875 
=    1875 
=  -203126 
=  -21875 
=  -234375 
=  -25 
=  -265685 
=  -28125 
=  -296875 
=  -3125 
=  -328125 


34375 

360376 

•375 

-300626 

'40626 

•421876 

•4375 

•453125 

•46875 

•484375 

•50 

-515625 

63125 
-546875 
-6626 
•578126 

69375 
-609475 

625 

•640626 
-656S5 


II  = 


•671875 

•6876 

-703126 

•n875 

-734375 

-76 

•765625 

-78125 

-796875 

-8126 

-82812S 

-84375 

-850375 

-875 

-890625 

-90625 

-921875 

-9375 

-953125 

-96875 

•984375 


WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES    OF  THE   BIBLE. 

WEIGHTS. 


A  gerah 

10  gerahs    =  1  bekah. 

2  bekahs  =  1  shekel. 

60  shekels  =  1  maneh. 

50  manehs  =  1  talent . 


Avoirdupois. 


Lbs. 
0 
0 
0 
2 

102 


Oz. 

0 

0 

0 

0 
13 


Drs. 
0.439 
4.39 
8.78 
14.628 
11.428 


Lbs. 

0 

0 

0 

2 
125 


Troy. 

Oa.  Dwt.  Gr. 

0         0  12 

0         5  0 

0  10  0 

6         0  0 

0         0  0 


A  digit,  or  finger  (Jer.  lii.  21) 


MEASURES. 

Long  Measure. 


4 
3 
2 
4 
1.5 
13.3 


digits      =  1  palm  ( Exod.  xxv.  25).  . 
palms     =1  span  (Exod.  xxviii.  16), 

spans      =1  cubit  (Gen.  vi.  15) 

cubits  =1  fathom  (Acts  xxvii.  28). 
fathoms  =  1  reed  (Ezek.  xl.  3,  5).  .  .  . 
reeds       =  1  line  (Ezek.  xl.  3) 


Land  Measure.  Eng.  miles. 

A  cubit 0 

400  cubits     =  1  furlong  (Luke  xxiv.  13) 0 

5  furlongs  =  1  sabbath  day's  journey  (John  xi.  18;  Acts  i.  12) 0 

10  furlongs  =  1  mile  (Matt.  v.  41) I 

24  miles      =  1  day's  journey 33 


A  caph.  .  . 

1.3  caphs 
4  logs 
3  cabs 

2  hins 

3  seahs 
10  ephahs 


Liquid  Measure. 


10). 


=  1  log  (Lev.  xiv. 

=  1  cab 

=  1  hin  (Exod.  xxx.  24) 

=  1  seah 

=  1  bath,  or  ephah  (1  Kings  vii.  26; 
=  1  kor,  or  homer  (Isa.  v.  10;  Ezek. 


John  ii.  6). 
xiv.  14).  .. 


Ft. 

0 
0 
0 
1 
7 
10 
145 

Paces. 

0 
145 

727 

399 

76 

Gals. 
0 
0 
0 
1 
2 
7 
.     75 


In. 

0.912 

3.648 

10.944 

9.888 

3.552 

11.328 

11.04 

Ft. 
1.824 
4.6 
3.0 
1.0 
4.0 

Pts. 
0.625 
0.833 
3.333 
2 
4 

4.5 
5.26 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


475 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES    OF   THE    BIBLE— Continued. 


Dry  Measure. 


Pecks.  Gals.  Pts. 


A  gachal 0  0  0.1416 

20  gachals  =  1  cab  (2  Kings  vi.  25;  Rev.  vi.  6) 0  0  2.8333 

1.8  cabs      « 1  omer  (Exod.  xvi.  36) 0  0  5.1 

3.3  omers  *«  1  seah  (Matt.  xiii.  33) 1  0  1 

3  seahs    =  1  ephah  (Ezek.  xlv.  11) 3  0  3 

5  ephahs  —  1  letech  (Hosea  iii.  2) 16  0  0 

2  ietechs  —  1  kor,  or  homer  (Num.  xi.  32;  Hos.  iii.  2) 32  0  0 


N.B. — The  above  Table  will  explain  many 
texts  in  the  Bible.  Take,  for  instance,  Isa.  v. 
10-  **Yea,  ten  acres  of  vineyard  shall  yield 
one  bath,  and  the  seed  of  an  homer  shall 
yield  an  ephah."  This  curse  upon  the  covet- 
ous man  was,  that  10  acres  of  vines  should 


produce  only  7  gallons  of  wine,  i.e.,  one  acre 
should  yield  less  that  3  quarts ;  and  that  32 
pecks  of  seed  should  only  bring  a  crop  of  3 
pecks,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  harvest 
reaped  should  produce  but  one-tenth  of  the 
seed  sown. 


TIME. 

The  Natural  Day  was  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set. 
The  Natural  Night  was  from  sun-set  to  sun-rise. 
The  Civil  Day  was  from  sun-set  one  evening  to 
the  Morning  were  the  first  day." 

Night  (Ancient). 

First  Watch  (Lam.  ii.  19)  till  midnight. 
Middle  Watch  (Judg.  vii.  19)  till  3  a.m. 
Morning  Watch  (Exod.  xiv.  24)  till  6  a.m. 

Night  (New  Testament). 

First  Watch,  evening  =  6  to  9  p.m. 
Second  Watch,  midnight  =  9  to  12  p.m. 
Third  Watch,  cock-crow  =  12  to  3  a.m. 
Fourth  Watch,  morning   =  3  to    6  a.m. 


sun-set  the  next;   for,  "the  Evening  and 

Day  (Ancient). 

Morning  till  about  10  a.m. 
Heat  of  day  till  about  2  p.m. 
Cool  of  day  till  about  6  p.m. 

Day  (New  Testament). 

Third  hour       =   6  to   9  a.m. 
Sixth  hour        =  9  to  12  midday. 
Ninth  hour       =  12  to    3  pm. 
Twelfth  hour  =  3  to    6  p.m. 


JEWISH   MONEY. 
With  its  value  in  English  and  American  money;  the  American  dollar  being  taken  as  equal  to  As.  2d. 

Jewish. 


xxxviii.  26) 

XXX.  13;  Isa.  vii. 


A  gerah  (Exod.  xxx.  13).  .. 
10  gerahs   —1  bekah  (Exod. 
2  bekahs  ==1  shekel  (Exod 

50  shekels  =  1  maneh , 

60  manehs  =  1  kikkar  (talent) 

A  gold  shekel 

A  kikkar  of  gold , 

N.B. — A  shekel  would  probably  purchase 
nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same  nominal 
amount  will  now.  Remember  that  one  Ro- 
man penny  (S^d.)  was  a  good  day's  wages  for 
a  laborer. 

The  Hebrew  maneh,  according  to  1  Kings 
X.  17,  compared  with  2  Chron.  ix.  16,  contained 
100  shekels;  though  according  to  one  inter- 
pretation of  Ezek.  xlv.  12,  it  contained  60, 
but  more  probably  50.  The  passage  reads 
thus: — "Twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty 
shekels  fifteen  shekels  shall  be  your  maneh. 
This  is  variously  interpreted,  (1)  20  +  25+15 


23). 


E 

ngiis 

h.               American. 

£ 

s. 

d.        Dots.     Cents. 

-        0 

0 

1.36=          0       2.73 

=        0 

1 

1.68 «         0     27.37 

=        0 

2 

3.37=         0     54,74 

=        5 

14 

0.75=        27     37.50 

»    342 

3 

9      =   1,642     50 

1 

16 

6      =         8     76 

=^,475 

0 

0      =26,280      0 

=  60.  (2)  20,  25,  15  are  different  coins  in  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  bearing  the  same  name. 
It  \a  well  to  remark  the  meaning  of  these 
names:  Shekel  =  simply  weight:  Bekah  = 
split,  i.e. ,  the  shekel  divided  into  two :  Gerah 
=a  grain,  as  in  our  weights,  a  grain  and  a 
barley-corn,  the  original  standard  weight: 
"Msineh.— appointed,  equivalent  to  sterling,  a 
specific  sum :  Kikkar  =  a  round  mass  of  metal , 
i.e.,  a  weight  or  coin.  Hebrew  names  of 
weights  and  coins  are  not  found  in  the  New 
Testament:  mna  in  Luke  xix.  13  is  Greek, 
though  possibly  identical  with  the  Hebrew 
maneh. 


ROMAN   MONEY. 

Roman.  English. 

d. 

A  "farthing,"  quadrans  (Matt.  v.  26)  =  nearly 0.125 

A  "farthing,"  as  —  i  quadrantes  (Matt.  x.  29)  =  nearly 0.5 

A  "penny,"  denar*tM«  =  16  asses  (Matt.  xxii.  19)  =  nearly 8.50 

[The  Roman  sestertius  =  2^  asses,  is  not  named  in  the  Bible.] 


American. 
Cents. 
0.25 
1 

17 


N.B. — Here  we  learn  that — 

Naaman's  offering  to  Elisha  of  6,000  pieces 
(shekels)  of  gold  amounted  to  more  than 
£  10,000  =  48,000  dollars. 

The  Debtor  (Matt,  xviii.  24)  who  had  been 
forgiven  10,000  talents,  i.e.,  £3.000,000  =  14,- 
400,000  dollars,   refused   to   forgive    his    fel- 


low-servant 100    pence,  i.e.,  £3  10«.  10d  =  17 
dollars. 

Judas  sold  our  Lord  for  30  pieces  of  silver, 
i.e.,  £3  10«.  8d.  =  16  dollars  96  cents,  the  legal 
value  of  a  slave,  if  he  were  killed  by  a  beast. 

Joseph  was  sold  by  his  brethren  for  20 
pieces,  i.e.  £2  7a.  =  11  dollars  28  cents. 

— Oxford  University  Bible. 


/ 


476 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TIME  AND    WATCH   ON  BOARD  SHIP. 


Watch. — For  purpoMs  of  discipline,  and 
to  divide  the  work  fairly,  the  crew  is  mus- 
tered in  two  divisions:  the  Starboard  (right 
side,  looking  forward)  and  the  Port  (left). 
The  day  commences  at  noon,  and  is  thus 
divided: — 


Afternoon  Watch 

First  Dog 

Second  Dog 

First 

Middle 

Morning 

Forenoon 


. . .  noon  to  4  p.m. 
. . .  4  p.m.  to  6  p.m. 
. . .  o  p.m.  to  8  p.m. 
. . .  8  p.m.  to  midnight. 
. . .   12  p.m.  to  4  a.m. 
. . .  4  a.m.  to  8  a.m. 
. . .  o  a.m.  to  noon. 


This  makes  seven  Watches,  which  enables 
the  crew  to  keep  them  alternately,  as  the 
Watch  which  is  on  duty  in  the  forenoon  one 
day  has  the  afternoon  next  day,  and  the  men 
who  have  only  four  hours'  rest  one  night  have 
eight  hours  the  next.  This  is  the  reason  for 
having  Dog  Watches,  which  are  made  by  di- 
viding the  hours  between  4  p.m.  and  8  p.m. 
into  two  Watches. 

Time. — Time  is  kept  by  means  of  "Bells," 
although  there  is  but  one  bell  on  the  ship,  and 
to  strike  the  clapper  properly  against  the 
bell  requires  some  skill. 


First,  two  strokes  of  the  clapper  at  the  in- 
terval of  a  second,  then  an  interval  of  two 
seconds;  then  two  more  strokes  with  a  sec- 
ond's interval  apart,  then  a  rest  of  two  sec- 
onds, thus: — 

Bell,  one  second;    B.,  two  secs.:    B.  s.; 
B.  88 ;  B.  8. :  B.  88. ;  B. 

1  Bell  is  struck  at  12.30,  and  again  at  4.30, 
6.30,  8.30  p.m. ;  12.30,  4.30,  and  8.30  a.m. 

2  Bells  at  I  (struck  with  an  interval  of  a 
second  between  each — B.  s,  B.),  the  same 
again  at  5,  7f  and  9  p.m.;  i,  5,  and  9  a.m. 

3  Bells  at  1.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.),  5.30,  7.30, 
and  9.30  p.m. ;  1.30,  5.30,  and  9.30  a.m. 

4  Bells  at  2  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.),  6  and  10 
p.m.;  2,  6,  and  10  a.m. 

5  Bells  at  2.30  (B.  s,  B  ss.  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.) 
and  10.30  p.m. ;  2.30,  6.30,  and  10.30  a.m. 

6  Bells  at  3  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.) 
and  IX  p.m.;  3,  7.  and  xx  a.m. 

7  Bells  at  3.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s, 
B.  88,  B.)  and  ix.30  p.m.;  3.30,  7-30,  and 
XX. 30  a.m. 

8  Bells  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss, 
B.  s,  B.)  every  4  hours,  at  noon,  at  4  p.m., 
8  p.m.,  midnight,  4  a.m.,  and  8  a.m. 

— Whittaker'a  Almanac. 


STONES :    SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT  AND  VOLUME. 


Stones. 


Alabaster,  calcareous. 
* '         gypseous. . 

Barytes 

Basalt. 


Chalk,  air-dried. 

Diamond 

FUnt 

Felspar 

Gneiss. 


Granite.  .  . 
Graphite.  . 
Jasper. 


Limestone 

Marble : 

African 

British 

Carrara 

^Syptian  green. 

Florentine 

French 

Mica. 


Specific. 
Grravity. 


Oolitic  stones 

Ores: 

Spicular  or  red  iron  ore. 

Magnetic  iron  ore 

Brown  iron  ore 

Spathic  iron  ore 

Quartz 

Sandstone 

Serpentine 

Slate. 


Talc,  st^atit^. 


Water -I. 

2.76 

2.31 

4.45 
2.45-3.00 

2.78 

3.50 

2.59 

2.60 

2.69 
2.50-2.74 

2.20 

2.72 
1.86-2.53 


2.80 
2.71 
2.72 
2.67 
2.52 
2.65 
2.93 
,89-2.60 


1 


5.21 

5.09 

3.92 

3.83 
2.61-2.71 
2.04-2.70 

2.81 
2.60-2.85 

2.70 


Weight  of 

one  Cubic 

Foot. 


Pounds. 

172.1 

144.0 

277.5 

152.8-187.1 

155 

164 

162.1 

168 

156-171 

137.2 

169.7 

116-158 

174.6 
169.0 
169.6 
166.5 
157.1 
165.2 
183 
118-162 

327.4 

317.6 

244.6 

238.8 

162.8-169 

127-168 

175.2 

162.1-177.7 

16$,4 


Cubic 

Feet  per 

Ton. 


Cubic  Ft. 

13.0 

15.6 

8.07 

14.7-12.0 

14.5 

•   •••••• 

13.7 

13.8 

13.3 
14.4-13.1 

16.3 

13.2 
19.3-14.2 

12.8 
13.3 
13.2 
13.5 
14.3 
13.6 
12.2 
19.0-13.8 

6.84 

7.05 

9.16 

9.38 
13.8-13.3 
17.6-13.3 

12.8 
13.8-12.6 

13.3 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


477 


MINERAL  SUBSTANCES,  VARIOUS:  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  VOLUME. 


Substances. 


Alum 

Ballast  (brick  rubbish  and  gravel), 

Brick 

Brickwork ., 

Camphor 

Clay 

Coal: 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Earth,  argillaceous : , 

Dry,  loose 

Dry,  shaken , 

Moist,  loose 

Packed 

Glass: 

Flint 

Green 

Plate 

Thick  flooring 

Crown 

Gunpowder,  heaped 

Ice,  melting 

Marl 

Masonry: 

Ashlar  granite 

*'      Limestone,  hard 

* '  "  semi-hard.  .  . . 

soft 

'  *      Sandstone 

Rubble,  dry 

**       mortar 

Mortar,  hardened 

Mud: 

Dry,  close 

Wet,  moderately  pressed 

Wet,  fluid 

Phosphorus 

Plaster 

Portland  cement 

Potash 

Sand 

"    saturated  with  water 

Salt,  common 

*•    rock 

Sulphur 

Tiles 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Water  =  1. 

L72 

1.80 

1.90-2.40 

1.76-1.84 

.99 

1.92 

1.37-1.59 
1.20-1.31 

l.ii^i."29 
1.32-1.48 
1.06-1.22 
1.44-1.60 

2.90 

2.70 

2.70 

2.53 

2.50 
1.75-1.84 

.922 
1.60-1.90 

2.37 
2.70 
2.42 
2.34 
2.61 
2.21 
2.47 
1.65 

1.28-1.93 
1.93-2.09 
1.67-1.92 

1.77 
1.87-2.47 
1.25-1.51 

2.10 
1.44-1.87 
1.89-2.07 

.1.92 
2.10-2.26 

2.00 

2.00 


Weight  of 

One  Cubic 

Foot. 


Pounds. 

107.2 

112 

124.7-135.3 

110 

61.7 

119.7 

85.*-99.1 
74.8-81.7 

93-137 

72-80 

82-92 

66-76 

90-100 

187.0 

168.4 

168.4 

158.0 

155.9 
109.1-114.7 

57.5 
99.8-118.5 

147.5 
168.5 
151.9 
145.6 
162.5 

138 

154 

103 

80-110 

110-130 

104-120 

110.4 
98 

78-94 

131 
90-117 
118-129 

119.7 
131-140.7 

124.7 

124.7 


Cubic 

Feet  per 

Ton 


Cubic  Ft. 

20.9 

20.0 

18.1-16.0 

20.4-18 

36.3 

18.7 

26.2-22.6 

30-28.1 

lfr-24 

31.1-28 

27.a-24.3 

34.0-29.5 

24.8-22.4 

12.0 

13.3 

13.3 

14.2 

14  4 
20.5-19.6 

39 
22.4-18.9 

15.2 
11.4 
14.8 
15.4 
13.2 
16.2 
14.6 
2L7 

28.0-20.4 
20.4-17.2 
21.5-18.7 

20.3 

22.9 
28.7-23.8 

17.1 

24.9-19.1 

19-17.4 

18.7 
17.1-15.9 

18.0 

18.0 


478 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FUELS,  ETC.:    SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT.  AND  BULK. 


Fuel*. 


COALA. 

Anthracite,  American. 

Bituminous  coal,  American 

Coke. 

Coke,  generally 

American 

Graphite 

Lignite  and  Asphalt. 

Perfect  lignite 

Imperfect  lignite 

Bituminous  lignite 

Asphalt 

Wood  Charcoal. 
As  made,  heaped. 

Oak  and  beech 

Birch 

Pine 


Average.  . 
Gunpowder,  loose.  . 
* '  shaken, 

solid.  . 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of  One 
Cubic  Foot. 

Volume  of 
One  Ton, 

SoUd. 

Heaped. 

Heaped. 

Water  =  1. 

1.30-1.84 

127 

• 

Lbs. 
93.5 
84.0 

Lbs. 
54.0 
50.0 

Cub.  Ft. 

*  '2.33' ' 

40-50 
*  V45.3  ' 

30.0 
32.1 

70-80 
69.8 

1.29 
L15 
1.18 
1.06 





Heaped. 
.24-.25 
.22-.23 
.20-.21 

15-15.6 
13.7-14.3 
12.5-13.1 

.225 

.90 

1.00 

1.55-1.80 

•    • 

14 



' 

WOODS:     SPECIFIC   GRAVITY   AND   WEIGHT. 


Wood. 


Ash 

'  *  with  20  per  cent,  moisture.  . 

Apple  tree 

Bamboo 

Beech 

• '     with  20  per  cent,  moisture. 

*  *     cut  one.  year 

Birch 

Boxwood 

Cedar  of  I^banon 

Cork 

Cypress,  cut  one  year 

Ebony 

Elder  pith 

Elm 


1 1 
1 1 


•  < 


Green 

with  20  per  cent,  moisture 

Fir,  Norway  Pine 

'  *   Spruce 

* '   Larch. 

White  Pine,  Scotch 

•  *  * '  "      with  20  per  cent,  moisture. 

Yellow  Pine,  American    

"      English. 

Lignum- Vitse 

Mahogany,  Cuba 

*  Honduras 

Maple 

*  *     20  per  cent,  moisture 

Mulberry 

Oak,  American 

Poplar. 


White 

'  *      20  per  cent,  moisture. 

Rock- Elm 

Sycamore 

Walnut 

Willow 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Weight  of 

One  Cubic 

Foot. 


Water  =  1. 

Pounds. 

.84 

52.4 

.70 

43.7 

.79 

45.5 

.31-.40 

19.5-24.9 

.7^.85 

46.8-50.3 

.82 

51.1 

.66 

41.2 

.72-.74 

44.9-46. 1 

1.04 

64.8 

.49-.57 

30.6-35.5 

.24 

15.0 

.66 

41.2 

L13 

70.5 

.076 

4.74 

.55-67 

34.3 

.76 

47.5 

.72 

44.9 

.74 

46.1 

.48-.70 

29.9-43.7 

.50-.64 

31.2-39.9 

.53 

34.3 

.49 

30.6 

.46 

28.7 

.66 

41.2 

.65-1.33 

40.5-82.9 

.56-1.06 

34.9 

.5fr-1.06 

34.9 

.65-.73 

40.5 

.67 

41.8 

.89 

55.5 

.87 

54.2 

.39 

24.3 

.32-.51 

20.0-31.8 

.48 

29.9 

.80 

50.0 

.59 

36.8 

.58 

42.4 

.49 

30.6 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK, 


479 


ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES:    SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT.     (Claudel.) 


Substance. 


Pearls 

Coral 

Ivory 

Bone 

Wool 

Tendon 

Cartilage 

Human  Body 

Nerve 

Lard 

Spermaceti 

White  of  Whalebone. 

Butter 

Pork  Fat 

Tallow 

Beef  Fat 

Mutton  Fat 


VEGETABLE   SUBSTANCES: 
Cotton 


Flax 

Starch 

Sugar.  .  ,  .  .  . 
Gutta-percha. 
India-rubber. 


Grain: 

Wheat,  California 

Peas 

Indian  Corn 


1.95 

1.79 

1.53 

•   1.005 

.97 

.93 

Weight  of 

One  Cu.  Ft., 

loosely 

filled. 

49 

50 


Weight  of 
One  Cu.  Ft. 


Pounds. 

169.6 

167.7 

114-119.7 

112.2-124.7 

100.4 

69.8 

68.0 

66.7 

64.9 

59.9 

59.3 

58.8 

58.7 

58.7 

58.7 

57.5 

57.5 

57.4 


121.6 

111.6 

95.4 


60.5 

58.0 

Weight  of 

OneCu.  Ft. 

closely 

filled. 

53 

54 

47 


LIQUIDS:     SPECIFIC    GRAVITY   AND    WEIGHT. 


Liquids  at  32**  F. 


Mercury 

Sidphuric  Acid,  maximum  concentration 

Nitrous  Acid 

Chloroform 

Nitric  acid,  of  commerce 

Acetic  acid,  maximum  concentration.  . .  . 

Milk 

Sea  Water,  ordinary 

Pure  Water,  at  39°  F 

Wine,  Red 

Oil,  Linseed 

*  *   Rapeseed 

*•    Whale 

"   Olive 

•*  Turpentine 

Tar 

Petroleum 

Naphtha 

Ether,  Nitric ^, 

'  *      Sulphurous 

*  *      Nitrous 

*  *      Acetic 

•*      Hydrochloric 

••      Smphuric 

Alcohol,  proof  spirit 

•  \       piu-e 

Benzine 

Proof  Spirit 


Weight  of 

One  Cubic 

Foot. 


Pounds. 
848.7 
114.9 

96.8 

95.5 

76.2 

67.4 

64.3 

64.05 

62.425 

62.0 

58.7 

57.4 

57.4 

57.1 

54.3 

62.4 

54.9 

63.1 

69.3 

67.4 

55.6 

55.6 

54.3 

44.9 

57.4 

49.3 

53.1 

49.9 


Weight 
of  One 
Gallon. 


Pounds. 
136.0 
18.4 
15.5 
15.3 
12.2 
10.8 
10.3 
10.3 
10.0112 

9.9 

9.4 

9.2 

9.2 

9.15 

8.7 
10.0     ^ 

8.8  •^ 

8.5 
11.1 
10.8 

8.9 

8.9 

8.7 

7.2 

9.2 

7.9 

8.5 

8.0 


ido 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


GASES  AND  VAPORS:    SPECIFIC  GRAVITY, 

WEIGHT. 

AND  VOLUME. 

Gases  at  32^  F.,  and  under  one 
Atmosphere  of  Pressure. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of  One 
Cubic  Foot. 

Volume  of 

One  Pound 

Weight. 

Mercury 

Air=-1. 

6.9740 

5.3000 

4.6978 

3.0400 

2.6943 

2.5860 

2.4400 

2.2470 

1.6130 

1.5290 

1.1056 

1.0000 

.9701 

.9674 

.9847 

.5894 

.5527 

.4381 

.0692 

Pounds. 
.563 
.428 
.378 
.245 
.217 
.209 
.197 
.1814 
.1302 
.12344 
.089253 
.080728 
.078596 
.0781 
.0795 
.04758 
.04462 
.03536 
.005592 

Oimces. 
9.008 
6.846 
6.042 
3.927 
3.480 
3.340 
3.152 
2.902 
2.083 
1.975 
1.428 
1.29165 
1.258 
1.250 
1.272 
7.613 

.7139 
..5658 

.0895 

Cub.  Ft. 

1.776 

Chloroform 

2.337 

Turpentine 

Acetic  Ether 

2.637 
4.075 

Benzine 

Sulohuric  Ether 

4.598 
4.790 

Chlorine 

Rulphuroufl  Acid . 

5.077 
5.513 

Alcohol 

7.679 

Carbonic  Acid 

8.101 

Oxygen 

Air 

11.205 
12.387 

Nitrogen. 

Carbonic  Oxide 

12.723 
12.804 

Olefiant  Gas 

12.580 

Ammoniacal  Gas 

21.017 

Liffht  Carbureted  Hvdroacen 

22.412 

Coal  Gas 

28.279 

Hydrogen 

178.83 

WEIGHT  AND   VOLUME   OF   BODIES. 

(Tod.) 


Bodies. 


Metals. 

Antimony,  cast 

Zinc,  cast 

Iron,  cast 

Tin,  cast 

*'    hardened 

Pewter 

Iron,  bar 

Cobalt,  cast 

Steel,  hard 

*  •     soft  meteoric 

Iron,  hammered 

Nickel,  cast 

Brass,  cast 

*  *      wire 

Nickel,  hammered 

Gun-metal 

Copper,  cast 

**       wire.     

**       coin 

Bismuth,  cast 

Silver,  hammered 

*  *      coin 

*  •      pure,  cast 

Rhodium 

Lead,  cast 

Palladium 

Mercury  (quicksilver)  common 

pure 

Gold,  trinket 

*  •     coin 

**     pure,  cast 

*  *     hammered 

Platinum,  pure 

•  *         hammered 

* '         wire 

**         laminated 

Iridium,  hammered. 


Weight  of  One 

Cubic 

!  Foot. 

Oe. 

Lb. 

6,702 

418.8750 

7,190 

449.3750 

7,207 

450.4375 

7,291 

455.6875 

7,299 

456.1875 

7,471 

466.9375 

7,788 

486.7500 

7,811 

488.1875 

7,816 

488.5000 

7,833 

489.5625 

7,965 

497.8125 

8,279 

517.4375 

8,395 

524.6875 

8,544 

534.0000 

8,666 

641.6250 

8,784 

549.0000 

8,788 

549.2500 

8,878 

554.8750 

8.915 

557.1875 

9,822 

613.8750 

10,510 

656.8750 

10,534 

658.3750 

10,744 

671.5000 

11,000 

687.5000 

11,352 

709.6000 

11,800 

737.5000 

13,568 

848.0000 

14,000 

875.0000 

15,709 

981.8125 

17,647 

1,102.9375 

19,258 

1,203.6250 

19,316 

1,210.0625 

19,500 

1,218.7500 

20,336 

1,271.0000 

21,041 

1,315.0625 

22,069 

1,379.3125 

23,000 

1,437.5000 

Weight  of 

One  Cubic 

Inch. 


Oe. 

3.8748 

4.1608 

4.1707 

4.2193 

4.2239 

4.3234 

4.5069 

4.5202 

4.5231 

4.5329 

4.6093 

4.7910 

4.8582 

4.9444 

5.0150 

5.0833 

5.0856 

5.1377 

5.1591 

5.G840 

6.0821 

6.0960 

6.2175 

6.3657 

6.3694 

6.8287 

7.8518 

8.1018 

9.0908 

10.2123 

11.1446 

11.2042 

11.2847 

11.7685 

12.1765 

12.7714 

13.3101 


Cubic 
Inches 
in  One 
Pound. 


Cub.  In. 
3.8866 
3.8431 
3.8364 
3.7920 
3.7878 
3.7007 
3.5500 
3.5396 
3.5373 
3.5296 
3.4792 
3.3395 
3.2933 
3.2359 
3.1903 
3.1476 
3.1461 
3.1140 
3.0959 
2.8149 
2.6306 
2.6246 
2.5733 
2.5134 
2.4355 
2.5134 
2.0377 
1.9748 
1.7600 
1.6124 
1.4356 
1.4280 
1.4178 
1.3595 
1.3140 
1.2528 
1.2021 


-Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


481 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Tables  showing  a  comparison  of  the  degrees  of  Baume,  Cartier,  and  Beck's  Areometers,  with 
specific  gravity  degrees. 


For  Liquids  Lighter  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 

Baimi^, 

Baum^. 

Cartier. 

Beck. 

Cartier, 

Beck. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.0000 

1 

0.9941 

2 

0.9883 

3 

0.9826 

4 

0.9770 

5 

0.9714 

6 

0.9659 

7 

0.9604 

8 

0.9550 

9 

0.9497 

10 

1.000 

0.9444 

11 

0.993 

1.000 

0.9392 

12 

0.986 

0  992 

0.9340 

13 

0.979 

0.985 

0.9289 

14 

0.973 

0.977 

0.9239 

15 

0.967 

0.969 

0.9189 

16 

0.960 

0.962 

0.9139 

17 

0.954 

0.955 

0.9090 

18 

0.948 

0.948 

0.9042 

19 

0.942 

0.941 

0.8994 

20 

0.935 

0.934 

0.8947 

21 

0.929 

0.927 

0.8900 

22 

0.924 

0.920 

0.8854 

23 

0.918 

0.914 

0.8808 

24 

0.912 

0.908 

0.8762 

25 

0.906 

0.901 

0.8717 

26 

0.901 

0.895 

0.8673 

27 

0.895 

0.889 

0.8629 

28 

0.889 

0.883 

0.8585 

29 

0.884 

0.877 

a.8&42 

30 

0.879 

0.871 

0.8500 

31 

0.873 

0.865 

0.8457 

32 

0.868 

0.859 

0.8415 

33 

0.863 

0.853 

0.8374 

34 

0.858 

0.848 

0.8333 

35 

0.853 

0.842 

0.8292 

36 

0.848 

0.837 

0.8252 

37 

0.843 

0.831 

0.8212 

38 

0.838 

0.826 

0.8173 

39  ■ 

0.833 

0.820 

0.8133 

40 

0.829 

0.815 

0.8095 

41 

0.824 

0.810 

0.8061 

42 

0.819 

0.805 

0.8018 

43 

0.815 

0.800 

0.7981 

44 

0.810 
0.806 
0.801 
0.797 
0.792 
0.788 
0.784 
0.781 
0.776 
0.771 
0.769 
0.763 
0.759 
0.765 
0.751 
0.748 
0.744 
0.740 
0.736 

0.7944 

45 

0.7907 

46 

0.7871 

47 

0.7834 

48 

0.7799 

49 

0.7763 

50 

0.7727 

51 

0.7692 

52 

0.7658 

53 

0.7623 

54 

0.7589 

55 

0.7556 

56 

0.7522 

57 

0.7489 

58 

0.7456 

59 

0.7423 

60 

0.7391 

61 

0.7359 

62 

0.7328 

For  Liquids  Heavier  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 

Baum^. 

Beck. 

Baum^, 
Beck. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.000 

1.0000 

1 

1.007 

1.0059 

2 

1.014 

r.0119 

3 

1.020 

1.0180 

4 

1.028 

1.0241 

5 

1.034 

1.0303 

6 

1.041 

1.0366 

7 

1.049 

1.0429 

8 

1.057 

1.0494 

9 

1.064 

1.0559 

10 

1.072 

1.0625 

11 

1.080 

1.0692 

12 

1  088 

1.0759 

13 

1.096 

1.0828 

14 

1.104 

1.0897 

15 

1.113 

1.0968 

16 

1.121 

1.1039 

17 

1  130 

1.1111 

18 

1.138 

1.1184 

19 

1.147 

1.1258 

20 

1.157 

1  1333 

21 

1.166 

1.1409 

22 

1.176 

1.1486 

23 

1.185 

1.1565 

24 

1.195 

1 . 1644 

25 

1.205 

1.1724 

26 

1.215 

1.1806 

27 

1.225 

1.1888 

28 

1.235 

1.1972 

29 

1.245 

1.2057 

30 

1.256 

1.2143 

31 

1.267 

1.2230 

32 

1.278 

1.2319 

33 

1.289 

1.2409 

34 

1.300 

1.2500 

35 

1.312 

1.2593 

36 

1.324 

1.2680 

37 

1.337 

1.2782 

38 

•  1.349 

1.2879 

39 

1.361 

1.2977 

40 

1.375 

1.3077 

41 

1.388 

1.3178 

42 

1.401 

1.3281 

43 

1.414 

1.3386 

44 

1.428 

1.3492 

45 

1.442 

1.3600 

46 

1.456 

1.3710 

47 

1.470 

1.3821 

48 

1.485 

1.3934 

49 

1.500 

1.4050 

50 

1.515 

1.4167 

51 

1.531 

1.4286 

52 

1.546 

1.4407 

53   . 

1.562 

1.4530 

54   • 

1.578 

1.4655 

55 

1.596 

1.4783 

56 

1.615 

1.4912 

57 

1.634 

1.5044 

58 

1.653 

1.5179 

59 

1.671 

1.5315 

60 

1.690 

1.5454 

61 

1.709 

1.5596 

62 

1.729 

1.5741 

63 

1.750 

1.5888 

64 

1.771 

1.6038 

482 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


UNITS    OF    LOG   MEASURE. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  logs  are 
most  commonly  measured  in  board  feet. 
Firewood  and  wood  cut  into  short  bolts,  such 
as  small  pulpwood,  excelsior  wood,  etc.,  are 
usually  measured  in  cords.  In  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains  the  19-inch  standard,  or,  as 
it  is  often  called,  "the  market,"  is  a  common 
unit  of  lo^  measure.  In  some  localities  a  log 
22  inches  m  diameter  at  the  small  end  and  13 
feet  long  is  used  as  a  standard  log  and  is  the 
unit  for  Duying  and  selling  timber.  In  other 
sections  standards  are  used  which  are  based 
on  logs  12  feet  long  and  respectively  21, 22,  and 
24  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  inside 
the  bark. 

In  some  cases  logs  are  measured  in  cubic 
feet.  This  is  common  with  long  spar  tim- 
ber and  with  long  logs  to  be  cut  or  hewn 
square.  In  many  localities  timber  is  sold  by 
the  log  or  tree,  and  in  some  sections  standing 
timber  is  sold  for  a  specified  amount  per  acre 
or  other  unit  of  land  measure.  Piles  and 
mine  props  are  usually  sold  by  the  piece  or  by 
the  linear  foot.  Logs  are  occasionally  sold 
by  the  ton. 

BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  unit  of  board  measure  is  the  board 
foot,  which  is  the  contents  of  a  board  1  foot 
square  and  1  inch  thick.  The  number  of 
board  feet  which  can  be  sawed  from  logs  of 
different  diameters  and  lengths  is  shown  in 
log  rules. 

Logs  are  usuallv  measured  at  the  small 
end  inside  the  bark,  because  the  removal  of 
the  slabs  reduces  the  logs  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  small  end.  This  is  the  custom  in 
measuring  short  logs  by  all  the  rules  which 
are  used,  except  in  certain  cases.  Some  of  the 
rules,  for  exam|)le  the  Doyle  and  the  Par- 
tridge rules,  were  intended  by  their  origina- 
tors to  be  used  for  an  average  diameter,  but 
most  persons  who  use  them  take  the  diameter 
at  the  small  end,  except  in  case  of  long  tim- 
ber. In  measuring  long  logs  which  are  to  be 
cut  into  short  logs  before  being  sawed  into 
boards,  the  diameter  is  usually  not  taken  at 
the  small  end  alone.  Thus  in  using  the 
Maine  Rule,  long  logs  are  sealed  as  two  logs. 
The  diameter  at  the  small  end  inside  the  bark 
is  measured  and  is  taken  as  the  diameter  of 
the  uppermost  log.  The  diameter  at  the 
small  end  of  the  lower  log  is  estimated  by 
the  log-sealer.  Another  method  of  measur- 
ing long  logs,  often  used  with  the  Doyle  Rule, 
IS  to  take  the  diameters  at  both  ends  inside 
the  bark,  average  them,  and  use  this  average 
as  the  diameter  of  the  log.  Still  another 
method  in  use  is  to  take  the  diameter  inside 
the  bark,  one-third  the  distance  from  the 
small  end  of  the  log. 

Logs  are  usually  cut  from  2  to  6  inches 
longer  than  the  standard  lengths  of  boards, 
to  allow  for  bruising  in  handling.  This  addi- 
tional length  is  disregarded  in  scalTng. 

Log  rules  give  the  number  of  board  feet  in 
logs  which  are  straight  and  sound.  If  logs 
are  unsound  or  otherwise  defective,  a  certain 
allowance  must  be  made  by  the  scaler.  The 
determination  of  the  amount  in  board  feet 
which  should  be  deducted  for  unsoundness  or 
defects  in  a  given  log  requires  great  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  scaler,  and,  as  it  is  a  matter  of 
judgment  m  each  case,  no  definite  directions 
can  be  given. 


CORD  MEASURE. 

Firewood,  small  pulpwood,  and  material 
cut  into  short  sticks  for  excelsior,  etc.,  is  usu- 
ally measured  by  the  cord.  A  cord  is  128 
cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood.  The  wood  is 
usually  cut  into  4-foot  lengths,  in  w^hich  case 
a  cord  is  a  stack  4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long. 
Sometimes,  however,  pulpwood  is  cut  5  feet 
long,  and  a  stack  of  it  4  feet  high  and  8  feet 
long  is  considered  1  cord.  In  this  case  the 
cord  contains  160  cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood. 
In  localities  where  firewood  is  cut  in  5-foot 
lengths  a  cord  makes  a  stack  4  feet  high  and 
6^  feet  long,  and  contains  130  cubic  feet  of 
stacked  wood.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  use 
shorter  lengths  for  special  purposes,  the 
sticks  are  often  cut  H,  2,  and  even  3  feet  long. 
A  stack  of  such  wood,  4  feet  high  and  8  feet 
long,  is  considered  1  cord,  but  the  price  is 
always  made  to  conform  to  the  shortness  of 
the  measure. 

A  cord  foot  is  one-eighth  of  a  cord.  A  cord 
foot  is  a  stack  of  4-foot  wood  4  feet  high  and 
1  foot  long.  Farmers  frequently  speak  of  a 
foot  of  cord  wood,  meaning  a  cord  foot.  By 
the  expression  "surface  foot"  is  meant  the 
number  of  square  feet  measured  on  the  side 
of  a  stack. 

In  some  localities,  particularly  in  New 
England,  cord  wood  is  measured  by  means  of 
calipers.  Instead  of  stacking  the  wood  and 
computing  the  cords  in  the  ordinary  w^ay,  the 
average  diameter  of  each  log  is  determined 
with  calipers  and  the  number  of  cords  ob- 
tained by  consulting  a  table  which  gives  the 
amount  of  wood  in  logs  of  different  diameters 
and  lengths,  expressed  in  so-called  cylindrical 
feet.  A  cylindrical  foot  is  one  one-hundred 
and  twenty-eighth  of  a  cord.  A  better  term 
would  be  "stacked  cubic  foot,"  as  it  repre- 
sents a  cubic  foot  of  stacked  wood,  as  opposed 
to  a  cubic  foot  of  solid  wood.  The  number  of 
cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic  feet  in  a  log  is 
computed  by  squaring  the  average  diameter 
of  the  log  in  inches,  multiplying  by  the  length 
of  the  log  in  feet,  and  dividing  the  result  by 
144. 

Some  tables  give  the  results  in  feet  and 
inches  (cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic,  not 
linear  feet). 

A  special  caliper  rule  for  measuring  cord 
wood  has  been  made  by  Mr.  John  Humphrey, 
of  Keene,  N.  H.  Instead  of  considering  a 
cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic  foot  equivalent  to 
one  one-hundred  and  twenty-eighth  of  a  cord, 
he  has  assumed  it  to  be  equivalent  to  one  one- 
hundredth  of  a  cord.  In  either  case  the 
cylindrical  or  stacke<l  cubic  foot  is  a  purely 
arbitrary  unit  and  the  final  results  in  cords  are 
the  same. 

The  mimber  of  cylindrical  or  stacked 
cubic  feet  in  the  different  logs  is  determinetl 
by  means  of  calipers  and  reference  to  a 
table,  or  by  means  of  the  calipers  alone  if  t  he 
results  are  inscribed  directly  upon  them. 
The  total  number  of  cylindrical  or  stacked 
cubic  feet  is  then  divided  by  128. 

CONVERSION  OF  CORD  MEASURE 

INTO  CUBIC  MEASURE. 

Dealers  in  wood  frequently  wish  to  convert 
cord  measure  into  cubic  measure,  and  vice 
versa.  The  converting  factor  used  depends 
primarily  on  the  form  of  the  wood.  If  the 
wood  is  split,  there  is  more  solid  contents 
in    a  stacked  wrd    than   if   the  wood   is   in 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


483 


round  sticks.  There  is  more  wood  in  a 
given  stack  if  the  sticks  are  smooth  and 
straight  than  if  they  are  rough  and  crooked. 
The  convertmg  factor  depends,  further,  on 
the  character  of  the  stacking.  If  the  wood  is 
skillfully  stacked  there  is  more  solid  contents 
than  when  the  work  is  poorly  done.  It  has 
been  found  in  Europe  through  a  series  of  care- 
ful measurements  that  a  stack  of  wood  may 
be  reduced  to  solid  cubic  measure  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  the  follow- 
ing factors: 


For  split  firewood 

For  small  roimd  firewood. 


0.7 
.6 


Thus,  a  cord  of  split  firewood  is  equivalent 
to  128  cubic  feet  multiplied  by  0.7,  which 
equals  89.6  cubic  feet.  To  convert  a  given 
number  of  cords  into  solid  cubic  feet,  multi- 
ply by  128  and  then  multiply  the  product  by 
0.7  or  0.6,  according  as  the  wood  is  split  or 
consists  of  small  round  sticks;  or  multiply 
directly  by  89.6. 

To  convert  a  given  number  of  solid  cubic 
feet  into  cords,  divide  by  128  and  then  divide 
the  result  by  0.7  or  0.6,  according  to  the  form 
of  the  wood;  or  diyide  directly  by  89.6.  If 
the  stacking  is  very  poor  or  if  the  wood  is 
rough  and  crooked,  the  figures  must  be  modi- 
fied. 

No  rule  can  be  given  for  converting  cord 
measure  into  board  measure.  Lumbermen 
assign  to  a  cord  of  wood  values  varying  from 
600  to  1,000  board  feet.  So  much  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  wood,  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  to  be  used,  the  method  of  piling, 
etc.,  that  no  constant  converting  factor  can  be 
given. 

Bark  is  piled  in  stacks  and  measured  in  the 
same  way  as  firewood. 

CONVERSION  OF  CUBIC  MEASURE 
INTO  BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  ratio  between  the  number  of  board  feet 
and  cubic  feet  in  logs  depends  on  the  species 
of  tree,  on  the  size  of  the  logs,  and  on  the 
method  of  scaling.  The  ratio  for  standing 
trees  depends,  further,  on  the  minimum  size 
of  the  merchantable  log.  For  example,  the 
ratio  would  be  different,  if  4  logs  were  cut 
from  a  tree,  from  the  result  if  only  3  logs  were 
taken.  Satisfactory  figures  can,  therefore, 
be  obtained  only  by  comparing  the  scales  of 
logs  and  trees  actually  measured  in  the  woods. 
Such  tables  are  now  being  prepared  by  the 
Bureau  of  Forestry  for  different  species  in 
different  regions. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  SAWED  LUMBER- 
BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  superficial  measure  of  inch  boards  is 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  width  in  inches 
by  the  length  m  feet  and  dividing  by  12.  Ta- 
bles showing  the  contents  of  boards  of  differ- 
ent widths  and  lengths  are  published  in  prac- 
tically every  lumberman's  ready  reckoner,  of 
which  there  are  many  on  the  market. 

The  contents  of  boards  thicker  than  1  inch 
are  obtained  by  multipl>nng  the  width  in 
inches  by  the  thickness  in  inches  and  the 
product  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  then  divid- 
ing by  12, — The  Woodman*8  Handbook. 


HARDNESS  OF  MINERALS: 
Talc 


Rock  Salt,  r  Scratched  by  finger  nail. 
Calcite 

'  Scratched  by  a  knife  blade. 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4.  Fluor 

5.  Apatite 

6.  Orthoclase 

7.  Quartz 

8.  Topaz 

9.  Corundum 
10.  Diamond 


May      be      roughly 
guished  by  a  file. 


distin- 


HEAT— ITS    MECHANICAL 
EQUIVALENT. 

Heat  is  a  peculiar  motion  of  the  particles  of 
matter  whicn  prevents  their  contact.  Heat 
and  mechanical  power  are  convertible  forms 
of  energy.  The  energy  of  the  heat  that 
raises  one  pound  of  water  1°  F.  will  lift  a 
weight  of  778  lbs.  one  foot.  The  power  of 
a  weight  of  778  lbs.  descending  one  foot,  if 
applied  to  a  small  paddle  wheel  turning  in 
one  pound  of  water,  will,  by  friction,  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  water  1°  F. 

A  heat-unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  that  raises 
a  pound  of  water  1**  F.,  or  that  lifts  a  weight 
of  778  lbs.  one  foot. 

The  mechanical  equivalent  of  a  heat-unit  is 
the  power  of  a  weight  of  778  lbs.  descending 
one  foot,  or  of  a  one-pound  weight  descending 
778  feet.     Hence, 

778  foot-pounds  =     1  heat-unit. 
1  heat-unit      =  778  foot-pounds. 

A  galvanic  battery  that  produces  an  elec- 
trical current  capable  of  heating  one  pound  of 
water  1°  F.,  will  yield  magnetic  force  suffi- 
cient to  raise  a  weight  of  778  lbs.  one  foot 
high. 

Thus  heat,  electricity,  magnetism,  and 
chemical  force  are  brought  into  numerical 
correlation  with  mechanical  power. 

The  illustrious  philosopher,  Dr.  J.  P.  Joule, 
of  Manchester,  England,  first  measured  accu- 
rately the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat, 
A.D.  1845. 

Heat  of  Metals. — A  metal  is  an  element 
possessing  a  luster,  and  the  higher  oxides  of 
which  only  are  acid-forming  compounds. 
Metals  have  the  following  properties:  A  spe- 
cific gravity  usually  greater  than  one.  The 
specific  heat  is  less  than  unity,  and  this  heat 
varies  inversely  as  the  atomic  weight  of  that 
element.  The  conductivity  of  the  metals  is 
greater  than  that  of  either  the  non-metals  or 
their  compounds. 

The  influence  of  heat  upon  metals  is  very 
varied;  some  melt  at  a  low  temperature, 
others  require  a  red  heat,  a  strong  red,  or  a 
white  heat  respectively,  to  melt  them.  The 
following  table,  by  Pouillet,  will  explain  the 
temperatures  corresponding  to  different  colors : 


Heat  Color. 


Corresponds  to 


Incipient  red  heat.  . 

Dull  red 

Incipient  cherry  red 

Cherry  red 

Clear  cherry  red. .  . . 

Deep  orange 

Clear  orange 

White 

Bright  white 

Dazzling  white 


525°  C. 

977°  F. 

700 

1,292 

800 

1,472 

900 

1,652 

1,000 

1.832 

1,100 

2,012 

1,200 

2.192 

1,300 

2,372 

1,400 

2,552 

1,500 

2,732 

484 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STEAM    PRESSURE    AND    TEMPERATURE. 


Pressure 

Corresponding 

Pressure 

Corresponding 

Pressure 

Corresponding 

in  Lbs.  per 

Temperature, 

in  Lbe.  per 

Temperature, 

in  Lbs.  per 

Temperature, 

Sq.  In. 

Fahrenheit. 

Sq.  In. 

Fahrenheit. 

Sq.  In. 

Fahrenheit. 

10 

192.4 

65 

301.3 

140 

357.9 

15 

212.8 

70 

306.4 

150 

363.4 

20 

228.5 

75 

311.2 

160 

368.7 

25 

241.0 

80 

315.8 

170 

373.6 

30 

251.6 

85 

320.1 

180 

378.4 

35 

260.9 

90 

324.3 

190 

382.9 

40 

209.1 

95 

328.2 

200 

387.3 

45 

276.4 

100 

332.0 

210 

391.5 

50 

283.2 

110 

339.2 

220 

395.5 

55 

2S9.3 

120 

345.8 

230 

399.4 

60 

295.6 

130 

352.1 

240 

403.1 

TABLE    OF    TEMPERATURE. 


Degree  of  Fahr, 

2,786 

1,996 

1,947 

1,873 

1,750 

1,000 

980 

941 

773 

644 

640 

630. 

617 

600 

518 

442 

380 

356 

315 

302 

257 

256 

239 

238 

221 

220 

218 

216 

214 

213  or  (213.5). 
212 


Cast  iron  melts  (Daniell). 
Copper  melts  (Daniell). 
Gold  melts. 
Silver  melts  (Daniell). 
Brass    (containing    25%    of 

zinc)  melts  (Daniell). 
Iron,  bright  cherry  rea  (Poil- 

let). 
Red  heat,  visible  in  daylight 

(Daniell). 
Zinc  begins  to  bum  (Daniell). 
Zinc  melts  (Daniell). 
Mercury  boils  (Daniell),  662 

(Graham). 
Sulphuric    acid     boils   (Ma- 

grignac),  620  (Graham). 
Whale  oil  boils  (Graham). 
Pure  lead  melts  (Rudberg). 
Linseed  oil  boils. 
Bismuth  melts  (Gmelin). 
Tin  melts  (Crichton). 
Arsenious  acid  volatilizes. 
Metallic  arsenic  sublimes. 
Oil      of      turpentine      boils 

(Kaure). 
Etherification  ends. 
Saturated  sol.  of  sal  ammo- 
niac boils  (Taylor). 
Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  of 

sod  fL  Doil  s 
Sulohur  melts   (Miller),   226 

(Fownes). 
Saturated  sol.  of  nitre  boils. 
Saturated  sol.   of  salt  boils 

(Paris  Codex). 
Saturated  sol.  of  alum,  carb. 

soda,  and  sulph.  zinc,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  chlorate  and 

prussiate  potash,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  sulph.  iron, 

sulph.    copper,   nitrate  of 

lead,  boil. 
Saturated     sol.     of    acetate 

lead,     sulph.     and     bitar- 

trate  potash,  boil. 
Water    begins     to     boil    in 

glass. 
Water  boils  in  metal,  barom- 
eter at  SO"". 


Degree  of  Fahr. 

211 Alloy  of  6  bismuth,  3  tin,  2 

lead,  melts. 

201 Alloy  of  8  bismuth.  5  lead,  3 

tin,  melts  (Kane). 

207 Sodium  melts  (Regioault). 

185 Nitric  acid  1.52  begins  to  boil. 

180  (about). . .  Starch   forms    a    gelatinous 

compoimd  with  water. 

176 Rectified  spirit  boils,  benzol 

distils. 

173. Alcohol  (sp.  gr.  .796  to  .800) 

boils. 

151 Beeswax  melts  (Kane),   142 

(Lepage). 
150 Pjrroxylic  spirit  boils  (Scan- 
Ian). 
145 White  of  egg  begins  to  coag- 
ulate. 

141.8 Chloroform,  and  anomonia  of 

.945,  boil. 

132 Acetone    (pyroacetic    spirit) 

boil^  (Kane). 

122 Mutton    suet    and    styracin 

melt. 

116 Bisulphuret  of  carbon   boils 

(Graham). 

115 Pure  tallow  melts  (Lepage), 

92  (Thomson). 

112 Spermaceti    and    stearin    of 

lard  melt. 

Ill Phosphorus  melts  (Miller). 

98 Temperature  of  the  blood. 

95 Ether  (.720)  boUs. 

95 Carbolic    acid    crystals     be- 
come an  oily  liquid. 

88 Acetous  fermentation  ceases, 

water  boils  in  vacuo. 

77 Vinous  ferm.   ends,   acetous 

ferm.  begins. 

64.4 Oil  of  anise  liquefies. 

59 Gay      Lussac's      Alcoomktre 

graduated  at. 

55 Sirups  to  be  kept  at. 

30  (about).  . .   Olive   oil  becomes  partially 
solid. 

32 Water  freezes. 

5 Cold    produced   by   snoMr    2 

parts  and  salt  1  part. 
—37.9 Mercury  freezes. 

— Cooley. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


485 


LINEAR   EXPANSION  OF  SOLIDS   AT  ORDINARY  TEMPERATURES. 


Substance. 

Forl^Fahr. 

For  l**  Cent. 

Length  =  1. 

Length  =  1. 

Aluminium  (c4st). . .  . 

.00001234 

.00002221 

Antimony  (cryst.)  .  .. 

.00000627 

.00001129 

Brass,  cast 

.00000957 

.00001722 

"      English  plate. 

.00001052 

.00001894 

'*      sheet 

.00001040 

.00001872 

Brick,  best  stock.  . . . 

.00000310 

.00000550 

Bronze  (Baily's).  .  .  . 

•V 

Copper,  17 

Tin,  2i 

-.00000986 

.00001774 

Zinc,  1 

•  < 

.00000975 
.00000797 

.00001755 

Cement,  Roman,  dry. 

.00001435 

Cement,  Portland 

(mixed),  pure 

.00000594 

.00001070 

Cement,       Portland, 

mortar,  with  sand.. 

.00000656 

.00001180 

Concrete:         cement 

mortar  and  pebbles 

.00000795 

.00001430 

Copper 

.00000887 

.00001596 

Ebonite 

.00004278 
.00000451 

.00007700 

Glass,  English  flint.. 

.00000812 

'*     French  flint. .  . 

.00000484 

.00000872 

'•     white,    free 

from  lead. ,  . 

.00000492 

.00000886 

*'     blown 

.00000498 

.00000896 

.  **     thermometer  .. 

.00000499 

.00000897 

••     hard 

.00000397 
.00000438 

.00000714 

Granite,  gray,  dry. .  . 

.00000789 

••       red      "... 

.00000498 

.00000897 

Gold,  pure 

.00000786 

.00001415 

Iridium,  pure 

.00000356 

.00000641 

Iron,  wrought 

.00000648 

.00001166 

**    Swedish 

.00000636 

.00001145 

*  •    cast 

.00000556 
.00000626 
.00001571 
.00000663 

.00001001 

"    soft 

.00001126 

Lead 

.00002828 

Marble,  moist 

.00001193 

dry 

.00000363 

.00000654 

"       white  Sicil- 

ian, dry. .  . 

.00000786 

.00001415 

Marble,  black  Galway 

.00000308 

.00000554 

* '       Carrara 

.00000471 

.00000848 

Masonry,  of  brick  in 

cement     mortar : 

headers 

.00000494 

.00000890 

Substance. 


Masonry,  of  brick  in 
cement  mortar: 
stretchers 

Mercury  (cubic  ex- 
pansion)  

Nickel 

Osmium 

Palladium,  pure 

Pewter 

Plaster,  white 

Platinum 

Platinum,  90  per  cent. 
Iridium,      10      per 

cent 

hammered  and  an 
neale(i 

Platinum,      85      per 

cent 

Iridium,      15     per 
cent 

Porcelain 

Quartz,  parallel  to 
major  axis,  f  0°  to 
40°  C 

Quartz,  perpendicu- 
lar to  major  axis,  t 
0°  to  40«»  C 

Quartz,  cubic  expan- 
sion at  16°  C 

Silver,  pure 

Slate 

Steel,  cast 

*  *     tempered 

Stone  (sandstone), 
dry 

Stone  (sandstone), 
Rauville 

Stone  (sandstone), 
Caen 

Tin 

Wedgwood  ware 

Wood,  pine 

Zinc 

Zinc,  8 

Tin,  1 


ForTFahr. 


Length  =  1. 


.00000256 

.00009984 
.00000695 
.00000317 
.00000556 
.00001129 
.00000922 
.00000479 

1 

I 

K00000476 


.00000453 


.00000200 


.00000434 


.00000788 

.00001924 
.00001079 
.C0000577 
.00000636 
.00000689 

.00000652 

.00000417 

.00000494 
.00001163 
.00000489 
.00000276 
.00001407 

.00001496 


For  1°  Cent. 


Length  »  1. 


.00000460 

.00017971 
.00001251 
.00000570 
.00001000 
.00002033 
.00001660 
.00000863 


.00000857 

.00000815 
.00000360 

.00000781 

.00001419 

.00003463 
.00001943 
.00001038 
.00001144 
.00001240 

.00001174 

.00000750 

.00000890 
.00002094 
.00000881 
.00000496 
.00002532 

.00002692 


— Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


EXPANSION   OF   LIQUIDS. 

The  cubical  expansion,  or  expansion  of  vol- 
ume, of  water,  from  32°  F.  to  212°  F.  and  up- 
wards, is  given  in  the  following  Table.  The 
rate  of  expansion  increases  with  the  tempera- 
ture. The  expansion  for  the  range  of  tem- 
perature from  32°  to  212°  is  .0466,  or  fully  4^^ 
per  cent,  of  the  volume  at  32°;  or  an  average 
of  .000259  per  degree,  or  3^  part  of  the  vol- 
iraie  at  32°  F. 

Expansion  of  Liquids  from  32°  to  212°  F. 
Volume  at  32°  =  1. 


Liquid. 


Alcohol.  .  . 
Nitric  acid. 
Olive  oil.  .  . 
Turpentine 
Sea  water. 
Water.  .  . . 
Mercury. . . 


Volume 
at  212°. 


1.1100 
1.1100 
1.0800 
1.0700 
1.0500 
1.0466 
1.018 


Friction. — The  ratio  obtained  by  dividing 
the  entire  force  of  friction  by  the  normal  pres- 
sure is  called  the  coefficient  of  friction.  The 
unit  or  coefficient  of  friction  is  the  friction 
due  to  a  normal  pressure  of  one  pound: 

Iron  on  oak 0. 62 

Cast  iron  on  oak 0 .  49 

Oak  on  oak,  fibres  parallel 0.48 

Oak  on  oak,  greased 0. 10 

Cast  iron  on  cast  iron 0.15 

Wrought  iron  on  wrought  iron.  .  .  0. 14 

Brass  on  iron 0. 16 

Brass  on  brass 0 .  20 

Wrought  iron  on  cast  iron 0. 19 

Cast  iron  on  elm 0 .  19 

Soft  limestone  on  the  same 0 .  64 

Hard  limestone  on  the  same.  ...   0 .  38 

Leather  belts  on  wooden  pulleys .   0 .  47 

Leather  belts  on  cast-iron  pulleys  0.28 

Cast  iron  on  cast  iron,  greased.  . .   0. 10 

Pivots  or  axes  of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  on 

brass  or  cast-iron  pillows: 

First,  when  constantly  supplied  with  oil .   0 .  05 

Second,when  greased  from  time  to  time.  0.08 

Third,  without  any  application 0. 15 


486 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 
METALS. 


Name  of  Metal. 


Aluminum  wire 

Brass  wire,  hard  drawn 

Bronze.phosphor.hard  drawn 

"      silicon 
Copper  wire,  hard  drawn.  .  . . 

Gold  *  wire 

Iron,  t  cast 


wire,  hard  drawn. 
*  *      annealed. . . 


Lead,  cast  or  drawn . . . . 

Palladium  * 

Platinum  *  wire 

Silver  *  wire 

Steel,  mild,  hard  drawn. 
••     hard      "        **     . 

Tin,  cast  or  drawn 

Zinc,  cast 

drawn 


Tensile 
Strength  in 
Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 


30.000-40.000 

50,000-150.000 

110.000-140.000 

95.000-115,000 

60,000-70.000 

38,000-41.000 

13,000-29.000 

80,000-120,000 

50,000-60,000 

2.600-3,300 

39,000 

50,000 

42.000 

100,000-200,000 

150.000-330,000 

4,000-5,000 

7,000-13,000 

22,000-30,000 


STONES  AND  BRICKS. 


Name  of  Substance. 


Basalt 

Brick,  soft.  . .  . 

"     hard.... 

••      vitrified 

Granite 

Limestone;  .  .  . 

Marble 

Sandstone.  .  .  . 
Slate 


Resistance  to 

Crushing  in 

Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 


18.000-27,000 
300-1,500 
1,500-5,000 
9,000-26,000 

17,000-26,000 
4,000-9,000 
9,000-22,000 
4,500-8,000 

11,000-30,000 


Name  of  Wood 

Tensile 

Strength 

in  Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 

Resistance  to 

Crushing  in 

Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 

Ash 

11,000-21,000 
11,000-18,000 
12,000-18,000 
10,000-13,000 
12,000-18,000 
10,000-16,000 
15,000-25,000 
8,000-12,000 
8,000-14.000 
15,000-20,000 
13,000-18,000 
12,000-16,000 
20,000-25,000 
10,000-15,000 
8,000-14,000 

6,000-9.000 

Beech 

Birch 

Chestnut 

Elm 

9,000-10,000 
5,000-7,000 
4,000-6.000 
6,000-10,000 

Hackberry.  .  .. 

Hickory 

Maple 

Mulberry 

Oak,  burr.  .  .  . 

••    red 

•  *    water.  ,  . 

"    white.  -  . 

Poplar 

Walnut 

7,000-12,000 
6,000-8,000 

7,000-10,000 

5,0OO-7.0C0 

4,000-6,000 

6,000-9,000 

5,000-8,000 

4,000-8,000 

*  On  the  authority  of  Wertheim. 

t  The  crushing  strenj^h  of  cast  iron  is  from 
5.5  to  6.5  times  the  tensile  strength. 

Notes. — According  to  Boys,  quartz  fibers 
have  a  tensile  strength  of  between  116,000  and 
167.000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

leather  belting  of  single  thickness  bears 
from  400  to  1,000  pounds  per  inch  of  its 
bresidth.  — Smithsonian  Tables. 


WATER. 

1  U.  S.  gallon  equals  231  cubic  inches;  .1337 
cubic  foot;  8.333  pounds  of  water  at  62°  F.; 
3.786  liters. 

1  cubic  inch  of  water  at  62**  F.  equals  .03608 
pound;  .5773  ounce;  252.6  grains;  .004326 
U.  S.  gallon;    .01638  liter. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  at  62**  F.  equals 
62.355  pounds;  997.68  otmces  (about  1000); 
.557  cwt.  (of  112  pounds);  .0278  long  ton; 
7.4805  U.  S.  gallons;  28.315  liters;  .02832 
cubic  meter. 

1  cylindrical  inch  of  water  at  62**  F.  equals 
.02833  pound;   .4533  ounce;   .7854  cubic  inch. 

1  cylindrical  foot  of  water  at  62**  F.  equals 
48.973  pounds  (about  50);  783.57  ounces; 
.437  cwt.  (of  112  pounds);  .0219  long  ton; 
5.8758  U.  8.  gallons;  22.2380  liters;  .02224 
cubic  meter. 

1  cubic  yard  of  water  equals  1,684.8  pounds ; 
15.043  cwt.  (of  112  pounds),  or  15  cwt.  4.8 
pounds;   .7645  cubic  meter. 

1  liter  of  water  equals  2.2046  pounds  at 
62°  F. ;  .2641  U.  S.  gallon;  61.025  cubic  inches; 
.0353  cubic  foot. 

1  cubic  meter  of  water  equals  1  metric  ton, 
or  1.000  kilograms  at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C. ;  2,204.62 
pounds  at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C;  2,203.7  pounds  at 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  1  ton  of  2,240 
pounds,  nearly;  1  tun  of  4  hogsheads,  or  2,100 
pounds,  nearly;  264.2  U.  S.  gallons;  1.308 
cubic  yards;   35.3156  cubic  feet;  1,000  liters. 

The  weif;ht  of  fresh  water  is  conunonly 
assumed,  m  ordinary  calculations,  to  l>e 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  the 
weight  at  52.3°  F.  It  is  frequently  taken 
as  62i  pounds  or  1 ,000  ounces  per  cubic  foot. 

The  volumes  of  given  weights  of  water, 
at  the  rate  of  62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
are  as  follows: 

1  ton  (long),  35.90  cubic  feet  (about  36); 
1  cwt.  (of  112  pounds),  1.795  cubic  feet;  1 
pound,  .016  cubic  feet  or  27.692  cubic  inches ; 
1  ounce.  1.731  cubic  inches;  1  metric  ton,  at 
39.1°  F.  or  4°  C.  35.3156  cubic  feet;  1  kHo- 
gram,  at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C,  .0353  cubic  feet  or 
61.025  cubic  inches;  1  metric  ton,  at  52.3°  F. 
(62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot),  35.330  cubic  feet. 

A  pipe  1  yard  in  length  holds  about  as 
many  pounds  of  water  at  ordinary  temr»era- 
tures  as  the  square  of  its  diameter  in  inches 
(about  two  per  cent.  more). 

A  column  of  water  at  62i°  F.,  1  foot,  high, 
is  equivalent  to  a  pressure  of  .433  pound  or 
6.928  ounces  per  square  inch  of  base;  or  to 
62.355  pounds  per  square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  1  inch  high  is  equivalent 
to  a  pressure  of  .5773  ounce  or  .03608  pound 
per  square  inch;  or  to  5.196  poimas  per 
square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  100  feet  high  is  equiva- 
lent to  43i  pounds  per  square  inch;  or  2.786 
tons  per  square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  1  mile  deep,  weighing 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  equivalent  to 
a  pressure  of  about  1  ton  per  square  inch. 

1  pound  per  square  inch  is  equivalent  to  a 
column  of  water  at  62°  F.  2.31  feet  or  27.72 
inches  high. 

SEA  WATER. 

1  cubic  foot  at  62°  F.,  64  pounds;  1  cubic 
yard,  15^^  cwt.,  nearly  (8  pounds  less);  1  cubic 
meter.  1  long  ton,  fully  (20  pounds  more); 
1  ton,  35  cubic  feet. 

Ratio  of  weight  of  fresh  water  to  that  of 
sea  water,  39  to  40,  or  1  to  1.028. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


487 


ICE  AND  SNOW. 

1  cubic  foot  of  ice  at  32*  F.,  57.50  pounds; 
1  pound  of  ice  at  32®  F.,  .0174  cubic  foot,  or 
30.067  cubic  inches;  specific  density  of  ice, 
.922;  that  of  water  at  62°  F.  being  1. 

AIR. 

1  cubic  foot,  at  14.7  lbs.  per  square  inch 
or  1  atmosphere,  equals  .080728  lb.  at  32°  F. 
1.29  ounce  at  32?  F.;  565.1  grains  at  32°  F. 
.076097  lb.  at  62°  F. ;  1.217  ounce  at  62°  F. 
532.7  grains  at  62°  F. 

1  liter,  under  1  atmosphere,  equab  1.293 
grams  at  32°  F. ;    19.955  grains  at  32°  F. 

1  lb.  of  air  at  62°  F.  equals  13.141  cubic  feet. 

The  weights  of  equal  volumes  of  mercury, 
wat«r,  and  air,  at  62°  F.  under  1  atmosphere, 
are  as  11,140.56,  819.4,  and  1. 

1  atmosphere  of  pressure  equals  14.7  lbs. 

f>er  square  inch;  2,116.4  lbs.  per  square 
oot;  1.0335  kilograms  per  square  centi- 
meter; 29.922  inches  of  mercury  at  32°  F.; 
76  centimeters  of  mercury  at  32°  F. ;  30  inches 
of  mercunr  at  62°  F. ;  33.947  feet  of  water  at 
62°  F. ;    10.347  meters  of  water  at  62°  F. 

1  lb.  per  square  inch  equals  2.035  inches  of 
mercury  at  32°  F. ;  51.7  millimeters  of  mercury 
at  32°  F.;  2.04  inches  of  mercury  at  62°  F. : 
2.31  feet  of  water  at  62°  F. ;  27.72  inches  of 
water  at  62°  F. 

1  ounce  per  square  inch  equals  1.732  inches 
of  water  at  62°  F. 

1  lb.  per  square  foot  equals  .1925  inch  of 
water  at  62°  F.;  .01417  inch  of  mercury  at 
62^  F. 

STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 

Ice  2  in.  thick  will  bear  infantry. 

Ice  4  in.  thick  will  bear  cavalry  or  light 
guns. 

Ice  6  in.  thick  will  bear  heavy  field  guns. 

Ice  8  in.  thick  will  bear  24-pounder  guns  on 
sledges;  weight  not  over  1,000  lbs.  to  a  square 
foot. 

WEIGHT  OF  BALLS. 


W  = 


D^+QO 


D^'i/'WxC-OO. 

When  D  =  diameter  of  ball  in  inches ; 
W  =  weight  of  ball  in  Iba. ; 
C=   aconstant  =  733  for  cast  iron; 
—  464  for  lead ; 
=  595  for  copper; 
=  635  for  brass. 
or, 

W  =  D^XC; 

D  ^^WXC. 

When  C =a  constant  =  0.1364  for  cast  iron ; 

=0.2155  for  lead; 
=  0.168  for  copper; 
=  0.1574  for  brass. 

Weight  of  cast-iron  balls. 

To  find  nominal  horse-power  of  boiler  required 
for  direct-acting  steam-pumps. 

xrzjTt     /)^  — the  last  figure 
NHP= 2 • 

When   iVHP  =  nominal  horse-power; 

i>  — diameter  of  steam  cylinder 
in  inches. 


1  in.  in 

I        t  4     «  « 


1 
1 

1 
1 

1 


1 


PIPES. 

Usual  inclination  of  pipes. 

12  ft.  =  minimum    fall    for    house 

drains ; 
16  **  =  minimum      fall     for     land 

drains ; 
40  **  =  minim imi  fall  for  sub-drains 

for  houses; 
100"  =  minimum     fall     for     main 

drains  for  houses ; 
150  '  *  =-f  all  of  mountain  torrents ; 
230  '  •  =   *  *  *  *  rivers  and  rapid  cur- 
rents; 
280  '  *  =fall  of  strong  currents; 
340  **  =   '*  **  ordinary   rivers   with 

food  current;^ 
of  windin|;  rivers  subject 
to  inundations  with  slow 
current ; 
480  '*  =fall  of  water  channels,  sup- 
ply pipes  to  reservoirs  and 
small  canals; 
1    •  •  •  *     570  ••=  fall  of  large  canals ; 
1    **  *•  1,000  *•  =very  slow  current,  approach- 
ing  to   stagnant  water. 

Discharge  through  pipes. 

Discharge  in  24  hours  divided  by  1,440  = 
discharge  per  min.;  discharge  in  cubic  feet 
per  minute  X  9,000= imperial  gallons  per  day 
of  24  hours;  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute X 1 1 ,000  =  U.  S.  gallons  per  day  of  24  hours ; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  2.2  =  cubic 
yards  per  minute;  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per 
second X 6.24= imperial  gallons  per  second; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  7.48  = 
U.  S.  gallons  per  second;  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second X  133  =  cubic  yards  per  hour; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  375  =  im- 
perial gallons  per  minute;  discharge  in  cubic 
leet  per  second  X  450  =  U.  S.  gallons  per  min- 
ute; discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  2,400 
=long  tons  per  day  of  24  hours;  discharge  in 
cubic  feet  per  second  X  2,700  =  short  tons  per 
day  of  24  hours;  velocity  in  feet  per  second X 
0.68  =  mile  per  hour;  velocity  in  feet  per  sec- 
ond X  60=  feet  per  minute;  velocity  in  feet 
Eer  second  X  20  =  yards  per  minute;  pressure 
ead  of  water  in  feet  =  pressure  of  water  in  Iba. 
per  square  foot  X  0.01 6;  pressure  of  water  in 
lbs.  per  square  foot  =  head  in  feet  X  62.32. 

ANIMAL  POWER— HORSE. 
A  horse  walking  in  a  circle  at  a  speed  of  176 
feet  per  minute  will  raise  with  a  common 
deep-well  pump — 
4  h.  per  day  1,653  gals,  per  min. ;  1  ft.  high. 

R   <<  <<  <>         1    4QA       <<  <<  >(  (<     (i  ti 

6  "     ••      ••     1*350    ••        *•       " 

g    ««  •«  ««         1    ^AA       •«  ii  •«  <(     ti  It 

10  "     "      "     li040    "        *•       "      ••  ••      ♦• 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  8 
hours  a  day  on  a  well-made  road  and  walking 
at  a  rate  of  2^-  miles  per  hour,  150  lbs. 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  a 
lift  or  horse-run  with  intervals  of  rest  between 
each  movement,  the  day's  work  not  to  exceed 
6  hours,  300  lbs. 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  in 
a  circle  of  30  feet  diameter  in  working  a  mill 
for  8  hours  per  day  at  a  pace  of  2  nules  per 
hour,  100  lbs. 

A  horse  can  exert  a  force  horizontally  at 
a  dead  pull,  400  lbs. 

A  horse  can  carry  on  his  back  a  distance 
of  20  miles  per  day  on  a  well-made  road, 
without  overexertion,  from  250  to  300  lbs. 


488 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  horae-power  adopted  as  a  unit  in  esti- 
mating the  force  of  a  steam-engine » 33,000 
lbs.  raised  1  foot  high  in  1  minute,  an  amount 
of  force  which  few  horses  could  perform  for 
any  length  of  time. 

MANUAL  POWER. 
Duration  of  work  —  1  day  of  8  to  10  hours. 


Description  of  Work 


Lifting  weights  by 
hand  breast  high  . 

liaising  water  from  a 
well  by  a  bucket 
and  rope 

Lifting  a  weight  by 
a  rope  and  over- 
head tackle 

Working  a  hand 
pump 

Drawing  a  canal 
boat 

Working  a  ship's 
capstan 

Turning  the  crank  of 
a  winch 

Rowing  a  boat 


Mean 
Effect 

in 
Lbs. 

Veloc- 
■  ity  in 

Feet 

per 
Mmute. 

40 

25 

30 

35 

40 

30 

30 

60 

12 

160 

25 

100 

.   15 
40 

200 
80 

Lbs. 

Raised 

IFoot 

High 

per 
Minute. 


1,000 

1,050 

1,200 

1,800 

1,920 

2,500 

3,000 
3,200 


The  efforts  in  the  above  table,  although  ex- 
tending over  8  or  10  hours,  exclusive  of  meal- 
times, per  day,  are  not  altogether  continuous, 
but  include  the  usual  intervals  of  rest  or 
diminished  exertion  peculiar  to  each  class 
of  work. 

WINDMILLS. 
To  find  the  horse-power  of  a  wind-engine. 

I.IOO.OOO" 
When    //P  =  effective  horse-power; 

A  =area  of  sails  in  square  feet; 
V'  =  velocity  of  the  wind  in  feet 
per  second. 
To  find  the  area  of  sails  required  for  a  given 
horse-power. 
^      //PX  1,100.000 

A-  y^ 

The  best  effect  is  obtained  when  the  total 
surface  of  the  sails  presented  to  the  wind  does 
not  cover  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  surface 
of  the  whole  disk  described  by  the  radial  arms 
or  whips. 

To  find  the  force  of  wind. 
P  =  0.002288  rz; 
P  =  0.00422  Vi2; 
P^  0.0023  V2  X  sinX. 
W^hen  P  =  pressure  in  lbs.  per  square  foot; 
V  =  velocity  in  feet  per  second ; 
V]  =  velocity  in  miles  per  hour ; 
X  =  angle  of  incidence  of  direction  of 
the  wind  with  the  plane  of  the 
surface  when  it  is  oblique. 
To  find  the  angle  of  the  sails. 

When  a  —angle  of  the  sail  with  the  plane  of 

motion  at  any  part  of  the  sail; 

D-=  distance  of  any  part  of  the  sail 

from  the  axis  in  feet ; 
i2  ==  total  radius  of  sail  in  feet. 


To  find  angle  of  shaft  with  horizon. 
a  «»  8  degrees  on  level  ground ; 
=  15  degrees  on  high  ground. 
To  find  breadth  of  whip. 

B  -HoW^; 
D  "HoW; 
Bi  =HoW; 

When  W  —  length  of  whip  in  feet ; 

Wx  =*wia!th  of  sail  m  feet; 

B   >« breadth  of  whip  at  axis  in  feet; 

D   » depth  of  whip  at  axis  in  feet ; 

^1  =  breadth  of  wnip  at  tip  in  feet; 

D\  =  depth  of  whip  at  tip  in  feet ; 
Divided  by  the  whip  in  the  proportion  of 
5  to  3,  the  narrow  portion  being  nearest  to 
the  wind.  TF„=iir; 

When  TTii  =  width  of  sail  at  axis; 

Z>n  —distance  of  sail  from  axis. 

Cross-bars  from  16  to  18  inches  apart. 

Velocity  of  tip  of  sails  =  2.6  V,  nearly. 

In  examining  the  ratio  between  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  and  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  wheel-shaft  Mr.  Smeaton  obtained  the 
result  in  table  below,  for  Dutch  sails,  in  their 
common  position,  when  the  radius  of  the 
wheel  was  30  feet: 

Number  of  Rev- 


olutions of 
Wheel-shaft 
per  Minute. 

3 
5 

6 


Velocity  of 
Wind  m 
an  Hour. 

2  miles 

4  " 

5  •• 


Ratio  between 
Velocity  of 
the  Wind 
and  Revolu- 
tions of  Wheel- 
shaft. 
0.666 
0.800 
0.833 


The  most  efficient  angles. 
Part  of  Radius 


which  is 
Divided  in  Six 
Parts. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


Angle  with 
the  Axis. 

720 

71° 

72° 

74° 

77i° 

83"^ 


Angle  of 
Weather. 

18° 

19° 

18°  middle 

16° 

12*° 

r 


Supposing  the  radius  of  the  sail  to  be  30 
feet,  then  the  sail  will  commence  at  ith,  or 
5  feet  from  the  axis,  where  the  angle  of  incli- 
nation will  be  72°,  at  |ths  or  10  feet  from  the 
axis  will  be  71°,  and  so  on. 

In  order  to  utilize  the  maximum  effect  of 
wind,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  load  the 
wind-engine  so  that  the  number  of  revolutions 
of  the  wheel  is  proportional  to  the  velocity 
of  the  wind. 

To   find   proper  number  of  revolutions   of   a 

unnd-milL 

„      3.16X7 

N  = 


if  r  =  i6°. 


N 


LXsmU* 
11.5  V 


When  iV= number  of  revolutions  of  wheel  per 
minute ; 
V  =  velocity  of  the  wind  in  feet  per 
second ; 

L  =  \/^-^i-^-radius   of   center    of 
2  percussion  in  feet; 

R  =  extreme  radius  of  wheel  in  feet ; 
^1  =  inner  radius  of  wheel  in  feet ; 
IJ  =  mean  angle  of  sails  to  the  plane  of 
motion. 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REJi'ERENOE   BOOK. 


489 


FORCE  OF  WIND  WHEN  BLOWING  PERPENDICULARLY  UPON  A  SURFACE 

OF  ONE  SQUARE  FOOT. 


Velocity  of  Wind 

Perpendicular 

Force  on  One 

Description. 

Miles  per 

Feet  per 

Feet  per 

Square  Foot 

Hour. 

Minute. 

Second. 
1.47 

in  Lbs. 

1 

88 

.005 

Hardly  perceptible 
Just  perceptible 

2 

176 

2.93 

.020 

3 

264 

4.40 

.044 

( t             It 

4 

352 

5.87 

.079 

Gentle  breeze 

5 

440 

7.33 

.123 

•  t          it 

10 

880 

14.67 

.492 

Pleasant 

15 

1,320 

22.00 

1.107 

i  t 

20 

1,760 

29.30 

1.968 

Brisk  gale 

25 

2,200 

36.60 

3.075 

It       t  ( 

30 

2,640 

44.00 

4.428 

High  wind 

35 

3,080 

51.30 

6.027 

•  •        It 

40 

3,520 

68.60 

7.872 

Very  hi^h  wind 

45 

3.960 

66.00 

9.963 

50 

4,400 

73.30 

12.300 

Storm 

60 

5,280 

88.00 

17.712 

Great  storm 

70 

6,160 

102.7 

24.108 

it          1 1 

80 

7,040 

117.3 

31.488 

Hurricane 

100 

8,800 

146.6 

49.200 

i  t 

— ^Whittaker's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


METALS:    WEIGHTS    FOR   VARIOUS    DIMENSIONS. 


Metal. 


Aluminum,  wrought  . .  . 

*  *  cast 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Brass,  cast 

"      sheet 

•  *       yellow 

**      Muntz  metal.  ..  . 

*  •       wire 

Bronze,  gun-metal 

mill  bearings.  . 
small  bells 

* '        speculum  metal 
Copper,  sneet 

*'        hammered.  .  .  . 

* '        wire 

Gold 

Iron,  cast 

"      wrought 

Lead,  sheet 

Manganese 

Mercury 

Nickel,  hammered 

'  *        cast 

Platinum 

Silver 

Steel 

Tin 

Zinc,  sheet 

'  *      cast 


Specific 
Weight. 

Weight 

of  One 

Cubic 

Foot. 

Weight  of  One 
Square  Foot. 

Weight 
of  One 
Linear 
Foot  1 

1  Inch 

ilnch 
Thick. 

A  Inch 
Thick. 

Wrought 

Thick. 

In.  Sq. 

Iron  =  1. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

.348 

167 

13.92 

1.74 

1.39 

1.160 

.333 

160 

13.33 

1.67 

1.33 

1  111 

.879 

418 

34.83 

4.35 

3.48 

2.902 

1.285 

617 

51.42 

6.42 

5.14 

4.283 

1.052 

505 

42.08 

5.26 

4.21 

3.507 

1.098 

527 

43.92 

5.49 

4.39 

3.652 

1.079 

518 

43.17 

5.40 

4.32 

3.597 

1.062 

511 

42.58 

5.32 

4.26 

3.549 

1.110 

533 

44.42 

5.55 

4.44 

3.701 

1.106 

531 

44.25 

5.54 

4.43 

3.688 

1.133 

544 

45.33 

5.66 

4.53 

3.780 

1.004 

482 

40.17 

5.04 

4.02 

3.347 

.969 

465 

38.75 

4.84 

3.88 

3.299 

1.114 

549 

45.75 

5.72 

4.58 

3.813 

1.158 

556 

46.33 

5.79 

4.63 

3.861 

1.154 

554 

46.17 

5.77 

4.62 

3.778 

2.500 

1200 

100.00 

12.50 

10.00 

8.333 

.937 

450 

37.50 

4.69 

3.75 

3.125 

1.000 

480 

40.00 

5.00 

4.00 

3.333 

1.483 

712 

59.33 

7.41 

5.93 

4.944 

1.040 

499 

41.58 

5.20 

4.16 

3.465 

1.769 

849 

70:75 

8.84 

Y.07 

5.896 

1.127 

541 

45.08 

5.64 

4.51 

3.757 

1.075 

516 

43.00 

5.37 

4.30 

3.583 

2.796 

1342 

111.83 

13.97 

11.18 

9.320 

1.365 

655 

54.58 

6.82 

5.46 

4.549 

1.020 

490 

40.83 

5.12 

4.10 

3.403 

.962 

462 

38.50 

4.81 

3.85 

3.208 

.935 

449 

37.42 

4.67 

3.74 

3.118 

.892 

428 

35.67 

4.46 

3.57 

2.972 

Weight 

of  One 

Cubic 

Inch. 


Lbs. 
.097 
.092 
.242 
.357 
.292 
.304. 
.298 
.296 
.308 
.307 
.315 
.279 
.269- 
.318 
.322 
.315 
.694 
.260 
.278 
.412 
.289 
.491 
.313 
.299 
.777 
.379 
.284 
.268 
.260 
.248 


— Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   EEWERBNCE    BOOK. 


PROPORTIONATE    WEIGHT  OF    CASTING   TO   WEIGHT    OF    WOOD    PATTERN. 


A  Pattern  Wei^nc  One  Pound,        r.    ,     .                                                         on 

Zinc. 

Lbs. 

Beech           9,7     |      10 

i '  li  i  i  1  i 

9,'i            O'.m               .98             1 

{ 

s   i:  ii  :i;;;^^^^   isl'li 

! 

Mahogany 11  7     .      13 

Brass O.M           0 

81 

Number. 

i  ^^^^ 

Total^u. 

Pujlper 

Poll  per 

SO 

Horse 

1.600 

3,750 
8,750 

11 

l,S7S 

1 ,  172  lbs. 

100 

M*n 

1  snn 

oim  ■■ 

] 

S.;;::;;- 

o;729  " 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


491 


BOILER   TUBES. 

The  following  table  gives  the  draught  area  and  heating  surface  of  the  various-sized  boiler 
tubes  and  flues: 


External 
Diameter. 

Draught  Area  in 
Square  Inches. 

Draught  Area 
in  Square  Feet. 

Outside  Heating 

Surface  in  Feet 

per  Foot  of  Tube 

in  Length. 

Number  of 

Tubes  in  One 

Square  Foot  of 

Draught  Area. 

* 

".575 
.968 
1.389 
1.911 
2.573 
3.333 
4.083 
5.027 
6.070 
7.116 
8.347 
9.676 
10.93 
14.05 
17.35 
25.25 
34.94 
46.20 
58.63 
72.23 

■  .0040' 
.0067 
.00964 
.0133 
.0179 
.0231 
.0284 
.0349 
.0422 
.0494 
.0580 
.0672 
.0759 
.0996 
.1205 
.1753 
.2426 
.3208 
.4072 
.5016 

.1636 

.  1963 

.2618 

.3272 

.3927 

.4581 

.5236 

.5891 

.6545 

.7200 

.7854 

.8508 

.9163 

.9818 

1.0472 

1.1781 

1.3090 

1.5708 

1.8326 

2.0944 

2.3562 

2.6180 

* 

1 

250.0 

U 

149.3 

U 

103.7 

U 

75.2 

2 

55.9 

2\ 

43.3 

2* 

35.2 

2 

28.7 

3 

23.7 

31 

20.2 

3|..::: :. 

17.2 

3* 

14.9 

4 

13.2 

U 

10.2 

5  ..:.:.::...:.. 

8.3 

6  , 

5.7 

7 

4.1 

8 

3  1 

9 

2.5 

10 

2.0 

TO  OBTAIN  INDEX  OF  A  LATHE. 

How  TO  Obtain  the  Index  op  an  Engine 
Lathe. — If  you  will  note  what  thread  the 
lathe  will  cut  when  two  given  gears  are  in 
place,  you  can  easily  construct  a  table  that 
will  show  you  just  what  thread  any  two  gears 
will  cause  the  lathe  to  cut.  Suppose  that  two 
sixty-threes  cause  12  threads  to  the  inch. 
Then  place  12  in  the  space  A  in  the  diagram 
below. 

Stud. 


O 

CQ 


28 
33 
35 
42 
49 
5G 
63 
70 
77 
84 
91 
98 
105 
112 


28 


33 


35 


42|49|5663 


7077 


a  c: 
BA,D 
E 


84 


I     I 
9198,105 


112 


Now,  63  :  56  : 
63  :  70  : 

Also,  56  :  63  • 
70  :  63  : 


•  A  •  E  f  I^^^"®*^*  proportion. 

•  A  •  B  I 

•  A  •  D  r  I'*^®''^  proportion. 


The  spaces  may  all  be  filled  except  a,  b,  c, 
d,  etc.,  which  it  is  useless  to  fill,  as  only  your 
63  gear  is  duplicated.  A  half-day's  time 
will  be  suflScient  for  a  good  mathematician  to 
fill  out  the  table. 


Nails,  Memoranda  Concerning. — This 
table  will  show  at  a  glance  the  length  of  the 
various  sizes,  and  the  number  of  nails  in  a 
pound.  They  are  rated  from  "3-penny"  up 
to  **20-penny."  The  first  column  gives  the 
name,  the  second  the  length  in  inches,  and  the 
third  the  number  per  pound: 

3-penny,  1    in.  long,  55Xperlb. 

4-penny,  11  in-  long,  353  per  lb. 

5-penny,  If  in.  long,  232  per  lb. 

6- penny,  2    in.  long,  167  per  lb. 

7-penny,  2\  in.  long,  141  per  lb. 

8-penny,  2k  in.  long,  101  per  lb. 

10-penny,  2f  in.  long,  98  per  lb. 

12-penny,  3    in.  long,  54  per  lb. 

20-penny,  3i  in.  long,  34  per  lb. 

Spikes,  4    in.  long,  16  per  lb. 

Spikes,  4^  in.  long,  12  per  lb. 

Spikes,  5    in.  long,  10  per  lb. 

Spikes,  6    in.  long,  7  per  lb. 

Spikes,  7    in.  long,  5  per  lb. 

From  this  table  an  estimate  of  quantity 

and  suitable  sizes  for  any  job  can  be  easily 

made. 

The  relative  adhesion  of  nails  in  the  same 
wood,  driven  transversely  and  longitudinally, 
is  as  100  to  78,  or  about  4  to  3  in  dry  elm, 
and  2  to  3  in  deal. 

Horse-power,  very  Rough  Way  of  Esti- 
mating.— The  power  of  a  steam  engine  is 
calculated  by  inultiplying  together  the  area 
of  the  piston  in  inches,  the  mean  steam  pres- 
sure in  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  length  of 
stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number  of  strokes  per 
minute,  and  diAading  the  product  by  33,000. 
Or,  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of 
the  cylinder  in  inches  by  0.7854,  and  this 
product  by  the  mean  engine  pressure,  and 
the  last  product  by  the  piston  travel  in  feet 
per  minute.  Divide  the  last  product  by 
33,000    for    the    indicated    horse-power.     In 


492 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  absence  of  logarithmic  fonnulse  or  ex- 

f mansion  table,  multiply  the  boiler  pressure 
or  i  cut-off  by  0.91;  for  i  cut-off  by  0.85, 
f  cut-off  by  0.75,  A  cut-off  by  0.68.  This 
will  give  the  mean  engine  pressure  per  square 
inch  near  enough  for  ordinary  practice,  for 
steam  pressures  between  60  and  100  lbs., 
always  remembering  that  the  piston  travel 
is  twice  the  stroke  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute. 

Castinos,  Contraction  op. — By  Messrs. 
Bowen  &  Co.,  brass  founders,  London. 

Inch.   Ins.  of 
length. 

In  thin  brass  castings i    in    9 

In  thick"        '•        t    in  10 

In  zinc  castings ^  in  12 

In  lead,  according  to  purity.  A  to  A  in  12 

Incopper Ato/,  in  12 

In  tin,  ••  ••       "      .   AtoA  in  12 

In  silver,      "  "    .  "      •  1    in  12 

In  cast   iron,   according  to 

purity,  small  castings.  ...  ^  in  12 

In  cast  steel,  according  to 

purity,  pipes i    in  12 

The  above  values  fluctuate  with  the  form  of 
pattern,  amount  of  ramming,  and  tempera- 
ture of  metal  when  poured.  Green  sand  cast- 
ings contract  less  than  loam  or  dry  sand  cast- 
ings. 

Gearing,  Simple  Rules  on. — The  follow- 
ing rules  will  apply  to  both^  bevel  and  spur 
gears.  When  the  term  pitch  is  used,  it  always 
signifies  diametrical,  not  circular  pitch.  For 
illustrations  we  will  use  gears  havmg  64  teeth 
and  8  pitch. 

To  Find  Pitch  Diameter. — Divide  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  by  the  pitch:  64-f-8  =  8  in.  pitch 
diameter. 

To  Find  Number  of  Teeth. — Multiply  the 
pitch  diameter  by  the  pitch:  8  in. X 8  =  64, 
number  of  teeth. 

To  Fi'fid  the  Pitch. — Divide  the  number  of 
teeth  by  the  pitch  diameter:  64 -t- 8  in.  "=8, 
pitch. 

To  Find  Outside  Diameter  of  Spur  Wheels. — 
Add  2  to  the  number  of  teeth  and  divide  by 
the  pitch :   64+  2  =  66 -J-  8  =  8i  in.  O.  D. 

To  Find  Circular  Pitch. — Divide  the  deci- 
mal 3.1416  by  the  diametrical  pitch:  3.1416 
+  8 =0.3927  in. 

To  Find  the  Distance  betwe-en  the  Centers  of 
Two  Spur  Gears. — Divide  half  the  sum  of  the 
teeth  of  both  gears  by  the  pitch:  64 -H  64  =  128 
-»-2  =  64-s-8'=8in.  centers. 

Pulleys,  Rules  for  Calculating  the 
Speed  of. — The  diameter  of  the  driven  being 
given,  to  find  its  number  of  revolutions  — 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver 
by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  diameter  of  the  driven ;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
tne  driven. 

Ex. — Twenty-four  in.  diameter  of  driver 
X150,  number  of  revolutions,  =3,600-*- 12  in. 
diameter  of  driven  =  300. 

The  diameter  and  revolutions  of  the  driver 
being  given,  to  find  the  diameter  of  the 
driven,  that  shall  make  any  given  number  of 
revolutions  in  the  same  time. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver 
by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  niunber  of  required  revolu- 
tions of  the  driven;  the  quotient  will  be  its 
diameter. 


Ex. — Diameter  of  driver  (as  before)  24  in. 
X  revolutions  150 » 3,600.  Number  of  revo- 
lutions of  driven  required  »  300.  Then  3,600 
+  300=12  in. 

The  rules  following  are  but  changes  of  the 
same,  and  will  be  readily  understood  from 
the  for^^oing  examples. 

To  ascertain  the  size  of  the  driver: 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driven 
by  the  number  of  revolutions  you  wish  to 
make,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  required 
revolutions  of  the  driver;  the  quotient  will  be 
the  size  of  the  driver. 

To  ascertain  the  size  of  pulleys  for  given 
speed: 

Rule. — Multiply  all  the  diameters  of  the 
drivers  together  and  all  the  diameters  of  the 
driven  together;  divide  the  drivers  by  the 
driven;  the  answer  multiply  by  the  luiown 
revolutions  of  main  shaft. 

Paper,  Wall. — The  following  table  from 
the  New  York  Newsdealer  shows  how  many 
rolls  of  wall-pi4)er  are  required  to  cover  a 
room  of- the  oimensions  indicated  by  the  fig- 
ures in  the  left-hand  column,  also  the  number 
of  yards  of  border  necessary* 


Size  of  Room. 


7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

7X9 

8X10 

8X10 

8X10 

8X10 

9X11 

9X11 

9X11 

9X11 

10X12 

10X12 

10X12 

10X12 

11X12 

11X12 

11X12 

11X12 

12X13 

12X13 

12X13 

12  X  13. 

12X15"oVl3'xi4! 
12X15  or  13X14, 
12X15  or  13X14. 
12X15  or  13X14, 

13X15 

13X15 

13X15 

13X15 

14X16 

14X16 

14X16 

14X18 

14X18 

14X18 

15X16 

15X17 


<M 

•sS 

tM     .-. 

o 

ht  o 
ilinR 

1' 

■ 

•»cS 

1^ 

QQ   M 

B 

55 

55 

8 

■t 

6 

9 

7 

10 

8 

12 

10 

8 

1 

7 

9 

8 

10 

9 

12 

11 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12 

13 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12 

13 

8 

2 

2 

8 

9 

2 

2 

9 

10 

2 

2 

10 

12 

2 

2 

13 

8 

2 

2 

8 

9 

2 

2 

10 

10 

2 

2 

11 

12 

2 

2 

14 

8 

2 

2 

10 

9 

2 

2 

11 

10 

2 

2 

12 

12 

2 

2 

15 

8 

2 

2 

10 

9 

2 

2 

11 

10 

2 

2 

13 

12 

2 

2 

16 

9 

2 

2 

12 

10 

2 

2 

14 

12 

2 

2 

17 

9 

2 

2 

13 

10 

2 

2 

15 

12 

2 

2 

19 

10 

2 

2 

15 

12 

2 

2 

19 

n    Urn 

T3  O 


11 
11 
11 
11 

12 
12 
12 
12 
14 
14 
14 
14 
15 
15 
15 
15 
16 
16 
16 
16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
18 
18 
18 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 
20 
20 
20 
22 
22 
22 
21 
22 


^  Deduct  one-half  roll  of  paper  for  each  or- 
dinary door  or  window  extra — sise  4X7  feet. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


493 


UNITED    STATES    STANDARD    GAUGE. 

For  Sheet  and  Plate  Iron  and  Steel. 


Thickness. 

Weight. 

Number  of 
Gauge. 

Approximate 
Tnickness  in 

Approximate 
Thickness  in 

Weight  per 
S9uare  Foot 

Weight  per 
Square  Foot 

Number  of 
Gauge. 

Fractions  of 

Decimal  Parts 

in  Ounces 

in  Pounds 

an  Inch. 

of  an  Inch. 

Avoirdupois. 

Avoirdupois. 

0000000 

1-2 

.5 

320 

20. 

0000000 

000000 

1&-32 

.46875 

300 

18.75 

000000 

00000 

7-16 

.4375 

280 

17.5 

00000 

0000 

13-32 

.40625 

260 

16.25 

0000 

000 

3-8 

.375 

240 

15. 

000 

00 

11-32 

.34375 

220 

13.75 

00 

0 

5-16 

.3125 

200 

12.5 

0 

1 

9-32 

.28125 

180 

11.25 

1 

2 

17-64 

.265625 

170 

10.625 

2 

3 

1-4 

.25 

160 

10. 

3 

4 

15-64 

.234375 

150 

9.375 

4 

5 

7-32 

.21875 

140 

8.75 

5 

6 

13-64 

.203125 

130 

8.125 

6 

7 

3-16 

.1875 

120 

7.5 

7 

8 

11-64 

.171875 

110 

6.875 

8 

9 

&-32 

. 15625 

100 

6.25 

9 

10 

9-64 

. 140625 

90 

5.625 

10 

11 

1-8 

.125 

80 

5. 

11 

12 

7-64 

. 109375 

70 

4.375 

12 

13 

3-32 

.09375 

60 

3.75 

13 

14 

5-64 

.078125 

50 

3.125 

14 

15 

9-128 

.0703125 

45 

2.8125 

15 

16 

1-16 

.0625 

40 

2.5 

16 

17 

9-160 

.05625 

36 

2.25 

17 

18 

1-20 

.05 

32 

2.00 

18 

19 

7-160 

.04375 

28 

1.75 

19 

20 

3-80 

.0375 

24 

1.5 

20 

21 

11-320 

.034375 

22 

1.375 

21 

22 

1-32 

.03125 

20 

1.25 

22 

23 

9-320 

.028125 

18 

1.125 

23 

24 

1-40 

.025 

16 

1. 

24 

25 

7-320 

.021875 

14 

.875 

25 

26 

3-160 

.01875 

12 

.75 

•26 

27 

11-640 

.0171875 

11 

.6875 

27 

28 

1-64 

.015625 

10 

.625 

28 

29 

9-640 

.0140625 

9 

.5625 

29 

30 

1-80 

.0125 

8 

.5 

30 

31 

7-640 

.0109375 

7 

.4375 

SI 

32 

13-1280 

.01015625 

6i 

.40625 

32 

33 

3-320 

.009375 

6 

.375 

33 

34 

11-1280 

.00859375 

5* 

.34375 

34 

35 

^640 

.0078125 

5 

.3125 

35 

36 

9-1280 

.00703125 

H 

. 28125 

36 

37 

17-2560 

.006640625 

4 

.265625 

37 

38 

1-160 

.00625 

4 

.25 

38 

ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERING. 


Units  of  Measurement. — The  three  most 
commonly  used  units  are: 

I.  The  unit  of  current,  called  the  Ampere; 
II.  The  unit  of  potential,  called  the  Volt; 
III.  The  unit  of  resistance,  called  the  Ohm. 

For  some  purposes  these  quantities  are  sub- 
divided, thus  in  telegraphy  the  practical  unit 
of  current  is  the  milli-ampere,  i.e.,  one- thou- 
sandth of  an  ampere.  In  some  cases  it  is  con- 
venient to  use  multiples*  insulation  resist- 
ances are  often  expressed  in  terms  of  meg- 
ohms, i.e.,  a  million  ohms.  The  most  com« 
monly  used  multiples  are  the  following 


10^  ohms      =  1  million  ohms, 
10-*  ohm      =  1   millionth  of 
an  ohm, 

Kilowatt  - 10»  watts     ■=  1 ,000  watts. 

Micro-ampere  =  10-*  ampere  —  1  millionth  of 

an  ampere. 


1  Megohm 
1  Microhm 


Ohm's  I^aw. — For  steady  currents  the 
three  quantities — current,  potential,  and  re- 
sistance —are  connected  together  by  the  rela- 
tion discovered  by  Dr.  Ohm,  and  called  Ohm's 
Law.     This  law  is  stated  thus 


^     i2' 


where  C 
E 
R 


current  (amperes); , 
difference  of  potential  (volts) ; 
resistance    opposing    the    current 
(ohms). 
All  the  units  in  scientific  work  are  defined 
in  terms  of  the  fundamental  units,  which  are 
Unit  of  length  —  1  centimeter. 
''*    "  mass    =  1  gram. 
'*     "  time     =1  second. 
These  are  spoken  of  as  the  C.G.S.  units,  and 
in  the  actual  determination  of  a  standl^rd 


494 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ohm  attemptB  have  been  made  to  obtain  the 
scientific  value  as  closely  as  possible.  The 
first  unit  used  as  a  standard  was  the  British 
Association^  or  B.A.  unit  coil.  Messrs.  Sie- 
mens also  introduced  a  standard  ohm,  but 
both  of  these  units  differed  from  the  true  ohm 
Bs  well  as  from  each  other.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  consequent  confusion,  an  interna- 
tional congress  was  held  at  Paris  in  1893  to 
decide  upon  the  standard  values  to  be 
adopted. 

C.G.S.  ELECTRICAL  STANDARDS. 

The  Ohm  is  represented  by  the  resistance 
offered  by  a  column  of  mercury — at  the  tem- 
perature of  melting  ice — 14.4521  grams  in 
mass,  of  a  constant  cross-sectional  area,  and 
of  a  length  of  106.3  centimeters. 

The  Ampere  is  represented  by  the  unvary- 
ing electric  current  which,  when  passed 
through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in 
water,  deposits  silver  at  the  rate  of 
0.001118  of  a  sp'am  per  second. 

The  Volt  is  the  electrical  pressure  which, 
if  steadily  applied  to  a  conductor  whose  re- 
sistance 18  1  ohm,  will  produce  a  current  of 
1  ampere,  and  which  is  represented  by  0.6974, 
or  iSSf  of  the  electrical  pressure  between  the 
poles  of  the  voltaic  cell,  known  as  Clark's  cell, 
at  a  temperature  of  15°  C.  (59°  F.). 

As  in  many  of  the  older  books  and  early 
papers  dealing  with  electrical  matters  the 
older  system  of  units  is  used,  the  following 
table  will  be  useful  for  ascertaining  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  quantities  expressed : 


System. 


True  Ohm 

Ijegal  Ohm .  ,  . 
B.A.  Ohm 

Siemens  Ohm. 


True 
Ohm. 


I^egal 
Ohm. 


1.0000 
0.9975 
0.9863 


B.A. 
Ohm. 


Sie- 
mens 
Ohm. 


1.00251  1.0138  1.0630 
l.OOOO'  I.OII3I  1.0600 
0.9889,  1.00001  1.0482 


0.94081  0.94341  0.9540   1.0000 


Unit  of  Quantity. — The  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity that  flows  per  second  past  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  conductor  carrying  a  current  of  one 
ampere  is  a  Coulomb. 

The  practical  unit  is  the  quantity  that 
flows  per  hour,  and  is  measured  in  ampere- 
hours. 

Unit  op  Capacity:  The^  Farad. — The 
capacity  of  two  conductors  insulated  from 
each  other  is  the  number  of  coulombs  of  elec- 
tricity required  to  be  given  to  one  conductor, 
the  other  being  supposed  at  zero  potential,  to 
produce  a  difference  of  pressure  of  1  volt  be- 
tween the  two.  The  unit  of  capacity  is 
called  a  "farad,"  and  two  conductors  ar- 
ranged in  a  form  known  as  a  condenser  of  1 
farad  capacity  would  be  raised  to  a  difference 
of  pressure  of  1  volt  by  a  charge  of  1  coulomb 
of  electricity.     The  practical  unit  used,  how- 


ever, has  a  capacity  one-millionth  of  a  fas&d — 
t.«.,  a  microfarad. 

Joule. — When  a  power  of  one  teatt  is  being 
developed,  the  work  done  per  second  is  some- 
times called  a  "Joule."  Hence,  one  joule 
equals  0.7375  foot-lb.,  and 

1  watt-second  =   1  Joule. 

1  watt-minute  =  60  joules. 

1  horse-power  hour  — 1,980,000  foot^lbs. 

1  horse-power  hour  =  2,685.600  joules. 

(W.  E.  Ayrton.) 

Watt. — A  "watt"  is  the  power  developed 
in  a  circuit  when  one  ampere  flows  through 
it,  and  when  the  potential  difference  at  its  ter- 
minals is  one  volt;  hence  the  number  of  watts 
developed  in  any  circuit  equals  the  product  of 
the  current  in  amperes  flowing  throu^  it  into 
the  potential  difference  at  its  terminals  in 
volts.     Therefore 

1  watt  is  the  power  developc»d  when  44.25 
foot-lbs.  of  work  are  done  per  minute. 

1  watt  \b  the  power  developed  when  0.7375 
foot-lb.  of  work  is  done  per  second. 

1  watt  equals  Tivth  01  a  horse-power. 

(W.  E.  Ayrton.) 

Calorie. — The  amount  of  heat  required  to 
raise  1  kilogram  of  water  1°  C.  is  the  unit  of 
heat  employed  on  the  Continent. 

1  calorie  =  4,200  joules  =  42  X  10»  ergs. 

1  joule  =  0.000238  calories. 

Induction:  The  Henry. — The  induction 
in  a  circuit  when  the  difference  of  electrical 
pressure  induced  in  the  circuit  is  1  volt, 
while  the  inducing  current  varies  at  the  rate 
of  1  ampere  per  second,  is  called  a  *  'Henry." 

THE  ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  SYSTEM  OF 
ELECTRIC  UNITS. 

Unit  of  Current. — That  current  which, 
flowing  in  a  conductor  1  centimeter  long,  and 
of  1  centimeter  radius,  produces  at  the  center 
of  the  arc  a  magnetic  field  of  unit  strength. 

This  unit  is  ten  times  the  ampere. 

Unit  of  Potential. — Unit  difference  of 
potential  exists  between  the  ends  of  a  con- 
ductor, when  the  expenditure  of  1  er^  per 
second  will  cause  unit  current  to  flow. 

This  E.M.F.  is  equal  to  one  hundred- 
millionth  of  a  volt. 

Note. — The  erg  =  work  done  by  a  force  of  1 
dyne  through  a  distance  of  one  centimeter 
=  0.001019  gramme— cent  =  0.00000007386  foot- 
lb.  (London). 

Unit  of  Resistance  is  that  resistance 
which  requires  unit  difference  of  p>otential  to 
cause  unit  current  to  flow. 

This   resistance   is    1,000-millionth    of 
ohm. 

For  ready  reference  the  units  most  fre- 
quently used  in  practice  are  tabulated  below, 
together  with  their  value  in  C.G.S.  absolute 
units. 


an 


Electrical  Quantity. 


Resistance 

Current 

Electrical  pressure. 

Energy 

Capacity 

Capacity 

Power 

Power 

Work 

Work 


Name  of  Unit. 


Dimensions  of  Unit. 


Ohm 

Ampere 

Volt 

Joule 

Farad 

Microfarad  .  .  . 

Watt 

Kilowatt 

Watt-hour.  .  . . 
Kilowatt-hour. 


L-IT2 
'L2MT-3 


Value  in  C.G.S.  Units. 


109  C.G.S. 
10-1    '• 

108 
107 

io-» 
io-« 

107 
1010 

10»X36 
1012X36 


units. 
« » 


<  ( 
1 4 


<  t 


•  < 
« • 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


495 


UNITS  OF  FORCE,  PRESSURE.  WORK, 

POWER. 

Force. — 1  dyne  — that  force  which  acting 
on  1  gramme  for  1  second  gives  it  a  velocity  of 
1  centimeter  per  second  (bein^  absolute  unit 
of  force  in  the  C.G.S.  system,  mdependent  of 
local  variations  of  gravity). 

1  gram  weight  =^8.1  Paris,  980  dynes;  at 
London,  981  dynes;  at  Glasgow,  982  dynes. 

1  pound  vmght-^ibZ.Q  grams  weight; 
-at  Paris,  444,528  dynes;  at  London,  444,987 
dynes. 

Pressure. — 1  pound  per  square  inch  —  0.0703 
kilogram  per  square  centimeter. 

1  kilogram  per  square  centimeter '^li.2  lbs. 
per  square  inch. 

1  cUmoephere^  20  in.  of  mercury  =  nearly 
76  centimeters  of  mercury  =  nearly  15  lbs.  per 
square  inch  =»  nearly  1,000,000  dynes  per 
square  centimeter. 

The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
magnitude  of  some  of  these  units: 

10  ft.  of  pure  copper  wire  0.01  in.  diameter 
is  almost  exactly  equal  to  1  ohm. 

The  current  used  in  an  ordinary  incandes- 
cent lamp  of  16  candle-power  is  about  0.6 
ampere. 

The  electrical  pressure  of  the  terminals  of 
the  cell  usually  used  for  electric  bells  (Le- 
clanche)  is  about  1.4  volt. 

1  watt         =  about  44^  foot-lbs.  per  minute. 

746  watts    =  1  horse-power. 

1  kilowatt  ■=  about  It  horse-power. 

An  easy  way  to  convert  watts  into  the 
equivalent  horse-power  is  to  mark  off  three 
places  and  add  one-third:  Thus, 

What  is  the  equivalent  horse-power  of 
27,000  watts? 

Set  off  three  decimal  places 27 .  000 

Add  one-third 9.000 


And  the  horse-power  required 


36 


Find  the  equivalent  number  of  watts  of  48 
electrical  horse-power? 


Multiply  the  horse-power  by  1,000,  thus 

48X1,000  « 48,000 

Subtract  one-quarter,  *»P>  - 12,000 

And  the  required  number  of  watts        —  36,000 


RESISTANCE. 

CoNDncTORS. — Nearly  all  substances  as 
they  occur  in  nature  conduct  electricity — i.e., 
if  the  substance  is  joined  to  a  source  of  elec- 
trical energy,  a  magnetic  field  is  created 
around  it.  Roughly,  three  groups  of  con- 
ductors may  be  formed,  but  of  very  varying 
degree:  Ist,  good  conductors,  pure  metals, 
and  allo3^  of  metals;  2d,  at  a  long  interval, 
solutions  of  electrolytes — i.e.,  solutions  ca- 
pable of  being  decomposed  by  the  passage  of 
an  electric  current  through  them:  ana  3d, 
very  bad  conductors,  such  as  India  rubber, 
ebonite,  shellac,  sulphur,  glass,  slate,  mar- 
ble, stoneware,  mica,  dry  wood  ajid  paper, 
animal  fibers  (silk,  wool,  lurs),  petroleum  oil, 
paraffin  wax,  ozokerit,  pitch,  bitumen;  etc. 
Usually,  in  practical  work,  the  first  class  is 
spoken  of  as  conductors,  and  the  third  class 
as  insulators. 

Resistance. — The  resistance  of  a  con- 
ductor is 

(a)  Directly  proportional  to  its  length; 
(b)  Inversely  proportional  to  its  cross-sec- 
tional area;  (c)  Directly  proportional  to  its 
specific  resistance;  (d)  and  usually  increases 
with  its  temperature. 

Specific  Resistance. — The  specific  re- 
sistance of  a  substance  is  usually  stated  as 
the  resistance  between  the  faces  of  a  cube  of 
the  substance,  1  centimeter  in  length  and  1 
square  centimeter  in  cross-sectional  area. 

The  law  of  resistance  may  be  stated  thus, 
neglecting  the  effect  of  temperature: 

where  • 

R  =  the  resistance  in  ohms ; 
I  =the  length  of  conductor; 
8  =the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  conductor; 
p  =  the  specific  resistance  of  the  material. 


RESISTANCE   OF  METALS   AND   ALLOYS    (CHEMICALLY   PURE)  AT  32^  F. 

IN    STANDARD   OHMS. 


Metal. 


Silver,  annealed 

'  *       hard-drawn 

Copper,  annealed 

* '        hard-drawn 

Gold,  annealed 

•  *      hard-drawn 

Aluminum,  annealed 

Zinc,  pressed 

Platinum,  annealed 

Iron,  annealed 

Lead,  pressed 

German  silver,  hard  or  annealed 

Platinum,  silver  alloy  (2  parts  silver  and 

part  platinum),  hard  or  annealed 

Manganese  steel 

Mercury 


(p) 

Resistance  per 

Specific 

• 

Relative 

Resistance 

Foot, 

Meter,  1 

Resist- 

Cubic Cen- 

17^5 Inch 
Diameter. 

Millimeter 

ance. 

timeter 

Diameter. 

Microhms. 

Ohms. 

Ohms. 

1.5006 

9.0283 

0.01911 

1.000 

1.6298 

9.8028 

0.02074 

1.986 

1.61966 

10.2063 

0.02160 

1.130 

1.73054 

10.4117 

0.02204 

1.153 

2.0531 

12.3522 

0.02614 

1.369 

2.0896 

12.5692 

0.0266 

1.393 

2.9055 

17.4825 

0.037 

1.935 

5.6127 

33.7614 

0.071 

3.741 

9.0352 

54.3517 

0.115 

6.022 

9.6933 

58.308 

0.123 

6.460 

19.584 

117.79 

0.249 

13.05 

20.886 

125.62 

0.266 

13.92 

24.329 

146.36 

0.310 

16.21 

75 

447.50 

0.95 

49.7 

96 

570.84 

1.208 

62.73 

496 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE   fiOOK. 


APPROXIMATE  PERCENTAGE   VARIA- 
TION  IN   RESISTANCE   AT 
ABOUT  20°  C.  (68*  F.) 


Metal  or  Alloy. 


Platinum  Silver  ( 1  pt.  Plati- 
num to  2  pts.  Silver),  hard 
or  annealed 

German  Silver,  hard  or  an-' 
nealed 


(«) 

Per 

1*C. 


0.031 


Mercury 

Bismutn,  pressed. 
Gold,  annealed.  . . 
Zinc,  pressed.  . .  . 

Tin,       *•      

Silver,  annealed.  . 
Lead,  pressed.  .  . . 
Copper,  annealed. 
Iron  (about)  .  .  .  . 


044 
072 
354 
365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 


(a) 
Per 

1°F. 


0.017 


0. 
0. 
0. 


.024 
,040 
,197 
0.203 
0.203 
0.203 
0.209 
0.215 
0.238 
0.278 


— Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket-Book 
and  Diary. 


HEAT    AND    ELECTRICAL 
CONDUCTIVITY. 


Substances. 

Heat 

Conductiv- 

ity. 

Electrical 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

Silver 

100.0 

73.6 

53.2 

23.6 

19.9 

14.5 

12.0 

11.9 

8.5 

6.4 

6.3 

1.8 

100.0 

Copper 

73.3 

Gold. 

Brass 

58.5 
21.5 

Zinc 

Tin 

22.6 

Steel 

I  ron 

13.0 

I^ad 

10.7 

Platinum 

10.3 

Palladium 

Bismuth 

1.9 

RESISTANCE  AND  WEIGHT  TABLE. 

American  gauge  for  cotton  and  silk-covered  and  bare  copper  wire. — The  resistances  are 
calculated  for  pure  copper  wire. 

The  number  of  feet  to  the  pound  is  only  approximate  for  insulated  wire. 


Diameter. 

Feet  per  Pound. 

Resistance,  Naked  Copper. 

No. 

Cotton 

Silk 

Naked. 

Ohms  per 

Ohms  per 

Feet  per 

Ohnas  per 

Covered. 

Covered. 

1,000  Feet. 

Mile. 

Ohm. 

Pound. 

g 

.12849 
.11443 
. 10189 
.09074 
.08081 

20 
25 
32 
40 
50 

.6259 
.7892 
.8441 
1.254 
1.580 

3.3 
4.1 
4.4 
6.4 
8.3 

1600 

1272 

1185 

798 

633 

.0125 

9 

1 

.0197 

10 

.0270 

11 

.0501 

12 

42 

46 

.079 

13 

.07196 

55 

60 

64 

1.995 

10.4 

504 

.127 

14 

,00408 

68 

75 

80 

2.504 

13.2 

400 

.200 

15 

.05707 

87 

95 

101 

3.172 

16.7 

316 

.320 

16 

.05082 

110 

120 

128 

4.001 

23 

230 

.512 

17 

.04525 

140 

150 

161 

5.04 

26 

198 

.811 

18 

.0403 

175 

190 

203 

6.36 

33 

157 

1.29 

19 

.03539 

220 

240 

256 

8.25 

43 

121 

2.11 

20 

.03196 

280 

305 

324 

10.12 

53 

99 

3.27 

21 

.02846 

360 

390 

408 

12.76 

68 

76.5 

5.20 

22 

.02535 

450 

490 

514 

16.25 

85 

61.8 

8.35 

23 

.02257 

560 

615 

649 

20.30 

108 

48.9 

13.3 

24 

.0201 

715 

775 

818 

25.60 

135 

39.0 

20.9 

25 

.0179 

910 

990 

1.030 

32.2 

170 

31.0 

33.2 

26 

.01594 

1,165 

1,265 

1,300 

40.7 

214 

24.6 

52.9 

27 

.01419 

1,445 

1.570 

1.640 

51.3 

270 

19.5 

84.2 

28 

.01264 

1,810 

1,970 

2.070 

64.8 

343 

15.4 

134 

29 

.01126 

2.280 

2.480 

2,617 

81.6 

432 

12.2 

213 

30 

.01002 

2,805 

3,050 

3,287 

103 

538 

9.8 

338 

31 

.00893 

3,005 

3,920 

4,144 

130 

685 

7.7 

539 

32 

.00795 

4,535 

4,930 

5,227 

164 

865 

6.1 

856 

33 

. 00708 
.0063 
.00561 
.005 

6,200 

7.830 

9,830 

,     12.420 

6.590 

8.330 

10.460 

13.210 

206 
260 
328 
414 

1033 
1389 
1820 
2200 

4.9 
3.8 
2.9 
2.4 

1357 

34 

2166 

35 

3521 

36 

5469 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


497 


WEIGHT   IN  POUNDS   PER  MILE  OF   COPPER    WIRE. 


Num- 

Roeb- 

Bir- 

Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 

ber. 

iing. 

ming- 
ham. 

3,286 

0000 

2.466 

3.375 

000 

2,092 

2,884 

2.677 

00 

1,750 

2,305 

2,123 

0 

1,504 

1,846 

1.684 

1 

1,278 

1.437 

1,335 

2 

1,104 

1,287 

1.058 

3 

950 

1,071 

839 

4 

808 

904 

665 

5 

684 

773 

528 

6 

588 

657 

418 

7 

500 

517 

332 

8 

419 

435 

263 

9 

350 

350 

209 

10 

291 

287 

166 

11 

230 

230 

131 

12 

176 

190 

104 

13 

135 

144 

83 

English 
Legal 

Stand- 
ard. 

2.555 

2.210 

1,933 

1,682 

1,437 

•1,216 

1,012 

860 

718 

588 

495 

409 

332 

263 

215 

173 

135 


Num- 
ber. 


14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


Roeb- 
ling. 


Bir- 
ming- 
ham. 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


65 
52 
41 
33 
26 

^ 

13 
10| 

8-r 
6- 
5 
4 

II 

2 
If 


English 
Legal 
Stand- 
ard. 


102 
83 
65 
50 
37 
26 
20i 
16i 
12^ 

9i 

7f 

6i 

5 

4 

3* 

3 

2i 


WIRE    GAUGES.   IN    DECIMAL    PARTS 
OF   AN    INCH. 


Num- 
ber of 
Wire 
Gauge. 


000000 

00000 

0000 

000 

00 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


Roeb- 
ling. 


0.46 

0.43 

0.393 

0.362 

0.331 

0.307 

0.283 

0.263 

0.244 

0.225 

0.207 

0.192 

0.177 

0.162 

0.148 

0.135 

0.12 

0.105 

0.092 

0.08 

0.072 

0.063 

0.054 

0.047 

0.041 

0.035 

0.032 

0.028 

0.025 

0.023 

0.02 

0.018 

0.017 

0.016 

0.015 

0.014 

0.0135 

0.013 

0.011 

0.01 

0.0095 

0.009 


Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 


0.46 

0.40964 

0.3648 

0.32495 

0.2893 

0.25763 

0.22942 

0.20431 

0.18194 

0.16202 

0.14428 

0.12849 

0.11443 

0.10189 

0.09074 

0.08081 

0.07196 

0.06408 

0.05706 

0.05082 

0.04525 

0.0403 

0.03589 

0.03196 

0.02846 

0.02534 

0.02257 

0.0201 

0.0179 

0.01594 

0.01419 

0.01264 

0.01125 

0.01002 

0.00893 

0.00795 

0.00708 

0.0063 

0.00561 

0.005 


Bir- 
ming- 
ham 
or 
Stubs. 


0.454 

0.425 

0.380 

0.340 

0.3 

0.284 

0.259 

0.238 

0.22 

0.203 

0.18 

0.165 

0.148 

0.134 

0.12 

0.109 

0.095 

0.083 

0.072 

0.065 

0.058 

0.049 

0.042 

0.035 

0.032 

0.028 

0.025 

0.022 

0.02 

0.018 

0.016 

0.014 

0.013 

0.012 

0.010 

0.009 

0.008 

0.007 

0.005 

0.004 


Eng- 
lish 
Legal 
Stand- 
ard. 


0.464 

0.432 

0.4 

0.372 

0.348 

0.324 

0.3 

0.276 

0.252 

0.232 

0.212 

0.192 

0.176 

0.16 

0.144 

0.128 

0.116 

0.104 

0.092 

0.08 

0.072 

0.064 

0.056 

0.048 

0.04 

0.036 

0.032 

0.028 

0.024 

0.022 

0.02 

0.018 


Old 
Eng- 
lish, 
or  Lon- 
don. 


0.454 

0.425 

0.38 

0.34 

0.3 

0.284 

0.259 

0.238 

0.22 

0.203 

0.18 

0.165 

,148 

.134 

.12 
0.109 

.095 
0.083 
0.072 
0.065 
0.058 
0.049 
0.04 
0.035 
0.0315 
0.0295 
0.027 
0.025 
|0.023 
0.0205 


0.016410.01875 


0.0148 


0.0165 


0.0124 


0.01360.0155 


0.01375 


0.01160.01225 


0.0108 

0.01 

0.0092 


0.01125 
0.01025 
0.0095 


0.0084|0.009 
0.0076l0.0076 


TABLE  INDICATING  SIZE,  WEIGHT. 

AND  LENGTH  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

WIRE. 


Gauge 

Num- 
bers. 


3-0 

2-0 

1-0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 


.362 

.331 

.307 

.283 

.263 

.244 

.225 

.207 

.192 

.177 

.162 

.148 

.135 

.120 

.105 

.092 

.080 

.072 

.063 

.054 

.047 

.041 

.035 

.032 

.028 

.025 

.023 

.020 

.018 

.017 

.016 

.015 

.014 

.0135 

.013 

.Oil 

.010 

.0095 

.009 


Wight 

of  100 

Feet. 

Lbs. 


34.73 

29.04 

25.00 

21.23 

18.34 

15.78 

13.39 

11.35 

9.73 

8.30 

6.96 


80 

83 

82 

92 

24 

69 
1.37 
1.05 
0.77 
0.58 
0.45 
0.32 
0.27 
0.21 
0.175 
0.140 
0.116 
0.093 
0.083 
0.074 
0.061 
0.054 
0.050 
0.0461 
0.037  i 
0.030 
0.025 
0.021 


Wight 
of  One 

Mile. 

Lbs. 


1834 

1533 

1318 

1121 

968 

833 

707 

599 

514 

439 

367 

306 

255 

202 

154 

118 

89 

72 

55 

41 

31 

24 

17 

14 

11 

9 

7 

6 

4 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 


.24 

.39 

.124 

.91 

.382 

.907 

.22 

.851 

.64 

.428 

.953 

.584 

.32 

.161 


Feet 

in  2000 

Lbs. 


Area, 

Square 

Ins. 


5,759 

6,886 

8,000 

9,425 

10.905 

12,674 

14,936 

17,621 

20.555 

24.906 

28,734 

34,483 

41.408 

52.356 

68,493 

89,286 

118,343 

145,985 

190,476 

259,740 

344,827 

444.444 


740,741 
952,381 


.102921 
.086049 
.074023 
.062901 
.054325 
.046759 
.039760 
.033653 
.028952 

024605 
.020612 
.017203 
.014313 
.011309 
.006659 
.006647 
.005026 
.004071 
.003117 
.002290 
.001734 

001320 


625,000.000962 


.000804 
.000615 
.000491 
.000415 
.000314 
.000354 
.000227 
.000201 
.000176 
.000154 
.000143 
.000132 
.000095 
.000078 
.000071 
.000064 


498 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ELECTRICAL  HORSE-POWER. 

EXC 


Calculated  from 


746  * 


Current 
Amperes. 

E.M.F.  in 

Volts. 

p 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

5 

0.06 

0.13 

0.20 

0.28 

0.33 

0.40 

0.47 

0.53 

0.60 

0.67 

0.73 

0.80 

0.87 

0.93 

1.0 

10 

0.13 

0.28 

0.40 

0.53 

0.67 

0.80 

0.93 

1.07 

L2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.6 

L6 

1.9 

2.0 

20 

0.28 

0.53 

0.80 

1.07 

1.3 

1.6 

1.9 

2.1 

2.4 

2.7 

2.9 

3.2 

3.5 

3.7 

4.0 

30 

0.40 

0.80 

1.2 

1.6 

2.0 

2.4 

2.8 

3.2 

3.6 

4.0 

4.4 

4.8 

5.2 

5.6 

6.0 

40 

0.53 

1.07 

1.6 

2.1 

2.6 

3.2 

3.7 

4.2 

4.8 

5.3 

5.9 

6.4 

6.9 

7.5 

8.0 

50 

0.67 

1.30 

2.0 

2.6 

3.3 

4.0 

4.6 

5.4 

6.0 

6.7 

7.4 

8.0 

8.7 

9.4 

10.0 

60 

0.80 

1.6 

2.4 

3.2 

4.0 

4.8 

5.6 

6.4 

7.2 

8.0 

8.8 

9.6 

10.4 

11.2 

12.0 

70 

0.93 

1.9 

2.8 

3.7 

4.6 

5.6 

6.5 

7.5 

8.4 

9.4 

10.3 

11.2 

12.3 

13.1 

14.0 

80 

1.07 

2.1 

3.2 

4.2 

5.4 

6.4 

7.5 

8.5 

9.6 

10.7 

11.8 

12.8 

13.9 

15.0 

16.0 

90 

1.2 

2.4 

3.6 

4.8 

6.0 

7.2 

8.4 

9.6 

10.8 

12.0 

13.2 

14.4 

15.6 

16.9 

18.0 

100 

1.3 

2.7 

4.0 

5.3 

6.7 

8.0 

9.4 

10.7 

12.0 

13.4 

14.7 

16.0 

17.4 

18.7 

20.0 

110 

1.4 

2.9 

4.4 

5.9 

7.4 

8.8 

10.3 

11.8 

13.2 

14.7 

16.2 

17.6 

19.1 

20.6 

22.0 

120 

1.5 

3.2 

4.8 

6.4 

8.0 

9.6 

11.2 

12.8 

14.4 

16.0 

17.6 

19.2 

20.9 

22.5 

24.0 

130 

1.6 

3.5 

5.2 

6.9 

8.7 

10.4 

12.3 

13.9 

15.6 

17.4 

19.1 

20.9 

22.6 

24.4 

26.0 

140 

1.9 

3.7 

5.6 

7.5 

9.4 

11.2 

13.1 

15.0 

16.9 

18.7 

20.6 

22.5 

24.4 

26.2 

28.0 

150 

2.0  4.0 

6.0 

8.0 

10.0 

12.0 

14.0 

16.0 

18.0 

20.0 

22.0 

24.0 

26.0 

28.0 

30.0 

E.H.P.  on  current  line,  under  E.M.F. 


COMPOSITION     AND     ELECTROMOTIVE     FORCE     OF     BATTERY    CELLS. 


Name. 


Qark. 


Daniell. 


Groves. 


Bunsen. 


Leclanche. 


Potash  -  bichro- 
mate. 


Electrodes. 


Solutions. 


Pure  mercury  and 
pure  zinc. 


Copper  and  zinc. 


Platinum  and  zinc. 


Carbon  and  zinc. 


Carbon  and  zinc. 


Carbon  and  zinc. 


E.M.F. 


The  mercury  is  covered  with  a 
paste  of  mercurous  sulphate 
and  ft  saturated  solution  of  zinc 
sulphate,  in  which  is  placed  the 
rod  of  zinc. 

The  zinc  is  immersed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  zinc  sulphate,  and  the 
copper  in  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate. 

The  platinum  is  immersed  in  a 
strong  nitric  acid,  and  the  zinc 
in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

The  carbon  in  nitric  acid,  and 
the  zinc  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid. 

The  carbon  is  packed  in  a  porous 
pot  with  peroxide  of  manga- 
nese and  broken  gas  carbon. 
The  zinc  is  immersed  in  solu- 
tion of  sal  ammoniac. 

The  best  solution  is  1  lb.  of  potas- 
sium-bichromate, 2  lbs.  strong 
sulphuric  acid  sp.  gr.  1.836,  and 
12  lbs.  water,  in  which  both 
electrodes  are  immersed,  the 
zinc  being  withdrawn  when 
the  cell  is  not  in  use. 


1.434  at  15°  C.  at  any 
temp  ^  C.  it  is 

1.434[l-.0008«*'-15®)]. 

Depends  upon  the  den- 
sities of  the  solutions ; 
it  varies  from  1.07  to 
1.14  volts. 

About  1.93  volts. 


About  1.74  volts. 


About  1.47  volts;  but  is 
quickly  reduced  if 
used  to  send  a  strong 
current. 

About  2  volts;  but  is 
quickly  reduced  if  em- 
ployed to  send  a  strong 
ciu'rent. 


— Practical    Engineers'  Electrical   Pocket  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


499 


STANDARD     TABLE     OF     HEIGHT    AND     WEIGHT. 


4  f  e< 

Height. 

Weight. 

Maximum. 

Standard. 

Minimum. 

it  10  inchcis 

150 
160 
167 
174 
181 
188 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 
255 

105 
110 
115 
120 
125 
130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 

83 

4    " 

11       '*      

87 

5     " 

92 

5    " 

1       ••      

96 

5     " 

2       "      

100 

5    *' 

3       *'      

104 

5     " 

4       *'      

108 

5    " 

5       "      

112 

5     " 

6       **      

115 

5    ' 

7       '*      

120 

5    • 

8       "      

125 

5    ' 

9       "      

130 

5     ' 

10       " 

135 

5     ' 

11       •'      

140    ' 

fi    ' 

145 

6    • 

1       "      

150 

6    * 

2       •*      

155 

6    * 

160 

6    ♦ 

'       4       "      

165 

-Table  furnished  by  F.  L.  Hoffman,  Insurance  Statistician. 


THE    AMERICAN    EXPERIENCE    TABLE    OF    MORTALITY. 


' 

Expectation 
of  Life  in 

Number 

i 

Expectation 
of  I^ife  in 

Number 

Age. 

Dying  in 

Age. 

Djdng  in 

Years. 

Each  1,000. 

Years. 

Each  1,000. 

20 

42.20 

7.81 

60 

14.10 

26.69 

21 

41.53 

7.86 

61 

13.47 

28.88 

22 

40.85 

7.91 

62 

12.86 

31.29 

23 

40.17 

7.96 

63 

12.26 

33.94 

24 

39.49 

8.01 

64 

11.67 

36.87 

25 

38.81 

8.07 

65 

11.10 

40.13 

26 

38.12  • 

8.13 

66 

10.54 

43.71 

27 

37.43 

8.20 

67 

10.00 

47.65 

28 

36.73 

8.26 

68 

9.47 

62.00 

29 

36.03 

8.35 

69 

8.97 

56.76 

30 

35.33 

8.43 

70 

8.48 

61.99 

31 

34.63 

8.51 

71 

8.00 

67.67 

32 

33.92 

8.61 

72 

7.55 

73.73 

33 

33.21 

8.72 

73 

7.11 

80.18 

34 

32.50 

8.83 

74 

6.68 

87.03 

35 

31.78 

8.95 

75 

6.27 

94.37 

36 

31.07 

9.09 

76 

5.88 

102.31 

37 

30.35 

9.23 

77 

5.49 

111.06 

38 

29.62 

9.41 

78 

5.11 

120.83 

39 

28.90 

9.59 

79 

4.74 

131.73 

40 

28.18 

9.79 

80 

4.39 

144  47 

41 

27.45 

10.01 

81 

4.05 

158.61 

42 

26.72 

10.25 

82 

3.71 

174.30 

43 

26.00 

10.52 

83 

3.39 

191.56 

44 

25.27 

10.83 

84 

3.08 

211.36 

45 

24.54 

11.16 

85 

2.77 

235.55 

46 

23.81 

11.56 

86 

2.47 

265.68 

47 

23.08 

12.00 

87 

2.18 

303.02 

48 

22.36 

12.51 

88 

1.91 

346.09 

49 

21.63 

13.11 

89 

1.66 

395.86 

50 

20.91 

13.78 

90 

1.42 

454.55 

51 

20.20 

14.54 

91 

1.19 

532.47 

52 

19.49 

15.39 

92 

.98 

634.26 

53 

18.79 

16.33 

93 

.80 

734.18 

54 

18.09 

17.40 

94 

.64 

857.14 

55 

17.40 

18.57 

95 

.50 

1000.00 

56 

16.72 

19.89 

57 

16.05 

21.34 

1 

58 

15.39 

22.94 

1 

59 

14.74 

24.72 

. 

ovv 

S^liUi 

Miriu    2 

\XKL12iit,lUA 

IN    x^mrni 

ItliiXNUlU     . 

BUUJ^.. 

THE   AMOUNT   OF    ONE   DOLLAR   AT   COMPOUND    INTEREST. 

End  of 

3 

3i 

Per  Cent. 

4 

Per  Cent. 

5 

6 

7 

Year. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

1 

SI.  03 

SI. 04 

SI. 04 

SI.  05 

SI. 05 

SI.  06 

SI.  07 

2 

1.06 

1.07 

1.08 

1.09 

1.10 

1.12 

1.14 

3 

1.09 

1.11 

1.12 

1.14 

1.16 

1.19 

1.23 

4 

1.13 

1.15 

1.17 

1.19 

1.22 

1.26 

1.31 

5 

1.16 

1.19 

1.22 

1.25 

1.28 

1.34 

1.40 

6 

1.19 

1.23 

1.27 

1.30 

1.34 

1.42 

1.50 

7 

1.23 

1.27 

1.32 

1.36 

1.41 

1.50 

1.61 

8 

1.27 

1.32 

1.37 

1.42 

1.48 

1.59 

1.72 

9 

1.30 

1.36 

1.42 

1.49 

1.55 

1.69 

1.84 

10 

1.34 

1.41 

1.48 

1.55 

1.63 

1.79 

1.97 

11 

1.38 

1.46 

1.54 

1.62 

1.71 

1.90 

2.10 

12 

1.43 

1.51 

1.60 

1.70 

1.80 

2.01 

2.25 

13 

1.47 

1.56 

1.67 

1.77 

1.89 

2.13 

2.41 

14 

1.51 

1.62 

1.73 

1.85 

1.98 

2.26 

2.58 

15 

1.56 

1.68 

1.80 

1.94 

2.08 

2.40 

2.76 

16 

1.60 

1.73 

1.87 

2.02 

2.18 

2.54 

2.95 

17 

1.65 

1.79 

1.95 

2.11 

2.29 

2.69 

3.16 

18 

1.70 

1.86 

2.03 

2.21 

2.41 

2.85 

3.38 

19 

1.75 

1.92 

2.11 

2.31 

2.53 

3.03 

3.62 

20 

1.81 

1.99 

2.19 

2.41 

2.65 

3.21 

3.87 

21 

1.86 

2.06 

2.28 

2.52 

2.79 

3.40 

4.14 

22 

1.92 

2.13 

2.37 

2.63 

2.93 

3.60 

4.43 

23 

1.97 

2.21 

2.46 

2.75 

3.07 

3.82 

4.74 

24 

2.03 

2.28 

2.56 

2.88 

3.23 

4.05 

5.07 

25 

2.09 

2.36 

2.67 

3.01 

3.39 

4.29 

5.43 

26 

2.16 

2.45 

2.77 

3.14 

3.56 

4.55 

5.81 

27 

2.22 

2.53 

2.88 

3.28 

3.73 

4.82 

6.21 

28 

2.29 

2.62 

3.00 

3.43 

3.92 

5.11 

6.65 

29 

2  36 

2.71 

3.12 

3.58 

4.12 

5.42 

7.11 

30 

2.43 

2.81 

3.24 

3.75 

4.32 

5.74 

7.61 

31 

2.50 

2.91 

3.37 

3.91 

4.54 

6.09 

8.15 

32 

2.58 

3.01 

3.51 

4.09 

4.76 

6.45 

8.72 

33 

2.65 

3.11 

3.65 

4.27 

5.00 

6.84 

9.33 

34 

2.73 

3.22 

3.79 

4.47 

5.25 

7.25 

9.98 

35 

2.81 

3.33 

3.95 

4.67 

5.52 

7.69 

10.68 

36 

2.90 

3.45 

4.10 

4.88 

5.79 

8.15 

11.42 

37 

2.99 

3.57 

4.27 

5.10 

6.08 

8.64 

12.22 

38 

3.07 

3.70 

4.44 

5.33 

6.39 

9.15 

13.08 

39 

3.17 

3.83 

4.62 

5.57 

6.70 

9.70 

13.99 

40 

3.26 

3.96 

4.80 

5.82 

7.04 

10.29 

14.97 

41 

3.36 

4.10 

4.99 

6.08 

7.39 

10.90 

16.02 

42 

3.46 

4.24 

5.19 

6.35 

7.76 

11.56 

17.14 

43 

3.56 

4.39 

5.40 

6.64 

8.15 

12.25 

18.34 

44 

3.67 

4.54 

5.62 

6.94 

8.56 

12.99 

19.63 

45 

3.78 

4.70 

5.84 

7.25 

8.99 

13.76 

21.00 

46 

3.90 

4.87 

6.07 

7.57 

9.43 

14.59 

22.47 

47 

4.01 

5.04 

6.32 

7.92 

9.91 

15.47 

.     24.05 

48 

4.13 

5.21 

6.57 

8.27 

10.40 

16.39 

25.73 

49 

4.26 

5.40 

6.83 

8.64 

10.92 

17.38 

27.53 

50 

4.38 

5.58 

7.11 

9.03 

11.47 

18.42 

29.46 

ROMAN    N 

OTATION. 

• 

1=L 

90  =  XC. 

« 

2  =  11 

3  =  11 

4  =  IV 

I. 

ioo=e 

500  =  D,  orLO. 
1,000  =  M,  or  Co. 
2,000  =  MM,  orllOOC 

5  =  V. 

). 

6=V] 
7  =  VI 

[. 
I. 

5,000  =  V.  or  Loo. 
6.000  =  VI,  orMMM. 

8  =  VI 

JL 

10,000  =  X,  or  Coo. 

9  =  IX 
10  =  X. 

La 

50,000 -L,  or  LOOO. 

20 =x: 

X. 

60,000  =  LX,  or  MMM: 

3. 

30 =x: 

KX. 

100,000  =  C,  or  COOO. 

40  =  X] 
50  =  L. 

\j. 

1,000,000  =  M,  or  COOOO- 

60  =  L^ 

C. 

2,000,000 -MM,  or  MMOi 

X).    . 

70  =  L] 

ex. 

A  line 

over  a  number  increfl 

ises  it    1,000 

80  =  L3 

cxx. 

times. 

INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abbreviations,  Astro- 
nomical     456 

Abrasive  Materials, 

Production  of 347 

Academy,  Naval ;  Regu- 
tions  Governing  Ad- 
mission  to 68,  69 

Academy     of     Sciences, 

National     320 

Accidents,  British  ....165 
Accidents,  Cause  of . . . .  395 
Accidents  in  Factories..394 

Accidents,    Fatal 395 

Accidents  at  Sea 18 

Acetylene  Gas  Discov- 
ered   (1836) 220 

Actors,  Professional 

Showmen,  etc 161 

Aerial    Navigation 392 

Agents   162 

Agricultural      i  m  p  1  e  - 

ments    260 

Agricultural      1  m  p  1  e  - 

ments.  Exports  of . . .  276 
Agricultural      1  m  p  1  e  - 
ments,   Value  or   Ex- 
ports   299 

Agricultural  Laborers.  .161 
Agriculture,         Depart- 

partment   of 313 

Air    487 

Air  Brake   (1869) 222 

Air,    Data 452 

Air       Ship       Perfected 

(1901)    224 

Air  to  Test   for   Sewer 

Gas    452 

Alabama,  Population  of.  138 

Alaska    170 

Alewives    368 

Alligator  Hides    369 

Alphabet,  Cable 198 

Alphabet,  Greek 458 

Altair     459 

Altitude  and  Azimuth.  .454 
Aluminum,    Production 

of    344 

American        Experience 

Table  of  Mortality.  .499 
American       Locomotive 
(the)  Seventy-one 

Years'  Growth  of 127 

American  Republics,  In- 
ternational Bureau 
of 325 


A 

PAGE 

Ammonia,       Production 

of    346 

Ammunition   260 

Analemma    457 

Angle,  to  Bisect 403 

Angle  Shaft  Coupling...422 

Angles    399 

Angular  Lever 413 

Angular  Measure 474 

Angular  Measurement. .  454 
Animal      Industry, 

Bureau  of 314 

Animal  Power,  Horse.. 487 

Animal   Products 357 

Animal      Substances, 
Specific    Gravity    and 

weight 479 

Animals,    Domestic, 

Number  and  Value . .  357 
Animals,  Exports  of... 276 

Animals,  Farm 304 

Animals,      Farm, 

Slaughtered 357 

Animals,    Farm,    Sold.  .357 
Animals,  Men  and.  Pull- 
ing Strength  of 490 

Animals,  Principal  Sta- 
tistics of 361 

Annapolis,     Regulations 
Governing   Admission 

into   68,  69 

Anthony  Pollok  Prize.. 338 
Antarctic   Explorations.  12 

Antifriction  Curve 406 

Antimony,      Production 

of    345 

Antipyrene    ( 1 884 ) 223 

Antiseptic      Surgery 

(1865)    222 

Aphelion     and     Perihe- 
lion     455 

Aoples — Legal  Weight.. 372 

Apples.  Production 360 

Apothecaries'    Liquid 

Measure 465 

Apothecaries'     Measure, 
U.    S.    and    Imperial 
Measure  Compared. .  .465 
Apricots,  Production .  . .  360 

April,  Heavens  in 461 

Arbitration,    Permanent 

Court  of 338 

Arc  Lamps,  Number . . .  382 

Arc,  to  Plot  Out 404 

Architects,       Designers, 
Draftsmen,  etc 161 


PAGE 

Arcturus 459 

Area  of  Countries  of  the 

World 143 

Area  and  Population . .  14 
Area  and  Population  of 

States   (1900) 158 

Area  and  Population  of 

the  U.   S 170 

Areas,    Equal,    Kepler's 

Law  of 455 

Aries,  First  Point  of .  .455 
Arizona,  Population  of.  138 
Arkansas,       I*opulation 

of 140 

Armies  of  the  Leading 

Powers 103 

Armies  of  the  World ; 
Peace  and  War  Foot- 
ing     105 

Armor      Protection     of 

Modern  War  Vessels..  56 
Army     of     the     United 

States,  The 91 

Arsenious  Oxide,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Artesian  Well  (1840).. 221 
Artificial    Feathers   and 

Flowers    260 

Artificial  Limbs 260 

Artistic  Properties,  In- 
ternational Unions  for 

Protection   of 340 

Artists'    Materials 260 

Artists     and     Teachers 

of  Art    161 

Asbestos,  Production  of.349 
Asphaltum,     Production 

of    349 

Asses,       Number       and 

Value    357 

Assignments 228 

Association      for      Ad- 
vancement of  Science.325 
Astronomical      Symbols 
and  Abbreviations. .  .456 

Astronomy    453 

Atomic  Weights,  Inter- 
national    444 

Attendance,  School ....  174 
August,  Heavens  in. . .  .462 
Austria.  Patents  In. . .  .229 

Avoirdupois  Weight 466 

Awnings,     Tents,      and 

Sails 260 

Axle    Grease 260 

Azimuth,  Altitude  and..454 


Babbitt  Metal  Discov- 
covered    (1839) 221 

Babbitt  Metal  and  Sol- 
der     260 

Bags,  Paper 260 

Bags,  other  than  Pa- 
per     260 

Bakers   162 


B 

Baking  and  Yeast  Pow- 
ders   260 

Ball-bearing  Devices. .  .436 
Ball  and  Socket  Joints..422 

Ralls,   Weight  of 487 

Balloon.    Gas,    Invented 

(1783)    219 

Balloons 391 

601 


*'  Baltic."  The 31 

Bananas,   Production. . .  360 
Band  Saw   (1887) .... .224 

Bank   Deposits 300 

Bank  Clearings 300 

Bankers  and  Brokers..  162 

Banks.  National 300 

Barbed  Wire 354 


502 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Barbed     Wire     Fencing 

(1861)    222 

Barbers  and  Ilairdress- 

Barbette    83 

Barbette  of  Battleship, 

Section    Through 84 

Barley,  Legal  Weight.. 372 

Barley,  Statistics 360 

Barometer  (1643) 218 

Bartenders   161 

Barytes,  Production  of..349 
Baskets  and  Rattan  and 

.Willow  Ware    260 

Bass,   Black 368 

Bass,  Sea 368 

Bass,  Strawberry 368 

Bass,   Striped 368 

Battery    Cells,    Compo- 
sition and  E.  M.  F.  .498 
Battery,  First   (1812).. 219 
Battery,     Storage,     In- 
vented 1812    219 

Battleship    56 

BattleshlD,  Details  of . .   57 
Battleship,    Interior 

of    80,  81 

Battleship,    Section    of, 

80,  81 
Bauxite,  Production  of.349 
Beans,  Castor,  Statis- 
tics .  358 
Beans,  Dry,  Statistics.. 358 
Beans,  Legal  Weight. .  .372 
Beets,  Legal  Weight .  .  .  372 
Beets,  Sugar,  Statis- 
tics      358 

Bell,   Alex.   G 217 

Bell -Crank  Lever 413 

Bells    260 

Bells,  Weight  of 390 

Belting     and     hose. 

Leather 260 

Belting     and     Hose, 

Linen    260 

Belting  and  Hose,  Rub- 
ber   260 

Belting,  Speed  of 439 

Belting,       Transmission 

of  Power  by 439 

Bible,       Weights       and 

Measures  of 474 

Bicycle        Invented 

(1855)    223 

Bicycle,   Safety    (1884). 223 
Bicycle  and  Tricycle  Re- 
pairing   260 

Bicycles  and  Tricycles.  .260 


C.      G.      S.      Electrical 

Standards    494 

Cabinetmakers   16.*^ 

Cable,   Alphabet 198 

Cable,     Wire     Required 

for    378 

Cables.  Submarine 193 

Caissons,     Invented 

(1841)    221 

Calcium  Carbide  (1893). 224 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Billiard  Tables  and  Ma- 
terials    260 

Biological  Survey,  U.  S. 

Division  of 315 

Bismuth.  Production  of.345 

Black  Bass 368 

Blackberries,  Produc- 
tion      360 

Blacking  260 

Blacksmlthing  and 

Wheelwrightlng 260 

Blacksmiths   162 

Blanchard,  T 216 

Bleachery       and       Dye  • 
Works  Operatives.. .  .163 

Blueflsh    368 

Bluing    260 

Board  Measure 482 

Board  Measure,  Conver- 
sion of  Cubic  Meas- 
ure into 483 

Boarding  and  Lodging- 
house  Keepers 161 

Boat  Signals .208 

Boatmen   and  Sailors.  .162 
Boats,    Cross-Channel . .   43 

Boats,     Fast 42 

Boats,    Irish 43 

Boiler  Tubes 491 

Boilers,   Steam 293 

Boiling  Points  of  Chem- 
ical Elements 451 

Bone,  Ivory  and  Lamp- 
black      260 

Bookbinders    163 

Bookbinding  and  Blank- 
book  making 261 

Bookkeepers  and  Ac- 
countants    162 

Boot     and      Shoe     Cut 

Stock    261 

Boot    and    Shoe    BMnd- 

ings    261 

Root  and  Shoe  ITppers..261 
Boot     and     Shoemakers 

and  Repairers 163 

Boots  and  Shoes.  Cus- 
tom Work  and  Re- 
pairing   261 

Boots  and  Shoes,  Fac- 
tory  Product 261 

Roots  and  Shoes,  Rub- 
ber     261 

Borax.  Production  of.  ..348 
Botanical         Investiga- 
tions   315 

Bottlers  and  Soda 
Water   Makers,   etc..  163 

Bottling 261 

Box   Makers    (Paper)..  163 
Boxes,  Cigar.  . 261 

C 

Calcium  Lights 261 

Calculating  Machine 

(1822)    220 

California,      Population 

of    140 

Calorie 494 

Calves.      Number      and 

Value    357 

Cams  and  Cam  Move- 
ments   480 


PAGE 

Boxes,        Fancy        and 

I*aper   261 

Boxes.       Wooden       and 

Packing    201 

Brake,  Car  (1872) 223 

Bran,  Legal  Weight 372 

Brass    261 

Brass      Castings      and 

Brass  Finishing 261 

Brass       and        Copper, 

Rolled 261 

Brass  Workers 163 

Brassware 261 

Bread  and  other  Bakery 

Products 261 

Breadstuff s.  Exports  of. 276 
Brewers  and  Maltsters..  163 

Brick  and  Tile 261 

Brick    and    Tilemakers,    "^ 

etc 162 

Bricks       and       Stones, 

Strength  of 486 

Bridges 261 

Bridges,  Length  of 390 

Bromine,  Production  of.  34  8 

Bronze  Castings 261 

Broom  and  Brush- 
makers    1 6.S 

Broom  Corn,  Statistics.. 358 
Brooms  and  Brushes . .  .  261 

Brush,   C.   F 217 

Bu  kwheat,         Legal 

Weight 372 

Buckwheat,  Statistics.  .360 
Buhrstones,    Production 

of    348 

Buildings,  Height  of.  .  .389 
Bulls,       Number       and 
value   ............. oo I 

Bureau  of  International 

Geodosy   341 

Bureau.  International, 
of  Railroad  Trans- 
portation    341 

Bureau    for    Repression 

of  Slave  Trade 340 

Bureau    of    Telegraphs, 

International    339 

Bureau  of  Weights  and 
Measures,  Interna- 
tional     339 

Bureaus.    International, 

Institutions  and 337 

Burros,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Butchers    162 

Butter  and  Cheese- 
makers   162 

Butter,  Production  of.  .357 
Butter,  Reworking. . .  .261 
Buttons    261 


Canada,  Patents  In. . .  .229 
Cane,   Sorghum,   Statis- 
tics    358 

Cane,  Sugar,  Production 

of    304 

Cane,   Sugar,  Statistlc8.358 
Cannon    Ball,    Velocity 

of    383 

Cans.  Size  of  Tin  for . .  378 
Car  Brake  (1872) 223 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


508 


PAGE 

Car  Coupler   (1873)... 223 
Carbide,         Calcium 

Carbolic    Acid,    Discov- 
ered   (1834)    220 

Carborundum  (1893). ..224 
Carborundum,     Produc- 
tion of 347 

Card    Cutting    and    De- 
signing     261 

Cardboard    261 

Carnegie  Hero  Commis- 
sion    341 

Carnegie  Institution . . .  342 

Carp,   German 368 

Carpentering    261 

Carpenters  and  Joiner8.162 
Carpet    Factory    Opera- 
tives   163 

Carpets,  Rag 261 

Carpets  and  Rugs,  other 

than  Rag 261 

Carpets,  Wool 261 

Carriage     and     Wagon 

Materials 261 

Carriages    298 

Carriages,  Exports  of.. 277 
Carriages     and      Sleds, 

Children's    261 

Carriages  and  Wagons. 261 
Carrots,  Legal  Weight.. 372 
Cars  and  General  Shop 
Construction  and  Re- 
pairs l)y  Steam  Rail- 
road Companies. . .  .261 
Cars,       Railroad       and 
Street,    and    Repairs, 
not    including   Estab- 
lishments operated  by 
Steam  Railroad  Com- 
panies     261 

Cash  Carrier  (1875)...  .223 
Casting,     Proportionate 
Weight  of.  to  Weight 

of  Wood  Pattern 490 

Castings,       Contraction 

of 492 

Castor     Beans,     Statis- 
tics   358 

Catfish    368 

Cathode  Rays  (1879) . .223 
Cattle,      Number      and 
V aiue    •.•....••■••• ooi 

Caveats    227 

Celluloid  (1870) 223 

Celluloid   and    Celluloid 

Goods 261 

Cement.       Portland 

(1825)    220 

Cement,  Production  of.. 34 7 

Census,  Bureau  of 32.S 

Center  of  Circle,  to  find. 4^3 

Chain  Gear 420 

Charcoal    231 

Charcoal,       Coke      and 

Lime  Burners 163 

Charcoal,  Lesral  Weight  372 
Cheese.      Butter      and 

Condensed  Milk 262 

Cheese,  Production  of.. 357 
Chemical   Elements, 
Boiling  Points  of . . .  .451 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAQB 

Chemical   Elements, 

Melting  Point  of 451 

Chemical  Materials,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Chemical  Workers 162 

Chemicals  262 

Jhemicals     and     Allied 

Products 269 

Chemicals,     Common 

Names    of 445 

Chemistry    443 

Chemistry.  Bureau  of.. 314 
Cherries,  Production ...  360 

Chickens    355 

Chicory,    Statistics 358 

China  Decorating 262 

"  Chinese  Windlass  ". . .  413 

Chloroform    ( 1847 ) 221 

Chloroform    Discovered 

(1831)    220 

Chocolate     and     Cocoa 

Products    262 

Chord 399 

Chromic  Iron  Ore,  Pro- 
duction of 349 

Chronograph,   The 453 

Cider,    Production 360 

Cider   Vinegar,   Produc- 
tion      360 

Circle,    Area 408 

Circle,   Circumference.  .408 
Circle,       Circumference 

and  Area 473 

Circle,    Diameter 408 

Circle,    Formulas   for.  .408 

Circle,   The 408 

Circle,    to    Find   Center 

of    403 

Circular   Measure 473 

Cities.     Population     of 

Greatest 16 

Citrons,   Production 360 

Civil  Service,  Clas8ified.320 
Civil     Service    Commis- 
sion    320 

Civil    Service   Examina- 
tions      320 

Clams     369 

Clay.    Glass   and    Stone 

Products    269 

Clay  Products 347 

Clay  Products  in  1902.  .353 
Cleansing  and  Polishing 

Preparations 262 

Clergymen    101 

Clerks  and  Copyists 162 

Clock,  Sidereal 453 

Clocks     262 

Clock     and    Watchmak- 
ers and  Repairers.  .  .163 
Cloth.      Sponging      and 

Rpfinishing   262 

Clothing.   Horse 262 

Clothing,    Men's 262 

Clothing.      Women's 

Dressmaking   262 

Clothing.   Women's,  Fac- 
tory  Product 262 

Clover.  Legal  Weight.. 372 
Clover  Seed,  Statistics.. 358 

Clutches    420 

Coal,  Cost  in.  on  Liners  42 
Coal,  Legal  Weight 372 


PAGE 

Coal,  Production  of.304,  345 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey     323 

Cobalt,    Oxide,    Produc- 
tion of    349 

Cod    368 

Code,    International 205 

Code,  Morse 187 

Coflfee,    Imports 306 

Coflfee,  Production 360 

Coflfee  and  Spice,  Roast- 
ing and  Grinding 262 

Coffins,     Burial     Cases, 
and        Undertakers' 

Goods 262 

Coherer    (1891) 224 

Coinage  of  U.  S 300 

Coins,     Foreign,     Value 

of    386 

Coke 262 

Coke,   Legal   Weight ...  372 
Coke,   Production  of... 346 
Collars   and    Cuflfs,    Pa- 
per   (1890) 262 

Colleges,      Number      of 

Students   in 172 

Colleges,     Students     in 

Institutions  and.176,308 
Colorado,  Population  of.l40 
Colts,      Number      and 

Value    357 

**  Columbia  "    49 

Columns,  Height  of 390 

Combs   262 

Commerce    Commission, 

Interstate    321 

Commerce    and    Labor, 

Department  of 322 

Commerce   of   Principal 

Customs  Districts. .  .304 
Commerce,    Transporta- 
tion   of 304 

Commercial   Travelers. .  162 
Committee,   Interna- 
tional,      on      Atomic 
W^eights,   Report  of.  .444 
Compass,    Points   of . . .     1 
Composition  and  E.  M. 

F.  of  Battery  Cells.  .498 
Compound    Equivalents, 

French  and  English. 471 
Compound  Interest ....  500 
Conductivity,  Electrical, 

and  Heat 496 

Conductors.  Electrical. .  495 
Cone.  Surface  and  Con- 
tents      473 

Confectioners    1 62 

Confectionery    262 

Conic   Sections 399 

Connecticut,  Population 

of    140 

Construction     and     Re- 
pair, Bureau  of 318 

Cooperage 262 

Coopers 163 

Copper,    Production    of. 

306,  344 
Copper.    Smelting    and 

Refining 262 

Copper     Wire,     Weight 

per  Mile  of 497 

Copyrights   250 


504 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Cord  Measure 482 

Cord    Measure,    Conver- 
sion into  Cubic  Meas- 

Cordage  and  Twine 262 

Cordials  and  Syrups. . .262 

Corli,  Cutting 262 

Coriiss  Engine  (1849).. 221 
Corn,  Broom,  Statistics.358 
Corn,  Kaffir,  Statistics.. 358 

Corn,  Legal  Weight 372 

Corn      Meal,       Legal 

Weight 372 

Corn,   Production  of... 304 

Corn,   Statistics 360 

Corsets    262 

Corundum,     Production 

of    347 

Cost  of  Living 396 

Cotton,  Compressing.  .  .262 
Cotton,  Exports  of .  .  .  .278 
Cotton     Gin      Invented 

(1794)    219 

Cotton,  Ginning 262 

Cotton  Goods 262 

Cotton,       Manufactures 

of    306 

Cotton,  Middling,  Prices 

of    - 308 

Cotton  Mill  Operatives.  163 

Cotton    Movement 306 

Cotton,  Production  of.  .304 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Cotton     Seed,     Legal 

Weight 372 

Cotton  Seed,  Statlstlcs.358 

Cotton,    Statistics 360 

Cotton  Waste 262 

Coulomb,  Unit  of  Quan- 

Coupler,  Car'  (1873) !  .*  .223 

Couplings,  Angle 422 

Court     of     Arbitration, 

Permanent     338 

Cows,       Number       and 

Value   361 

Crabs    369 

-Cranberries,        Legal 

Weight 374 

Crappie    368 

Crops,     Census     Statis- 
tics    358 

Crops,      Minerals      Ab- 
sorbed by 356 

Crops,     Principal,     Sta- 
tistics of 360 

Cross-Channel  Boats ...   43 

Crucibles    262 

Cruiser,   Armored 56 

Cruiser,  Protected.  ....   56 
Cruiser   to   Racing   Ma- 
chine.   From 46 

Crushed   Steel,    Produc- 
tion  of 347 


PAGE 

Crystalline  Quartz,  Pro- 
duction of 347 

Cube,  Surface  and  Con- 
tents      473 

Cubic  Measure 465 

Cubic      Measure,      Con- 
version    into     Board 

Measure 483 

"  Cunarders,"  The  New, 

with  illustration.  .33,  41 
Currants,  Production . .  360 
Currency  In  Circulatlon.385 

Currency,   Paper 384 

Current,   Unit  of 493 

Curve.     Shields,     Anti- 
friction    406 

Customary  Measures  to 

Metric  471 

Customs.  Receipts  from. 336 
Customs  Tariffs.    Inter- 
national    Publication 

of    340 

Cutlery  and  Edge  Tools. 262 

Cuts  of  Meat 361 

Cyanide    Process 

(1887)    224 

Cycloid,  to  Construct . .  408 

Cyclones   208 

Cylinder,     Surface    and 

Contents    473 

Cyma,  to  Draw 404 


D 


Daguerreotype     Discov- 
ered   (1839) 221 

Dairy  Farms 356 

Dairymen     and     Dairy- 
women    161 

Date      Line,      Interna- 
tional     199 

Day,      Siderial,      Solar, 

and  Mean  Solar 455 

Death  Rates 160 

Debt,  Public,  of  U.  S..38."> 
December,  Heavens  In.  .464 
Decimal  Equivalents  and 

Fractions  of   Inch... 474 
Decimal    System, 
Weights     and     Meas- 
ures   470 

Decisions.   Patent 228 

Declination    456 

De  Forest  System 203 

'*  Defender  "    49 

Defending  Harbor  Chan- 
nel, Method  of 85 

Delaware,      Population 

of    140 

Denominations,       Table 

of    398 

Density  of  the  Earth.  .456 
Dentistry,   Mechanical. .  262 

Dentists 161 

Dentists'   Materials 202 

Department  of  Agricul- 
ture    313 

Department      of     Com- 
merce and  Labor ....  322 


Departments  of  Federal 

Government    311 

Department  of  Interior.310 
Department  of  Justice. 311 
Department  of  Navy. .  .316 
Department,     Post     Of- 
fice     316 

Department  of  Treas- 
ury     311 

Deoartment  of  War... 312 
Depreciation      of      Ma- 
chinery      352 

Design  I»atents 227 

Designs    239 

Destroyer.  Torpedo 
Boat,  Sectional  Dia- 
gram ot 77 

"  Deutschland,"     S  u  p  - 

piles  of 38 

Diamond   M>    sure 466 

Dietaries.         Standards 

for    367 

Dletarv    Standards 367 

Differential  Gear 428 

Dimensions  of  Earth.  .  .354 
Directions      for      Using 

Star  Map 459 

Discovery.    Progress  of. 

1     2.   3 
Distance,       Sun       from 
Earth,      not      always 

same 455 

Distilled  Spirits,  Con- 
sumption  of 308 


Distilled  Spirits.  Quan- 
tity Consumed 397 

Distillers  and  Rectifier8.163 

Distress   Signals 206 

District     of     Columbia, 

Population  of 142 

Divisions,   Land,   of   U. 

_  S.    355 

Docks  and  Yards,Bureaii 

of    317 

Dog  Star,   Sirius 459 

Domes,  Dimensions  of.. 389 
Domestic  Animals,  Num- 
ber and  Value 357 

Drafting  Devices 438 

Drawing,  Signs  for ...  .  234 
Draymen,         Hackmen, 

Teamsters,  etc 162 

Dressmakers    1 63 

Drill.   Rock    (1854)  .  .  .  '.222 

Drug  Grinding 262 

Druggists'    P  r  e  p  a  r  a- 
tlons.    not    Including 

Prescriptions    262 

Dry    Measure 465 

Dry  Plates.  Sizes  of. .  .45? 
Dye    Stuffs    and    E  x  - 

tracts    262 

Dyeing  and  Cleaning.  .202 
Dyeing    and    Finishing 

Textiles    262 

Dynamite  (1868) 222 

Dynamo     (1866) 222 

Dynamos,  Number  of.  .381 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


505 


PAGE 

Eadiu  J.  B 217 

Earth,  Density  of 456 

Earth,  Dimensions  of . .  854 
Earth,     Fuller's,     Pro- 
duction of       350 

Earth,    Infusorial,    Pro- 
duction of 347 

Earth,  Magnitude  of . . .  454 
Earth       Moves       with 

Varying    Velocity ....  455 
Earth,  Revolution  of,  in 

its  Orbit    455 

Earth,  Rotundity  of... 454 
Earth  from  Sun  not  al- 
ways same  Distance. .  455 

Earth,  Velocity  of 383 

Earth's  Rotation,  Dem- 
onstration of 454 

Ecliptic,  Inclination  of. 
How  Determined ....  455 

Edison,   T.   A 217 

Education    171 

Education,    C  o  m  m  i  s  - 

sioner  of 319 

Education,  Value  of... 171 

Eels  368 

Eggs 355 

Eggs,   Production  of .  .  .  357 
Electric    Light    and 

Power  Stations 379 

Electric  Locomotive 

(1851)    221 

Electric    Motors    in 

Mines  and  Quarries.  .353 
Electric  Power  Output..382 
Electric  Units.   Electro- 
Magnetic  System ....  494 
Electric  Wei  ding 

(1886)    224 

Electrical        Apparatus 
and  Supplies 262 


INDEX — Continued. 
E 

PAGE 

Electrical    Construction 

and  Repairs    262 

Electrical  Engineering.. 493 
Electrical  Horse-Power.498 
Electrical  Resistance  of 

Metals  and  Alloys. .  .495 
Electrical  Standards.  C. 

G.  S 494 

Electrical     Units    of 

Measurement    493 

Electricians 161 

Electricity,  Velocity  of.. 383 
Electro-Magnet   (1825). .220 
Electro-Magnetic      Sys- 
tem of  Units 494 

E  1  e  c  t  r  o-Magnetism 

(1819)    220 

Electro-Motive  Force  of 

Battery   Cells 498 

Electroplating    (1805). .219 

Electroplating    262 

Electro  ysis  (1853)..  .  .222 
Elements,    Rare,    Value 

of    447 

Elements,  Table  of 443 

Elevator    ( 1861 ) 222 

Ellipse    399 

Ellipse,  Area  of 473 

Ellipse,     to     Construct 

406.  408 
Emery,  Production  of.. 347 

Emery   Wheels 262 

Employees,  Number  of.. 273 
Enameling    and    Enam- 
eled   Goods 262 

Engine,  Corliss  (1849). .221 
Engineers    (Civil,    etc.) 

and   Surveyors 161 

Engineers  and  Firemen 
(not    Locomotive) ...  163 


PAGE 

Engines,  Steam 293 

English    Money,    Value 

of    389 

Engravers    163 

Engravers'  Materials. . .  263 
Engraving  and  Die-sink- 
ing   263 

Engraving,  Steel.  In- 
cluding Plate  Print- 
ing     263 

Engraving.  Wood 263 

Entomology,  U.  S.  Di- 
vision of 315 

Envelopes    263 

Equation  of  Time 456 

Equatorial  Telescope ..  453 
Equipment,  Bureau  of.  .317 
Equivalent,  Mechanical. 

of  Heat   483 

Equivalents,  French 
and  English  Com- 
pound   472 

Ericsson,   Capt.   John.. 217 

Escapements   424 

Establishments        and 

Products    272 

Europe.  Population  of.  .273 
Expansion  of  Liquids.. 485 
Expansion     of     Solids, 

Linear 485 

Expansion,  Territorial.. 170 
Expenditures    of    U.    S. 

Government     300 

Experimental  Gardens...315 
Experiment        Stations, 

U.   S.  Office  of 314 

ExDlorations,  Antarctic.  12 

Explosives 263 

Exports    276,  302 

Exports,  Merchandise ..  275 


Factories,  Accidents  in.. 394 
Failures,  Commercial. ..  308 
Fancy  Articles,  not  else- 
where specified 263 

Farad — Unit      of      Ca- 
pacity      494 

Farm  Animals    304 

Farm      Crops,      Census 

Statistics    358 

Farm         Implements, 

Value   of 299 

Farm  Statistics 304 

Farmers,    Planters   and 

Overseers     161 

Farms    355 

Farms,  Dairy .'356 

Farms  and  Food 355 

February,  Heavens  In.  .461 
Feldspar.  Production  of.349 

Felt    Goods 263 

Fertilizers   263 

Fibrous    Talc,    Produc- 
tion of 349 

Figs.   Production 360 

Files    263 

Films.     Photographic 
(1854)     222 


P 

Fire    Alarm    Telegraph 

(1852)    221 

Fire        Extinguishers. 

Chemical    263 

Fire  Losses,  Annual .  . .  395 

Fire,  What  To  Do 396 

Firearms    263 

Fireworks    263 

First  Point  of  Aries.  .  .455 
Fish,  Canning  and  Pre- 
serving     263 

Fish,   Exports  of 278 

Fish    Oil 369 

Fisheries,    Bureau    of.. 324 
Fisheries,   Products  of. 368 
Fishermen   and   Oyster- 
men    162 

Flag  Day 19 

Flags  and  Banners.  ..  .263 

Flavoring  Extracts 263 

Flax,  Dressed 263 

Flaxseed,  Legal  Welght.374 

Flaxseed,  Statistics 360 

Fleece- Wool,  Prices  of.  .308 
Flint.  Production  of... 350 
Florida,  Population  of..  142 
Flounders    368 


Flowering      &n&     Grist 

Mill  Products 263 

Flowers,  Statistics 358 

Fluorspar,      Production 

of    348 

Flux,     Limestone,     Pro- 
duction of 35C 

Food,  Farms  and 355 

Food,  Fuel  Value  of... 362 
Food       and       Kindred 

Products    269 

Food   Preparations 263 

Food     Products,     Com- 
position   of 364 

Foods,     Functions    and 

Uses   361 

Forage    Plant,    Investi- 
gations, Grass  and.. 31 5 

Force,  Unit  of 495 

Force  of  Wind 489 

Foreign     Coins,     Value 

of    386 

Foreign  Markets,  U.   S. 

Division  of 314 

Foreign  Patents 229 

Foreign     Weights     and 
Measures 467 


■v. 


506 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Foremen     and     Orer- 

seers 162 

Forest  Products,  Statis- 
tics    358 

Forestry,  Bureau  of... 315 
Formulas      for      the 

Circle   408 

Foundry    and    Machine 

Shop  Products 263 

Foundry  Supplies 263 

Fractions   of   Inch    and 
Decimal  Equlvalent8..474 

France,  Patents  in 220 

Franklin,  Ben 216 

Freight      Cars,      Total 

Number  of 119 

Freight     Rates     on 
Wheat 308 


I NDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

French  and  English 
Compound  Equiva- 
lents   472 

Friction   485 

Friction    Clutches 420 

Friction  Gear 418 

Frogs    369 

Fruit  Products 360 

Fruits,  Orchard,  Statis- 
tics   360 

Fruits,  Small,  Statis- 
tics     360 

Fruits.  Subtropical,  Sta- 
tistics   •. .360 

Fruits  and  Vegetables, 
Canning  and  Preserv- 
ing     263 

Frustum  of  Cone  or 
Pyramid,  Contents. . .  473 


PAGE 

Fuel  Value  of  Food.... 362 
Fuels,  Production  of. .  .345 
Fuels,       etc..       Specific 
Gravity,    Weight   and 

Bulk   478 

Fuller's  Earth,  Produc- 
tion of 350 

Fulton,  Robert   216 

Fur  Goods 263 

Fur  Seal  Pelts 369 

Furnishing       Goods, 

Men's   263 

Furniture,  including, 
Cabinetmaking,  Re- 
pairing and  Uphol- 
stering    263 

Furs,  Dressed 263 


"Galatea"  48 

Galvanizing    263 

Galvanizing       Invented 

(1837)    220 

Galvanometer    (1822).. 220 
Gardeners,  Florists, 

Nurserymen,  etc....  161 
Gardens,  Experimental. .315 
Garnet,  Production  of.  .347 

Gas  Engine  (1877) 223 

Gas  E3ngines 293 

Gas  First  Used  (1792). 219 
Gas.     Illuminating    and 

Heating    263 

Gas  and  Lamp  Fixtures  263 
Gas      Machines      and 

Meters    263 

Gas     Meter,     How     to 

Read     384 

Gas  and  Oil  Stoves 263 

Gas,      Production      of, 

346,  354 
Gas,  Sewer,  to  Test  Air 

for    452 

Gas,  Water  (1823) 220 

Gases  and  Vapors.  Spe- 
cific Gravity.   Weight 

and  Volume 480 

Gatling  Gun    (1862)... 222 
Gauge.  U.  S..  Standard.493 

Gauges,   Wire 497 

Gear,  Chain 420 

Gear,    Diflferentlal 428 

Gear,    Friction 418 

Gear,   Mangle 428 

Gear,   Rope 420 

Gear,    Toothed 417 

Gear.  Variable  Speed. ..418 
Gearing    426 


G 

Gearing,    Simple    Rules 

on 492 

General    Staff    of    War 

Department 312 

"  Genesta  "    48 

Geodesy,    International 

Bureau  of 341 

Geodetic   Survey,   Coast 

and 323 

Geographic       Names, 

Board  on 319 

Geographical    and   Nau- 
tical Measure 465 

Geological    Survey,    Di- 
rector of   319 

Geometrical      Construc- 
tions     402 

Geometrical   Figures. .  .399 
(Jeorgia,  Population  of.. 142 

(^erman   Carp 368 

Germany,  Patents  in . .  .  229 
Glass,    Cutting,    Stain- 
ing and  Ornamenting.263 
Glass,      Sand,     Produc- 
tion of 350 

Glass   Workers 162 

(ilove    Makers 163 

(iloves   and   Mittens. .  .263 

Glucose   263 

Glue    203 

Goat    Hair,    Production 

of    357 

Goats.      Number     and 

Value    357 

Gold,    Imports  and   Ex- 
ports     302 

Gold,      Production      of, 

304.  344 
Gold    and    Silver,    Leaf 
and    Foil 263 


Gold  and  Silver,  Reduc- 
ing and  Refining,  not 

from  the  Ore 263 

Gold  and  Silver  Work- 
ers     163 

Gold,    World's    Produc- 
tion of 388 

Goodyear,   C 216 

Gooseberries,       Produc- 
tion     360 

Governors 438 

Grapes.    Statistics 358 

Graphite   and   Graphite 

Refining 263 

Graphite.  Production  of.3.50 
Graphophone  (1886)... 224 
Grass     and     Forage 

Plant  Investigations. 315 
Grass      Seed,      Legal 

Weight 374 

Grass  Seed,  Statistics . .  358 

Gravity,  Specific 445 

Grease  and  Tallow ....  264 
Great    Britain,    Patents 
in    ^      229 

"  Great  Eastern,'"*  The ',  27 
"  Great        Eastern" 

Launched    ( 1859) 222 

Greek   Alphabet 458 

Grinding,   Speeds  of... 352 

Grindstones    264 

Guava,  Production  of .  .  360 

Gun  Cotton  (1846) 221 

Gun,     Magazine,     I  n  • 

vented    (1849) 221 

Guns,  in  the  Civil  War 

and      To-day,      Our 

Navy   89,  90 

Gypsum,  Production  of..348 


Haddock    ;  .  .  368 

Halrwork    264 

Hake    368 

Halibut    .S68 

Hammocks 264 

Hand  Knit  Goods 264 


H 

Hand  Stamps 264 

Hand    Trades 269 

Harbor  Channel.   Meth- 
od of  Defending 85 

Hardness  of  Minerals.  .483 
Hardware    264 


Hardware,    Saddlery . . .  264 
Harness     and     Saddle- 
makers    and    Repair- 
ers     163 

Harvey  I  zed  Armor  Plate 
(1888)    224 


SCIENTIFIC   AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


507 


PAGE 

Hat  and  Cap  Makers..  163 
Hat  and  Cap  Materials.2G4 
Hats  and  Caps,  not  in- 
cluding Wool  Hats.. 264 
Hawaii,     Civil     Service 

in    321 

Hay,    Statistics 360 

Heat  of  Combustion. .  .451 
Heat      and      Electrical/ 

Conductivity   496 

Heat,  Mechanical  Equiv- 
alent of 483 

Heat  of  Metals 483 

Heavens,  Star  Map  of.  .460 
Heifers,     Number     and 

Value    357 

Height      and      Weight, 
Standard  Table  of. .  .499 

Hemp,  Statistics 358 

Henry,    Jos 217 

Henry,    Unit   of   Induc- 
tion    494 

Heptagon,  to  Construct. 4 04 


I NDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Hero  Commission,   Car- 
negie     341 

Herring    368 

Hertzian  Waves   (1888). 224 
Hewitt  Lamp   (1900).. 224 
Hexagon    to    Construc- 
tion in  Circle 404 

Hides,  Alligator 369 

Hocrs.      Number      and 

Value    361 

Hones  and  Whetstones.. 264 
Honey,  Production  of.. 357 

Honey.    Statistics 358 

Hooks  and   Eyes 264 

Hops,  Statistics 358 

Horse,  Animal  Power.. 487 
Horse,  How  to  Harness.392 

Horse-Power   487 

Horse-Power,  Electrical. 498 
Horse-Power,     Rough 

Way  to  Estimate 491 

Horse,  Velocity  of 383 


PAGE 

Horses,     Number     and 

Value    : 361 

Horseshoes,         Factory 

Products 264 

Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods.264 
Hosiery     and     Knitting 

Mill  Operatives 163 

Hostlers    162 

li^otel    Keepers 161 

House     Furnishing 

Goods 264 

Household    Measures. .  .466 
Housekeepers  and  Stew- 
ards     161 

How  the  Population  of 
the   United   States  is 

Sheltered   157 

Howe,  Ellas 217 

Hucksters  and  Peddlers.162 
Hydrogen,Llfting  Power 

of    392 

Hyperbola,  to  Construct.406 
Hypothenuse    399 


Idaho,  Population  of. . .  142 

Ice,  Manufactured 264 

Ice-making    Machine 

(1875)    223 

Ice  and  Snow 487 

Ice,  Strength  of 487 

Illinois,   Population  of.. 144 

Immigrants  Arrived 308 

Immigration    165 

Immigration,  Bureau  of.324 
Immigration,       Number 
and  Nationality   ....165 

Imports    302 

Imports  and  Exports .  .  286 
Imports    and    Merchan- 
dise   292 

Incandescent  Gas  Light 

(1887)    224 

Incandescent   Lamps.  .  .382 
Inch,  Fractions  of,  and 

Decimal  Equlvalents..474 
Inclination   of   Ecliptic, 
How   Determined.  ..  .455 

Inclined   Plane 416 

Increase  of  Population 
In  the  United  States 
and  the  Principal 
Countries  of  Europe 
from  1800  to  1900 ... 141 
Index     of     Lathe,     To 

Obtain    491 

Indian,    Service    Expen- 
ditures    336 

Indiana,  Population  of.. 144 

Indians    164 

Induction.  The  Henry.  .494 
Industrial       Properties, 
International     Union 
for  Protection  of ...  .  340 
Industries,  Division  of.. 275 
Industries,     Localization 

of    257 

Industries,        Manufac- 
turing, of  IT.   S 306 

Industries,   Rank  of... 270 


I 

Industry,  Animal 
Bureau  of 314 

Industry,  Plant,  Bureau 
of    315 

Information  Relative  to 
Admission  of  Cadets 
to  West  Point 94 

Infringement 227 

Infusorial  Earth,  Pro- 
duction of 347 

Injector   (1858) 222 

InK   264 

Institution,  Carnegie. . .  342 

Ins  titutlons  and 
Bureaus,  Interna- 
tlonal    337 

Instruments,  P.r  o  f  e  s  - 
sional  and  Scientific. 264 

Interest   Compound ....  500 

Interference    227 

Interior,  Department  of.319 

Internal  Revenue,  Re- 
ceipts from 336 

International  Atomic 
Weights    444 

International  Bureau  of 
American   Republics. .  325 

International  Bureau  of 
Geodesy     341 

International  Bureau  of 
Railroad  Transpor- 
tation   341 

International  Bureau  of 
Telegraphs    339 

International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Meas- 
ures     339 

International  Code  of 
Signals 205 

International  Institu- 
tions and  Bureaus. .  .337 

International  Postal 
Union 338 

International  Racing 
Yacht,  Development 
of    48,  49 


International  Telegraph 

Code 187 

International  Union  for 
Protecting  Industrial, 
Literary,  and  Artis- 
tic Properties 340 

International  Union  for 
Publishing      Customs 

Tariffs    340 

Interstate        Commerce 

Commission 321 

Inventors,       D  I  s  1 1  n  - 

guished   American ...  21 6 
Inventions.  Progress  of. 21 8 

Irish  Boats 43 

Iron,   Manufactures  of. .306 
Iron  Ore.  Chromic  Pro- 
duction of 349 

Iron    Ores,    Production 

of    344 

Iron,    Production   of... 344 

Iron  and  Steel 264 

Iron  and  Steel,  Bolts, 
Nuts,    Washers,    and 

Rivets     264 

Iron    and    Steel,    Doors 

and   Shutters    264 

Iron    and    Steel,    Forg- 

,  Ings   264 

Iron  and  Steel.  Nails 
and  Spikes,  Cut  and 
Wrought,       Including 

Wire  Nails    264 

Iron    and    Steel,    Pipe, 

Wrought    264 

Iron  and  Steel  Produc- 
tion     294 

Iron  and  Steel  and  their 

Products 269 

Iron  and  Steel  Workers  162 
Ironwork.  Architectural 

and   Ornamental 264 

Irrigation,  American. . .  273 
Isometric  Perspective .  .  406 
Ivory  and  Bone  Work . .  264 


508 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Janitors  and  Sextons..  .161 
January,   Heavens   in.. 461 

Japanning   264 

Jenny,  Spinning  (1763).219 
Jewelry    264 


Kaffir  Corn,  Statistics..35S 
Kansas,   Population  of.. 145 
Kaolin  and  other  Earth 
Grinding    264 

Labels   241 

Labels  and  Tags 264 

Labor,  Bureau  of 322 

Laborers    161 

Labor's  Death  Roll 165 

"  Lake,"  Submarine  Boat  75 

Lakes,   Great 11 

Lambs,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Lamp,  Miner's  (1815).. 220 
Lamps  and  Reflectors.  .264 
Land,  Divisions  of  U.  S.355 
Land      Lines      of      the 

World    185 

Land  Measure 465 

Land     Office,     Commis- 
sioner     319 

Land  Turbines 43 

Land  and  Water 7 

Languages       of       the 

World    2 

Lapidary  Work 264 

Lard,  Refined 264 

Lasts    264 

Lathe,  To  Obtain  Index 

of    491 

Latitude,  Longitude 

Right — Ascension  and 

Declination    456 

Latitude,     Variation    in 

Length  of  Degrees.  .  .456 
Launderers    and    Laun- 
dresses    161 

Law    of    Equal    Areas, 

Kepler's    455 

Laws,   Patent 230 

Lawyers    161 

Lead,     Bar,     Pipe,     and 

Sheet    264 

Lead.  Production  of... 344 
Lead,      Smelting      and 

Refining 265 

Leather   Board 265 

Leather     Curriers     and 

Tanners   163 

Leather     and     its    Fin- 
ished Products 269 

McCormick.  C.  H 216 

Machine    Elements 413 

Machinery,  Depreciation 

of 352 

Machinery,  Exports  of.  .280 

Machinists    162 

Mackerel    368 

Mackerel,  Spanish ,  868 


INDEX— Continued. 

J  PAGE 

Jewelry  and  Instrument 

Cases 264 

Jewish  Money '.  .475 

Joints,  Universal 422 

Joule    494 

K 

Kepler's  Law  of  Equal 

Areas    455 

Kindling    Wood 264 

Kinetoscope    ( 1893 ) 224 

L. 

Leather  Goods 265 

Leather,    Tanned.    Cur- 
ried and  Refinished . .  265 
Legal      Weights     per 

Bushel    372 

Lemons,  Production 360 

Letters,   How  to  Direct 

and  Mail    333 

Lever    Angular    or   Bell 

Crank    413 

Lever,    Common 413 

Levers,    Compound 413 

Libraries.  U.  S 178 

Libraries  of  the  World .  184 
Life     Preserver,      First 

(1805)    219 

Life-Saving  Service,    U. 

S 44 

Life-Saving    Signals 208 

Light  Stations,  Electric.379 
Light,  Velocity  of. .  383,  455 

Lighthouse  Board 323 

Lighthouse       Establish- 
ment, The 45 

Limbs,    Artificial 

(1846)    221 

Lime  and  Cement 265 

Lime,   Legal    Weight ...  374 

Limes,    Production 360 

Limestone      for      Flux, 

Production  of 350 

Line  to  Divide  Propor- 
tionately     403 

Linear      Expansion      of 

Solids 485 

Linear  Measure 465 

Linen  Goods 265 

Liners,  Atlantic 41 

Linotype  (1884) 223 

Liquid  Air  (1895) 224 

Liquid    Measure 465 

Liquids,   Expansion   of.. 485 
Liquids.    Specific    Grav- 
ity and  Welcrht 479 

Llouors  and  Beverages.. 269 
Liquors,    Distilled 265 

M 

Magazines    182 

Magnesite,      Production 

of    350 

Magnitude  of  the  Earth. 454 
Magnitudes      and      Dis- 
tances of   Stars 459 

Mail,  Carriage  of 335 


PAGE 

Journalists    161 

July,  Heavens  In 462 

June,  Heavens  in 462 

Jura  Tunnel 274 

Justice,  Department  of..311 
Jute  and  Jute  Goods... 264 


Knitting    Machines, 

First  (1816) 220 

Kodak   (1888) 224 

Krag-Jorgensen   Rifle. ..100 

Liquors,    Malt 265 

Liquors,     Malt,     C  o  n  - 

sumption    of 308 

Liquors,  Quantity  Con- 
sumed      397 

Liquors.   Vinous 265 

Literary  Properties,  In- 
ternational Union  for 

Protection   of 340 

Literary    and    Scientific 

Persons    161 

Lithium,  Production  of.345 
Lithographing  and   En- 
graving     265 

Lithography,     Invented 

(17^6)    219 

Livery  Stable  Keepers. .  162 

Living.  Cost  of 396 

Lobsters 369 

Lock  and  Gunsmlthing..265 

Lock,  Time   (1847) 221 

Locomotive,     First 

(1804)    219 

Locomotive.      First      In 

U.  S.  (1814) 220 

Locomotives,     Compari- 
son with  Steamships.   34 
Log  Measure,  Units  of. .  482 

Longitude 456 

Look inggi ass  and  Pic- 
ture Frames 265 

Loom.    Positive    Motion 

(1872)    223 

Louisiana,      Population 

of    146 

Lumber,  Planing  Mill 
Products,  Including 
Sash,     Doors     ana 

Blinds   265 

Lumber  and  its  Reman- 

ufactures   269 

Lumber,  Sawed,  Meas- 
urement of    483 

Lumber  and  Timber- 
Products    265 

Lumbermen  and  Rafts- 
men    161 


Mail     Transportation, 

Railroad  Mileage  of.  .335 
Maine,  Population  of..  146 

Malt    265 

Malt,  Legal  Weight 374 

Malt  Liquors,  Consamp- 
tion  of 808 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


509 


PAGE 

Malt  Liquors,  Quantity 

Consumed    397 

Manganese    Ores,    Pro- 
duction of 344 

Mangle  Gears 428 

Mantels,    Slate,    Marble 

and  Marbleized 265 

Manual   Power 488 

Manufacturers    and    of- 
ficials, etc 163 

Manufacturing      Indus- 
tries of  U.  S 306 

Map,  U.  S 168 

Maple  Sirup,  Statistics.358 
Maple  Sugar,  Statistlcs.358 
Marble  and  Stone  Cut- 
ters  162 

Marble  and  Stone  Work.265 
March,  Heavens  in.... 461 

Marconi    System 201 

Marine  Corps 318 

Markets,  Foreign,  U.  S. 

Division  of 314 

Marls,  Production  of. .  .348 
Maryland,      Population 

of    146 

Masonry,     Brick     and 

Stone    265 

Masons      ( Brick     and 

Stone)    162 

Massachusetts,    Popula- 
tion of 146 

Match  Machinery 

(1848)    221 

Matches 265 

Matches,       Friction 

(1827)    220 

Materials,  Cost  of 274 

Mats  and  Matting 265 

Mattresses    and    Spring 

Beds 265 

May,  Heavens  in 462 

*•  Mayflower  "    48 

Mean   Solar  Day 455 

Measurement,   Angular.. 454 
Measurement  of  Time.  .454 

Meat,  Cuts  of 361 

Mechanical     Equivalent 

of  Heat 483 

Mechanical  Movements..417 

Mechanics    162 

Melting     Points     of 

Chemical  Elements. .  .451 
Men  and  Animals.  Pull- 
ing Strength  of 490 

Menhaden    368 

Mensuration    473 

Mercerized    Cotton 

(1850)    ...221 

Merchandise,     Imported 

and  Exported 286 

Merchant  Marine 21 

Mergen thaler,   O 218 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Messengers,  Errand,  and 

Office  Boys   162 

Metal  and  Metal  Prod- 
ucts, other  than  Iron 

and  Steel ;..269 

Metal-W  o  r  k  i  n  g  Ma- 
chinery     294 

Metallic     Products     In 

1902   351 

Metals  and  Alloys,  Re- 
sistance   of 495 

Metals,  Heat  of 483 

Metals,  Strength  of.... 486 
Metals,       Weight      and 

Volume    480 

Metals,  Weights  for 
Various  Dimensions.  .489 

Metric  Measures 471 

Metric  Measures,  Ap- 
proximate Equiva- 
lents      470 

Metric      Measures      to 

Customary 471 

Mica,  Production  of... 350 
Michigan,  Population  of.l46 

Micrometer,    The 453 

Microphone   ( 1891 ) 224 

Middlings,      Purifier 

(1875)    223 

Midshipmen,  Regula- 
tions Governing  Ad- 
mission of 68,  69 

Military  Bureaus 312 

Milk,  Production  of 357 

Milk,  Statistics 358 

Millers   162 

Millet,   Legal   Weight . .  374 

Milliners    163 

Millinery,  Custom  Work.265 
Millinery       and       Lace 

goods    265 

Millstones    265 

Millstones,      Production 

of    348 

Mine,  Ground 86 

Mine,  The  Submarine..   84 
Mineral      Paints,     Pro- 
duction of 349 

Mineral      Products      In 

1902   351 

Mineral    Production    of 

U.  S 343 

Mineral     and     Soda 

Waters 265 

Mineral    Substances, 
Specific     Gravity, 
Weight  and  Volume.. .477 
Mineral     Waters,     Pro- 
duction of 350 

Minerals    Absorbed     by 

Minerals.  Hardness  of.  .483 
Miners  and  Quarrymen.162 


PAGE 

Mines   343 

Mines,  Summary 353 

Mining 343 

Minnesota,     Population 

of 148 

Mirrors   265 

Miscellaneous  Indus- 
tries    269 

Miscellaneous  Informa- 
tion     379 

Miscellaneous     M  o  v  e  - 

ments 432 

Mississippi,    Population 

of    148 

Missouri,  Population  of.l49 

Model    of    the    16-lnch 

Gun,  Exhibited  at  the 

Louisiana      Purchase 

Exposition,  St.  Louis, 

1904   101 

Model  and  Pattern- 
makers    163 

Models  and  Patterns . . .  265 
Mohair,  Production  of...357 
Molybaenum,       Produc- 
tion of 345 

Monazite,  Production  of .350 
Money     Circulation     in 

U.  S 300 

Money,  Jewish 475 

Money  Order  Business.. 334 
Money      Orders,      Fees 

for 329 

Money,  Roman! !.!!.!  !475 

Monitor   (1862) 222 

Montana,  Population  of.l49 

Morse,  S.  F.  B 216 

Morse  Telegraph  Code..  187 
Mortality.  American  Ex- 
perience Table  of 499 

Motive  Power  Appli- 
ances     292 

Motor,      Electric,      I  n  - 

vented  (1834) 220 

Mowers     and     Reapers, 

Value  of  Exports 299 

Mucilage   and  Paste.  .  .265 
Mules,      Number     and 

Value    361 

Mullet   368 

Musical  Instruments 
and     Materials,     not 

specified 265 

Musical  Instruments, 
Organs  and  Materi- 
als     265 

Musical  Instruments, 
Pianos  and  Materials.265 

Musical   Signs 397 

Musicians  and  Teachers 

of  Music 161 

Mussel  Shells  369 


Nails,  Memorandum 
Concerning    491 

Names,  Common,  of 
Chemicals  445 

Names  of  Principal 
Stars    458 

National   Banks 300 


N 

Natural  Gas,  Produc- 
tion of 346 

Nautical  and  G  e  o  - 
graphical    Measure. .  .465 

Naval  Academy,  Regu- 
lations Governing  Ad- 
mission into 68,  69 


Naval  and  Marine 
Corps,  The  Pay  of. . .   90 

Naval  Powers,  Sea 
Strength  of  the  Prln- 
clnal    60,  61 

Navies,  Relative  Order 
of  Warship  Strength.  59 


510 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Navies,        Relative 

Strength  in  Material.  59 
Navies  of  the  World ...   53 
Navies  of   World   Com- 
pared       55 

Navies  of  World,  Dia- 
gram Showing  Rela- 
tive Size  of 55 

Navies   of   World,    Dia- 
gram   Showing   Rela- 
tive  Strength  of . . . .    54 
Navies  of  World,  Rela* 

tive  Strength  of 54 

Navigation,   Aerial 392 

Navigation,  Commercial 

Bureau  of 324 

Navigation,    Naval 

Bureau  of 316 

Navy,  Department  of..  .316 

Navy  Projectiles 87 

Navy,  The  United  States  67 

Navy,     United     States, 

List  of  Ships  of... 70,  71 

72,  73.  74,   75 

Navy,     United     States, 

Summary 75 

Oalcum   265 

Oats,    Statistics 360 

Observation,  Sphere  of.. 454 
Ocean     Steamers,     Sup- 
plies of    38 

"Oceanic,"   The 27 

Octagon,  to  Construct. .  406 
October,  Heavens  In . . .  463 
Officials   of    Banks    and 

Companies 162 

Otticials,  Government . .  161 
Ohio,    Population   of...  152 

Ohm's    Law 493 

Oil,    Castor 265 

Oil,    Cotton    Seed    and 

Cake 265 

Oil,  Essential 265 


Packers  and  Shippers . .  162 
Painters,    Glaziers    and 

Varnishers    162 

Painting     and      Paper- 
hanging    266 

Paints   266 

Paints,     Mineral,     Pro- 
duction of 349 

Panama  Canal 24 

Panama  Strip 170 

Paper 184 

Paper  Currency 384 

Paper,  Exports  of 282 

Paper  Goods,    not   else- 
where specified 266 

Paperhangers    162 

Paperhanglngs    266 

Paper      Mill,       First 

(1690)    218 

Paper    Patterns 266 

Paper  and  Printing 269 

Paper    and    Pulp    Mill 

Operatives 163 

Paper  and  Wood  Pulp.  .266 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Nebraska,       Population 

of    149 

Nebular  Hypothesis. . .  .457 

Needles  and  Pins 265 

Nernst  Lamp    (1897).. 224 

Nets  and  Seines 265 

Nevada,  Population  of.. 150 
New    Hampshire,     Pop- 
ulation of 150 

New  Jersey,  Population 

of    150 

New  Mexico,  Population 

of    150 

New  Springfield  Maga- 
zine Rifle  Compared 
with  Krag-Jorgensen, 
Mauser    and    German 

Military  Rifle 100 

New    York,    Population 

of    150 

News,  Gathering  of 184 

Newspapers 182 

Newspapers  and  Peri- 
odicals  Published 308 

Nickel,  Production  of.. 345 

O 

Oil,   Fish 369 

Oil,     Lard 265 

Oil,  Linseed 265 

Oil,   Olive,   Statistics..  .360 

Oil,   Resin 266 

Oil  Well  and  Oil  Works 

Employees   162 

Oil,  Whale 369 

Oilcloth,  Enameled 266 

Oilcloth,   Exports  of .  .  .281 

Oilcloth,   Floor 266 

Oilstones,       Production 

of    348 

Oklahoma,      Population 

of    152 

Oleomargarine  (1868 ) . .  222 
Oleomargarine   266 

P 

Papers,  News 182 

Parabola,  to  Construct, 

406,  408 

Parallax     454 

Parallax,    Solar 457 

Parallelogram 399 

Parallelogram,  Area  of.473 
Parallelogram,    to    Con- 
struct    403 

Parallelopiped    399 

Parts  by  Volume  to  Re- 
duce Parts  by  Welght.473 
Passenger    Cars,    Total 

Number  of 119 

Passengers   Landed ....   26 
Passengers,  Transatlan- 
tic        25 

Passports    394 

Pathological  and  Physi- 
o  I  o  g  i  c  al  Investiga- 
tions of  Vegetables.  .315 
Patent     Medicines    and 

Compounds 266 

Patent  Laws 230 


PAGE 

Nickel,  Steel    (1889)... 224 

Nobel  Prizes 337 

Nodes 455 

Non-Metallic        Produc- 
tion in  1902 351 

Normal   Schools 175 

North  Carolina,  Popula- 
tion of 150 

North   Dakota,    Popula- 
tion of 152 

North  Star    459 

Notation.  Roman 500 

Notes,  Musical 307 

November,  Heavens  in.  .463 
Number     of     Operating 
and     Lessor     Compa- 
nies   by    States    and 

Territories,   1902 136 

Nursery   Products,   Sta- 
tistics      358 

Nurses  and  Mldwives.  .161 
Nutation     and     Preces- 
sion     456 

Nutrients,   Use  of 361 

Nuts,   Statistics 358 


Olive  Oil,  Production.  .360 

Olives,    Production 360 

Onions,  Legal  Weight .  .  374 

Onions,  Statistics 358 

Optical    Goods 266 

Oranges,  Production .  .  .  360 
Orchard  Products,   Sta- 
tistics     360 

Ordnance,  Bureau  of. .  .317 
Ordnance    and    O  r  d  - 

nance  Stores 266 

Oregon,  Population  of.  .153 

Oyster  Shells 369 

Oysters   369 

Oysters,     Canning     and 
Preserving   266 


Patent  System,  History 

of    245 

Patents    211 

Patents,     Commissioner 

of    319 

Patents,  Design 227 

Patents,  General   Infor- 
mation on 225 

Patents  Issued 3u8 

Patents      Issued      Each 

Year 215 

Patents,  Number  of... 215 
Patents,       Number      of 

Live    215 

Pattern,  Weight  of,  and 

Weight  of  Casting.  .  .490 
Paving  and  Paving  Ma- 
terials    266 

Pay  of  Naval   and  Ma- 
rine Corps,  The 90 

Peaches,  Legal  Weight.. 374 
Peaches,  Production .  .  .  360 
Peanuts,  Legal  Welght.37« 
Peanuts,    Statistics. .  .  .358 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


511 


PAOB 

Pearg,  Legal  Weight... 37 6 

Pears,   Production 360 

Peas;  Dry,  Statistics. ..  358 

Peas,  Legal  Weight 376 

Pelts  of  Fur  Seal 369 

Pencils,  Lead 266 

Pennsylvania,  Popula- 
tion  of 153 

Pens,      Fountain      and 

Stylographic    266 

Pens,  Gold 266 

Pens,   Steel 266 

Pensioners 164 

Pensioners,  Number  of, 
and  Amount  of  Dis- 
bursement     164 

Pensions,      C  o  m  m  i  s  - 

sioners  of 319 

Pentagon 402 

Pentagon,     to     Inscribe 

in   Circle 404 

Peppermint,  Statistics. .  358 

Perch,  Pike 368 

Perch,    White 368 

Perch,  Yellow 368 

Perfumery  and  Cos- 
metics     266 

Perihelion  and  Aphe- 
lion      455 

Period     of     Planet,     to 

Find 457 

Periodicals,  Newspa- 
pers,   and 308 

Permanent      Court      of 

Arbitration    338 

Persimmons,  Produc- 
tion     360 

Perspective,  Isometric. .  406 
Petroleum,   Crude,   Pro- 
duction of 354 

Petroleum,      Production 

of 304 

Petroleum,     Production 

of    346 

Petroleum,   Refining 266 

Philippine      Civil      Ser- 

y{(>g      321 

Philippine  Islands! ! ! !  !l70 

Phonograph    ( 1877 ) 223 

Phonographs 298 

Phonographs         and 

Graphophones 266 

Phosphate  Rock,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Photo  Prints  Discov- 
ered  (1871)    221 

Photographers   163 

I*hotographlc  Appara- 
tus   266 

Photographic      M  a  t  e  - 

rials     266 

Photography   266 

Photography,  Dry  Plate 

(1855)    222 

Photolithographlng  and 

photoengraving 266 

Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons     Iftl 

Pickerel    368 

Pickles,    Preserves    and 

Sauces 266 

Pig  Iron,  Prices  of 308 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Pig     Iron,     Production 

of    304 

Pigeon,  Carrier,  Ve- 
locity   of 383 

Pigments,       Production 

of    349 

Pike,    Perch 368 

Pike  and  Pickerel 368 

Pin  Wheel,  Variable. .  .418 
Pineapples,  Production.360 
Pinion,   Cam — Toothed..418 

Pipes    187 

Pipes,  Tobacco 266 

Planet,  to  Find  Period 

of 457 

Planetary  System.  Some 

Elements  of 458 

Planets,      Measurement 

of  Size 456 

Plant  Industry,  Bureau 

of    315 

Plant  and  Seed.  Intro- 
duction     316 

Plants,    Statistics 358 

Plasterers    162 

Plated  and  Britannia- 
ware  266 

Plates,  Dry,  Sizes  of 452 

Platinum,       Production 

of    344 

Plow,  Electric  (1890).. 224 
Plow,       Invention       of 

(1784)    219 

Plow,  Steam  (1879)... 223 
Plows,     Value     of     Ex- 
ports     299 

Plumbers  and  Gas  and 

Steamfltters    162 

Plumbers'    Supplies 266 

Plumbing  and  Gas  and 

Steamfltting  266 

Plums,   Production 360 

Pocketbooks   266 

Polar  Regions 8,     9 

"Polaris^'     459 

Polishing,  Speeds  of... 352 

Polygon   402 

Polygon,  Area  of.. 406,  473 
Polygon,  to  Construct .  .  406 
Polyphase   Currents 

(1887)    224 

Pomologlcal  Investiga- 
tions      315 

Population  of  C^ities 
having  at  least  25,- 
000     Inhabitants     In 

1900    159 

Population      of      the 

Earth 

Population  of  Europe.. 273 
Population,    Foreign 

Born 161 

Population  Living  in 
Cities  within  specified 
limits  of  size  and  in 
Country  Districts, 

1900 158 

Population     of     United 

States    300 

Population      of      the 

World     155 

Porters  and  Helpers 
( In  stores,  etc. ) 162 


PAGE 

Porto   Rico 170 

Porto  Rico,  Civil  Ser- 
vice in   321 

Postal   Expenditures . . .  334 

Postal  Information 327 

Postal    Revenue 333 

Postal  Service,  Compar- 
ison   of 332 

Postal  Service  of  World.329 

Postal    Statistics 335 

Postal  Subjects 333 

Postal  Subjects,  Sug- 
gestions on 333 

Postal  Telegraph  Co...  188 
Postal  Union,  Universal 

International    338 

Post  Office 327 

Post  Office  Department.316 
Post     Office,      Expendi- 
tures of 334 

Post  Offices,  Number. .  .308 
Post  Offices,  Number  of. 334 
Post  Office,  Receipts. .  .308 
Post  Office,  Statistics.. 308 

Post   Routes 334 

Post  Routes,  Extent  of.. 334 
Potatoes,  Legal  Weight.376 

Potatoes,  Statistics 360 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  Statis- 
^Jgg     358 

Potential,  Unit  oi. '.'.'.  .494 

Potters     162 

Pottery,  Terra  Cotta 
and    Fire-clay    Prod- 

Poultry  Industry 355 

Poultry,  Production  of.. 357 
Power,  Animal,  Horse.  .487 

Power,   Manual 488 

Power     in     Mines     and 

Quarries    353 

Power,  Summary  of... 293 
Power,  Transmission  of, 

by   Belting 439 

Precession  and  Nuta- 
tion      456 

Precious  Stones,  Pro- 
duction of 350 

Press,       Washington 

(1829)     220 

Pressure,  Unit  of 495 

Prices  of  Staple  Com- 
modities   308 

Printers,   Lithographers 

and   Pressmen 163 

Printing  Materials 266 

Printing  Press  (1620)..218 
Printing    and    Publish- 
ing   180,  266 

Prism,  Surface  and  Con- 
^gQ^g    473 

Prize,  Anthony  *Poilok...338 

Prizes,    Nobel 337 

Progress    of    Discovery, 

1,  3,  4,  5,     6 

Progress  of  U.  S 300 

Projectiles,  A  Group  of 

Navy   87 

Protection  of  Indus- 
trial, Literary  and 
Artistic  Properties, 
International   340 


513 


SClEKtlFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK. 


PAGE 

Provisioning  an  Ocean 
Liner    40 

Public  Debt,  Statement 
of  U.  S 300,  301 

Public  Debt  of  the  U.  S.385 

Public  Road  Inquiries, 
Office    of 316 

Publications,  TJ.  S.  Di- 
vision of 316 

Pulleys    413 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Pulleys,  Rope 420 

Pulleys,  Rules  for  Cal- 
culating Speed  of... 492 
Pulling  Strength  of  Men 

and  Animals 490 

Pulp  Goods 266 

Pulp,  from  Fiber,  other 

than   Wood 266 

Pulp,    Wood    (1858) .  .  .222 


Q 

Quadrangle    402  1  Quarries      and 

Quadrilateral   402  |      Summary    . . 


Mines, 


353 


Races  of  Mankind 1 

Racing  Machine,  from 
Cruiser  to 46 

Racing  Yacht,  Develop- 
ment of  the  90-foot. .   47 

Rack  and  Pinion 417 

Radio-Activity    (1896)..224 

Radio-Activity,  Radium 
and 449 

Radium,  Prices  of 450 

Radium  and  Radio-Ac- 
tivity     449 

Railroad  Equipment  in 
U.  S.,  Comparisons 
Showing  Bulk  of 123 

Railroad,  First  in  U. 
S.    (1826) 220 

Railroad,  Mileage  of 
Mail  Transportation.. 335 

Railroad  System  of  the 
United    States. . .  122, 123 

Railroad  Systems  of  the 
United  States 121 

Railroad  Track  in  U.  S., 
Comparisons  Show- 
ing Bulk  of 122 

Railroad  Transporta- 
t  i  o  n.  International 
Bureau  of 341 

Railroads,    Swiss 19 

Railroads  in  U.  S.,  Com- 
p  a  r  i  s  o  n  s  .Showing 
Length   of 122 

Railroads  (the  United 
States),  the  Em- 
ployees and  the  Money 
Value   of 125 

Railway,  Electric 
(1879)    223 

Railway,   First    (1825). .220 

Railways  in  U.  S 306 

Railways  of  the  World, 
Compared   118 

Range  of  Sixteen-inch 
Gun    102 


Saddlery  and  Harness.  .267 

Safe,   First    (1801) 210 

Safes   and   Vaults 267 

Salt,  Production  of 349 

Salesmen      and      Sales- 
women     162 

Salmon     368 

Saloonkeepers   161 


Rank  of  Industries ....  270 
Rare  Elements,  Value  of.447 
Raspberries,  Production.360 

Ratchet  Movements 422 

Ray,  Roentgen  (1895). 224 
Reaper,       Invented 

(1834)    220 

Reapers  and  Mowers . . .  299 
Receipts    and    Expendi- 
tures of  Federal  Gov- 
ernment    336 

Receipts  of  U.   S.   Gov-  • 

ernment   300 

Reflection     402 

Refractors,     Large,     of 

World    464 

Refrigerators    266 

Regalia  and  Society 
Banners  and  Em- 
blems     266 

Registers,  Carfare 266 

Registers,  Cash 267 

"  Reliance  "    49 

Religions  of  World 398 

Repair,    Construction 

and.  Bureau  of 318 

Report  of  Committee  on 

Atomic  Weights 444 

Repression      of      Slave 

Trade,  Bureau  of ... .  340 
Resistance,  A  p  p  r  o  x  i- 
mate     Percentage    of 

Variation  in 496 

Resistance,  Electrical.  .495 
Resistance     of     Metals 

and    Alloys 495 

Resistance  Specific 495 

Resistance   and    Weight 

Table    496 

Resistance,  Unit  of . . .  .494 
Restaurant  Keepers. .  . .  161 
Revolution  of  Earth  in 

its  Orbit 455 

Revolver,  Invented 
(1836)    220 


S 

Salt    267 

Salt,  Legal   Weight 376 

Salt.  Production  of 349 

Sand  and  Emery  Paper 

and   Cloth 267 

Sand,  Glass,  Production 

of    350 

Saw,  Band   (1808) 219 


PAGE 

Pumice,  Production  of.  .348 
Pumps,     not     including 

Steam    Pumps 266 

Pupils    in    Schools    and 

Colleges 172 

"Puritan" 48 

Pyramid,     Surface     and 

Contents    473 

Pyrite,  Production  of .  .  349 


Quicksilver,    P  r  o  d  u  c- 
tion   of 344 

Rhomb,  Rhombus 402 

Rhomboid    402 

Rhombus.  Area  of 473 

Rhodes  Scholarships .  . .  341 
Rhode    Island,    Popula- 
tion of 153 

Rice,     Cleaning     and 

Polishing 267 

Rice,  Legal  Weight 376 

Rice,    Statistics 358 

Rifle  Ball,  Velocity  of.. 383 
Rifle,    Breech- Loading 

„  (1851)    7221 

Rifle,    Details    6t    New 
Springfleld      M  a  g  a  - 

zine    99 

Rifle,  The  New  Spring- 
field   Magazine 98 

Right  Ascension 456 

Rock  Drill  (1854) 222 

Roentgen  Rays  (1895). 224 
Roller  Mills    (1875) .  .  .223 

Roman    Monev 475 

Roman  Notation 500 

Roofers  and  Slaters. ...  162 
Roofing      and      Roofing 

Materials 267 

Rope  Gear 420 

Rotation,        Earth's 

Demonstration  of 454 

Rotundity       of       the 

Earth 454 

Rubber,  Crude,  Imports 

of    306 

Rubber      and      Elastic 

Goods 267 

Rubber,  Exports  of ...  .  279 
Rubber   Factory  Opera- 
tives   163 

Rules,  Geometrical 402 

Rules,  Ivory  and  Wood.. 267 
Rutile,  Production  of.  .351 

Rye,   Legal   Weight 376 

Rye,  Statistics 360 

Saw,  Band  (1887) 224 

Saw,      Circular,      First 

•(1814)    220 

Saw.  Circular,  Invented 

(1777)    219 

Saw    and    Planing   Mill 

Employees 163 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


518 


PAGE 

Sawed    Lumber,    Meas- 
urement of 483 

Saws    267 

Scales  and  Balances. .  .267 

Scallops 369 

Scholarships,  Rhodes. . .  341 

Schools,   Normal 175 

Schools,    Number   of 

Students   In 172 

Schools,  Professional. . .  176 

Schools,   Public 308 

Schools,      Public      and 

Private   172 

Science,  Association  for 

Advancement  of 325 

Sciences,     National 

Academv  of 320 

Screws 267 

Sea  Bass 368 

Sea  Water 486 

Seal  Pelts 369 

Seamstresses 163 

Seasons,  The 456 

Seed,      Clover,      Statis- 
tics   358 

Seed  Distribution,  Con- 
gressional    316 

Seed,  Grass.  Statistics..358 
Seed    and    Plant    Intro- 
duction      316 

Seeds,    Miscellaneous, 

Statistics    358 

Semaphores 208 

September,  Heavens  In.. 463 
Servants  and  Walters.  .161 
Sewer  Gas,  to  Test  Air 

for   452 

Sewing  Machine  Cases.. .267 
Sewing      Machine      Re- 
pairing   267 

Sewing    Machines    and 

Attachments   267 

Sextant,  The 454 

Shad    368 

Shaft  Couplings,  Angle.422 

"  Shamrock   I." 40 

"  Shamrock  II." 40 

"  Shamrock  III." 49 

Sheep,      Number      and 

Value    361 

Shells,    Mussel 369 

Shells,   Oyster 369 

Ship,   Time  and  Watch 

on   476 

Shipbuilding    267 

Shipping  and  Yachts...  17 
Shirt,    Collar   and   Cuff 

Makers 163 

Shirts     267 

Shoddy    267 

Shooting  Stars 457 

Shotgun.    Breechloading 

(1811)    219 

Show  Cases 207 

Shrimp  and  Prawn. .  .  .369 

Sidereal    Clock 453 

Sidereal,     Solar,     and 
Mean   Solar  Day.  .  .  .455 

Signals.   Boat 208 

Signals.   Distant 207 

Signals,   Distress 206 

Signals.  International. .  205 
Signals,  Time 188 


I NDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Signals,   Whistle 209 

Silk,  Artificial  (1888).. 224 
Silk,  Manufacturers  of..306 
Silk  Mill  Operatives...  163 

Silk  and  Silk  Goods 267 

Silver,      Imports      and 

Exports    302 

Silver,     Production    of, 

304,  344 

Sllversmithlng    267 

Silverware    267 

Sine 402 

Siphon    Recorder 

(1874)    223 

Slrlus,  the  Dog  Star.'  .*  .459 
Sirup,     Maple,     Statis- 
tics    358 

Sirup   Sorghum,   Statis- 

Sixteen-Inch  Gun 100 

Sixteen-Inch    Gun,    Ra- 
dius of  Action  of . . .  .102 
Size.  Weight  and  Length 
of     Iron     and     Steel 

Wire    497 

Sizes  of  Dry  Plates 452 

Size  of  Sun  and  Planets, 

Measurement    456 

Skins,   Otter 369 

Slaughtering  and   Meat 
Packing,    not    includ- 
ing Retail  Butcherlng.267 
Slave     Trade,      Bureau 

for  Repression  of ... .  340 
Sleeping   Car,    Invented 

(1856)    222 

Smelt    368 

Smelting   and   Refining, 
not  from  the  ore ....  267 

Snail,   Velocity  of 383 

Snappers    368 

Snow,   Ice  and 487 

Soap  and  Candles 267 

Soapstone.Production  of351 
Soda  Water  Apparatus.267 

Soils,  Bureau  of 316 

Solar  Day 455 

Solids.  Mepsuration...  .473 

Solar  Parallax 457 

Solar   System 458 

Soldiers,      Sailors     and 

Marines    161 

Sors'hum    Cane,    Statis- 
tics   358 

Sorghum   Sirup,   Statis- 
tics    358 

Solids,    Linear    Expan- 
sion   of 485 

Sound,  Velocity  of 383 

South  Carolina,  Popula- 
tion of 153 

South    Dakota,    Popula- 
tion of 153 

Spanish  Mackerel 369 

Specific  Gravity.  .  .445,  481 
Specific       Gravity       of 

Animal    Substances.  .479 
Specific    Gravity   of 

Fuels,  etc 478 

Specific   Gravity   of 

Gases  and  Vapors.  .  -480 
Specific   Gravity   of 
Liquids     479 


PAGE 

Specific   Gravity   of 

Mineral  Substances.  .477 
Specific   Gravity   of 

Stones 476 

Specific   Gravity   of 

Wood    478 

Speeds  for  Grinding. .  .352 
Speeds  for  Polishing..  .352 
Speed,  The  Price  of;  In 

Liners   42 

Speed,  Steam  Turbines, 

and    43 

Sphere,  Area  and  Con- 
tents     473 

Sphere  of  Observation.  .454 
Spheres,  Diameters  and 

Capacities    391 

Spiral,     Arithmetic,     to 

Draw 408 

Spires,  Height  of 390 

Spirits,    Distilled,    Con- 
sumption of 308 

Spirits,  Distilled.  Quan- 
tity  Consumed 397 

Sponges   369 

Sporting  Goods 267 

Spot,  Fish 369 

Springfield        Magazine 
Rifle,    Details   of  the 

New 99 

Springfield        Magazine 

RIfie,  The  New 98 

Springs    439 

Springs,  Steel,  Car  and 

Carriage    267 

Sprocket    Wheels 420 

Square,  to  Construct. .  .403 
Square,       to       Describe 

about   Circle 404 

Square,  Equal  to  Circle.473 
Square,    to    Inscribe    in 

Circle   404 

Square.      Inscribed      In 

Circle   473 

Squid    369 

Stamped  Ware 267 

Standards.  Bureau  of.. 324 

Standard  Time 190 

Star     Map.     Directions 

for    Using 459 

Starch    267 

Stars,    Magnitudes   and 

Distances 459 

Stars,  Names  of 458 

Stars.    Shooting 457 

State.  Department  of.  .311 
Stationery    Goods,    not 

elsewhere    specified . .  267 
Statistics.     Bureau    of, 

314  323 
Steam  Boilermakers. .'.  1652 
Steam  Engine  (1690) .  .218 
Steam  Engine,  Invented 

(1782)    219 

Steam      Engineering. 

Bureau  of 318 

Steam       Flttlnps      and 

Heating  Apnaratus.  .267 
Steam    Hammer,    In- 
vented (1842) 221 

Steam  Packet  to  Steam 
Palace    28 


514 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Steam  Packing 267 

Steam     Pressure     and 

Temperature   484 

Steam      Railroad      Em- 
ployees   162 

Steam      Turbines      and 

Speed    43 

Steam,  Use  of  (1630) .  .218 
Steamboat,      First 

(1808)    219 

Steamboat      Inspection 

Service 324 

Steamboats,  Fast 26 

Steamboats,   First 

(1802)    210 

Steamers.  Fast 25,  30 

Steamers.  Speed  of . .  . .   25 
Steamship     Owners, 

Largest     29 

Steamships,  Comparison 

with  Locomotives. ...    34 
Steamships,    Large   and 

Fast    . .  .  ► 20 

Steel,     Production     of, 

306,  344 
Steel,  Manufacture  of . .  306 
Steel  Rails,  Prices  of.. 308 
Steers,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Stencils  and  Brands... 267 
Stenographers       and 

Typewriters     162 

Stethoscope  (1819) 220 

Stereotyping    and    elec- 

trotyping 267 

Stereotyping,    Invented 

(1731)    219 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Stock  Raisers,  Herders, 

and  Drovers   161 

Stone,     Building,     Pro- 
Submarines,  Number  of.  62 

duction  of 347 

Stones    and     Bricks, 

Strength   of 486 

Stones,    Precious,    Pro- 
duction of 350 

Stones,  Specific  Gravity, 

Weight  and  Volume.  .470 
Storage  Batteries,  Num- 
ber   381 

Storage      Battery,      In- 
vented (1812) 219 

Stove,       Furnace      and 

Grate  Makers 162 

Straw  Goods,   not  else- 
where   specified 267 

Strawberries,       Produc- 
tion     360 

Street      Railway      Em- 
ployees      162 

Strength  of  Ice 487 

Strength  of  Materials.. 486 
Strength,      Pulling,      of 
Men  and  Animals. .  .490 

Striped  Bass 369 

Structural        Materials, 

Production  of 347 

Students  in  Colleges. .  .308 
Students  In  Schools  and 

Colleges    172 

Sturgeon    369 

Submarine   Boat,    "  The 

Lake "    75 

Submarine  Boats 76 

Submarine  Mine,  The . .  84 


PAGE 

Submarine  Telegraphs. .  193 
Subtropical  Fruits,  Sta- 
tistics   360 

Suckers 369 

Suez      Canal       Started 

(1846)    221 

Suez  Route 24 

Sugar  Cane,  Statistics.  .358 
Sugar  Beets,  StatiBtlcs.358 

Sugar,    Imports 306 

Sugar,   Maple 358 

Sugar     and      Molasses. 

Beet    267 

Sugar     and      Molasses, 

Refining 267 

Sulphur,  Production  of.. 340 

Sunfish 369 

Sun.     Measurement     of 

Size    456 

Sun,  Not  Always  Same 

Distance  from  Earth. 455 
Sun,     Numerical     Facts 

Relating  to 457 

Superficies 402 

Surfaces,  Mensuration. .  473 
Surgical  Appliances..  .  .267 
Sweet    Potatoes,    Legal 

Weight    376 

Sweet  Potatoes,   Statis- 
tics   358 

Swine,       Number       and 

Value    357 

Swiss  Railroads 19 

Switzerland,       Tourists 

in 274 

Swordfish 369 

Symbols,  Astronomical.. 456 


Tailors  and  Tailoresses.163 
Talc,    Fibrous,    Produc- 
tion of 349 

Talking    Machines 298 

Talon,  to  Draw 404 

Tangent   402 

Tangent,  to  Draw 403 

Tar.   Production  of.... 346 

Taxidermy     267 

Tea      Culture      Experi- 
ments    316 

Tea.  Imports 306 

Teachers    and    Profess- 
ors in  Colleges,  etc.  .161 

Teachers,  U.  S 174 

Technology,    Schools. . .  176 
Telegram.  First   (1844). 221 

Telegraph  Code 187 

Telegraph    Companies.  .188 
Telegraph  Messages 

Sent    308 

Telegraph,     Quadruplex 

(1873)    223 

Telegraph,   Printing 

(1846)    221 

Telegraph      and      Tele- 
phone Linemen 162 

Telegraph      and      Tele- 
phone Operators 162 


Telegraphs,  Interna- 

tional  Bureau  of.... 339 
Telegraphs,  Submarine.. 193 

Telegraphs.  World 185 

Telegraphy.  Wireless. . .  199 
Telephone  Companies.  .188 
Telephone,  Invented 

(1876)    223 

Telescope,  The 453 

Telescope,  Equatorial.  .453 
Temperature,  Table  of.  .484 
Tennessee,      Population 

of    154 

Terrapin  and  Turtle . . .  369 

Textiles    260 

Theodolite,   The 454 

Thermometer,  Compara- 
tive Scales  of 447 

Thermometer,    Invented 

(1709)    219 

Thermometer    Scales... 440 

"  Thistle  "    48 

Timber,   Strength   of... 486 

Time     474 

Time,  Bible 475 

Time,  Equation  of 456 

Time,  Measurement  of.  .454 

Time    Signals 188 

Time,  Standard 190 


Time,  Variation  of 192 

Time     and     Watch     on 

Board  Ship 476 

Tin    Plates 306 

Tin,  Size  for  Cans 378 

Tin  and  Terne  Plate.  .  .267 

Tinfoil    268 

Tinplate    and    Tinware 

Makers 163 

Tlnsmlthing,  Copper- 
smithlng  and  Sheet- 
iron  Working 268 

Tire,  Pneumatic  (1845). 221 

Tobacco    269 

Tobacco,     Chewing, 

Smoking,  and  Snuff.  .268 
Tobacco,      Cigars      and 

Cigarettes    268 

Tobacco  and  Cigar  Fac- 
tory  Operatives 163 

Tobacco,  Exports  of...  .284 

Tobacco,  Statistics 360 

Tobacco,  Stemming  and 

Rehandling 268 

Tomatoes,    Legal 

Weight 376 

Tonnage  of  Vessels ....    20 
Tool      and     Cutlery 
Makers 162 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


515 


PAGE 

Tools,  not  elsewhere 
Specified   268 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyer, 
Sectional  Diagram  of.  77 

Torpedo,    The    Modern, 

78,  79 

Torpedo  Boat  In  Mod- 
ern Warfare   78 

Torpedo,  Schwartz- 
kopff,  Longitudinal 
Section  of 77 

Torpedo  Vessels,  List  of 
United  States 73 

Torpedo  Vessels,  Num- 
ber of 62 

Towers,    Height   of 390 

Toys  and  Games 268 

Trade,   United  States.. 287 

Trademarks 241 

Transatlantic  Passen- 
gers     25 

Transit  Instrument. . .  .453 

Transmission  of  Power 
by   Belting 439 

Transportation  of  For- 
eign Commerce 304 

Transportation,  Rail- 
road,  International 
Bureau  of 341 

Trapezium    402 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Trapezium,  Area  of 473 

Trapezoid   402 

Treasury,      Department 

of    311 

Triangle,        Curvilinear 

and  Spherical 402 

Triangle,  to  Inscribe  in 

Circle 404 

Triangle,  Equilateral. . .  399 

Triangle,  Isosceles 399 

Triangle,  Mensuration .  473 
Triangle,  Mixtilinear.  .402 
Triangle,  Obtusangular.402 
Triangle,  Rectangular ..  399 
Triangle,  Rectilinear. .  .402 

Triangle,  Scalene 399 

Tripoli,  Production  of.  .347 

Trout,    Lake 370 

Troy,   Weight 466 

Trunk  and  Leather  Case 

Makers,  etc 163 

Trunks  and  Valises 268 

Trust,    Atlantic 41 

Tunfi'sten,       Production 

of    345 

Tunnel,    Jura 274 

Tunnel  Shield  (1869) .  .222 
Tunnels  of  the  World.  .389 
Turbine  Commission ...   43 


PAGE 

Turbine,  Early  Types  of  43 
Turbine,    Expiration   of 

Parsons'  Patent 44 

Turbine,       Growth      of 

Steam     43 

Turbine,       Parsons* 

(1891)    224 

Turbines,       Advantages 

of    43 

Turbines,    Land 43 

Turbines,  Objections  to.  43 

Turbines,    Steam 43 

Turkestan,      Area     and 

Ponulatlon  of 88 

Turnips,  Legal  Weight..376 
Turpentine  F  a  r  m  e  r  b 

and  Laborers    161 

Turpentine  and  Rosin.. 268 

Turret    83 

Turrets    of    Battleship, 

Section    Through 84 

Turtle    368 

Type    Founding 208 

Types  of  Englnts 441 

Typewriter,        Invented 

(1843)    221 

Typewriters  and  Sup- 
plies     268 

Typewriting  Repairing..268 


Umbrellas  and  Canes.. 268 

Undertakers    162 

Uniforms     Worn      in 

United   States   Army, 

92,  93 
XTnited      States,      The 

Army  of  the 91 

United     States     Battle- 

ship,     Longitudinal 

Section    Through 83 

United  States  Life-Sav- 

Ing  Service 44 

Ignited  States  Life-Sav- 

ing  Service  Disasters  44 


V 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
Ing  Service  Disasters, 
Apportionment  of  to 
Atlantic,  Lake  and 
Pacific  Coasts 45 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing* Service,  General 
Summary 45 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing Service,  Vessels 
Assisted  44 

United  States  Navy,  The  67 

United      States      Navy, 
List  of  Ships  of.  .70,  71, 
72,   73,   74,  75 


United      States     Navy, 

Summary 75 

United     States     Stand- 
ard Gauge 493 

Units   of   Measurement, 

Electrical     493 

Universal   International 

Postal    Union 338 

Universal    Joints 422 

Universities    175 

Upholsterers    163 

Upholstering  Materials..268 
Uranium,        Production 

of    345 

Utah,.  Population  of...  156 


"Valkyrie  II." 48 

"Valkyrie  III." 49 

Value  of  Foreign  Colns.386 
Value  of  RareElements.447 
Values  of   English   and 

U.  S.  Money 389 

Vanadium,      Production 

of    345 

Vapors  and  Gas?s,  Spe- 
cific Gravity,   Weight 

and    Volume 480 

Variable  Speed  Gears..  .418 
Variation  In  Degrees  of 

Latitude    450 

Varnish    268 


V 

Vault  Lights  and  Venti- 
lators    268 

Vega 459 

Vegetable,  Pathological 
and  Physiological  In- 
vestigations      315 

Vegetables,  Miscella- 
neous Statistics 358 

Vehicles  for  Land 
Transportation    200 

Velocities,  romparatlve.383 

Velocity    of    Earth    Va- 

Velocity  of  Light! .' .  .  .'  .455 
Vermont,         Population 
of    156 


Verniers 454 

Vessels,   American 308 

Vessels   Built   in   Great 

Britain.  Number  of . .    42 
Vessels,  Tonnage  of .  .  . .   20 

"  Vigilant  "    48 

Vinegar  and  Cider 268 

Vinegar,  Cider,  Produc- 
tion     360 

Virginia,  Population  of.l56 
Visibility  of  Objects  at 

Sea   383 

Volume,    Parts    by,    to 
Reduce    to    Parts    by 

Weight 473 

"Volunteer"    48 


516 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAOB 

Wage     Earners,     Mines 

and    Quarries 353 

Wagons    298 

W^ail  Paper 492 

War,  Department  of... 312 
War  Vessels,  Campara- 
tive  Armor  Protection 

of 56 

Warsbips,  Construction 
and   Classification   of 

Modern     53 

Washing  Machines  and 

Clothes   Wringers 268 

Washington,  Population 

of    157 

Watch  on  Board  Ship . . 

Watch   Cases 268 

Watch,  Clock  and  Jew- 
elry  Repairing 268 

Watch  and  Clocls  Ma- 
terials    268 

Watches    268 

Watchmen,      Policemen, 

Firemen,  etc 161 

Water     486 

Waters,  Mineral,  Pro- 
duction   of 350 

Waterwheels   293 

Watt     494 

Wax,  Production  of.'  .* .  .357 

Wealth  of  U.  S 300 

Weather  Bureau . .  209,  313 
Weather     Bureau     Sta- 
tions   206 

Wedge    416 

W^eight  of  Animal  Sub- 
stances   479 

Weight  of  Balls 487 

Weight     and     Bulk     of 

Fuels,    etc 478 

Weight  of  Casting  and 
Weight  of  Wood  Pat- 
tern     490 

Welcht,  Height  and, 
Standard  Table  of. .  .499 

Weight  of  Liquids 479 

Weight     per     Mile     of 

Copper    Wire 497 

Weight  and  Volume  of 

Gases  and  Vapors... 480 
Weight   and   Volume  of 
Metals    480 


I NDEX — Continued. 
W 

PAGB 

W^eight  and  Volume  of 
Mineral  Substances.  .477 

Weight  and  Volume, 
Stones    476 

Weight  of   Woods 478 

Weights,  Atomic,  In- 
ternational     444 

Weights,  Legal,  per 
Bushel    372 

Weights  and  Measures. 465 

Weights  and  Measures 
of  the  Bible 474 

Weights  and  Measures, 
Decimal  System 470 

Weights  and  Measures, 
Foreign    467 

Weights  and  Measures, 
International   Bureau 

Weights   of   Metals   for 

Various  Dimensions. .  489 
Welding.       Electric 

(1886)    224 

W  e  1  s  b  a  c  h        Burner 

(1885)    223 

West  Virginia,  Popula- 
tion of 157 

Western  Union  Com- 
pany   186 

Westinghouse,  George.  .218 

Whale  Oil 368 

Whalebone    368 

Whalebone  and  Rattan.. 268 
Wheat,     Freight     Rates 

on 308 

Wheat,  Legal  Weight . .  376 
Wheat,  Production  of.. 304 

Wheat,  Statistics 360 

Wheel  and  Axle 413 

Wheelbarrows 268 

Wheels,    Chain ..420 

Wheels,    Friction 418 

Wheels,  Sprocket 420 

Wheelwrights    162 

Whetstones,   ProdTution 

of    .348 

Whips     268 

Whiteflsh 369 

Whitney,    Eli 216 

Willows,    Statistics 358 

Winans,   Ross 216 


PAGE 

Wind,  Force  of 489 

Windmills,    268,    488 

Window  SlMides 268 

Wine  and  Spirit   Meas- 
ure     466 

W-ines,  Consumption  of.308 
WMnes,     Quantity     Con- 
sumed      397 

Wire 268 

Wire,   Barbed 354 

Wire,     Copper,     Weight 

per    Mile    of 497 

Wire  Gauges  in  Decimal 

Parts  of   Inch 497 

Wire,    Iron    and    Steel, 
Size,     Weight     and 

Length 497 

Wire      Required      for 

Cable    378 

Wire  Workers 162 

Wireless  Telegraphy. .  .199 
Wireless        Telegraphy, 

Invented  1896 224 

Wirework,         including 

Wire  Rope  and  Cable.268 
Wisconsin,      Population 

of 157 

Wood,  J 216 

Wood    Choppers 161 

Wood,  Preserving 268 

Wood  Pulp   (1858) 222 

Wood,    Specific  Gravity 

and  Weight 478 

Wood,     Turned     and 

Carved     268 

Woodenware,    not    else- 
where specified 268 

Wool,  Exports  of 285 

Wool,  Fleece,  Prices  of.. 308 

Wool    Hats 268 

Wool,  Manufactures  of.306 
Wool,     Production     of, 

304,   357 

Wool  Pulling 268 

Wool  Scouring 268 

Woolen    Goods 268 

Woolen  Mill  Operatives.  163 

W^orm  Gear 417 

Worsted  Goods 268 

Wyoming,       Population 
of    157 


X-Rays  ( 1895) 224 


Yacht,    Development    of 
the  90-foot  Racing. . .   47 


Yachts,  Shipping  and..    17 
Year,   The 456 


Yards     and     Docks, 
Bureau  of 31' 


Z 

Zero  of  Thermometers.  .447  |  Zlpic^-Smelting  and   Re- 
Zinc,  Production  of ...  .  344  ]      fining  .» .  . 


Zinc,  White.  Production 
^^ 268  I      of    349 


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361  Broadway,  Mew  York 


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We    HARRINGTON    ta,    KING 
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(TMain  Office  ^  Works: 

No.  225  NORTH  UNION  ST.,  CHICAGO,  ILL.,  U.  S.  A.  ' 

NEW  YORK  OFFICE:     No.  114   LIBERTY   ST. 


'rA 


If  J./4245